
PRICE 50 CENT S 
PUBLISHED BY 

OAVIS STOCK FOOD C0.7DiIc7^lLL,lJ.S.A 



F502 2nd F<^* ; 



THE 



WORLD'S BEST SHEEP SHEARING MACHINE 




GET MORE MONEY FOR YOUR WOOL TOO. SMS^iSTSSSS 

Shearing Machine you will get better prices for your wool than you can get for it if clipped by 
any other method. The best wool grows close to the skin, and as this machine clips so 
closely that it trets from S to 32 ounces per head more wool of the finest grade that grows 
than can be gotten by any other shearing process, this increased weight, made up of the 
finest and highest grade wool, brings up the average quality of the whole clip to the very 
highest decree and wool buyers in every market pay top prices for it. Stockmen who use 
our machine are getting better prices for their wool than they ever received before, and better 
prices than are paid any sheep raiser for hand clipped wool. 



GET FROM HALF A POUND TO TWO POUNDS MORE WOOL PER 

The use of the MARTIN Sheep Shearing nachine will get from 8 to 32 ounces more 

■ wool bora even sheep you own than you can get by the old method of hand shearing. 

You can prove this statement yourself if you will take advantage ol our tree trial otter and 

return! proposition as explained on this page. After receiving one of our machines have 

the most expert hand shearer In the business clip one of your sheep OS Closely as lie knows 

now, let htm take all the time lie needs to do a strictly first class close 

Job of hand shearing, and when he has finished his work take the shorn 

sheep in hand yourself, use the perfect Shearing Machine you have 

ceived from us. and In five minutes time you can go over the same 

animal from its hoofs to its eyelashes and get an additional 8 to 32 

ounces of wool. What you can do with one head you can do with all, 

which means from 15 cents to 60 cents additional income from every 

head of sheep you own. The Martin Sheep Shearing Machine clips 

Closer, clips easier and clips better than any other method, machine 

or hand, and will add an average of one pound of wool to the fleece 

throughout your entire herd, an increase In wool yield which If you 

. own a Hock of 200 head means an addition to your WOOL PROFITS 

OF FIVE TIMES THE COST OF THIS MACHINE. 

$37.50 MORE WOOL FROM 200 SHEEP, ax 

that on a herd of 200 sheep the use of this perfect sheep shearing 
machine will get at least 150 pounds more wool than can be gotten 
by hand shearing. At a conservative price of 25 cents 
per pound this would mean an increase in wool profits 
amounting to S37.50, and in the face of this established 
record no stockman can afford to shear his sheep bv the 
old method, because every ounce of wool he falls to 
get by hand shearing that he can get by using the 
Martin Shearing Machine represents just so much lost 
income, just so much lost "profits, and on a large herd 
the loss would be tremendous. Owners of large sheep 
ranches have been most enthusiastic in praise of this 
specially valuable profit producing feature of the Martin. 

weeds and insects and which frequently Introduce 
disease which sweeps away whole herds of valuable 
animals. 



SI2.00 SAVED IN SHEARING IOO SHEEP. 



The 
MARTIN 



SAVE THREE-QUARTERS OF THE COST OF SHEARING. 

Sheep Shearing Machine will cut the labor cost of shearing your herd at least 75 per cent, and 

If you own 200 sheep you will save in wages usually paid hand shearers to do the same work 
enough money to pay for this machine twice over, and save a labor bill of S25.00 evary time 
you shear thereafter. Shearing by hand at the average price of 15 cents per head would cost 
you $30 00. Two men with this perfect sheep shearing machine can shear 150 head per day, 
and at a fair daily wage of S2.50 each, the expense of clipping 200 sheep would be $6.67. a clear 
saving over hand shearing of $23.33. The tremendous saving in wages for shearing larger 
herds can be seen at a glance. No sheep raiser can longer afford to shear by hand when for 
an Investment of only $12.95 he can save from 10 to 12 cents per head every year on every 
sheep he owns. 

DIIYCRC AT TUC CTflPlf" YARilC pay a half cent a pound more for sheep sheared 
DUICnO A I I fit OIUvIV lAllUO by the MARTIN Shearing Machine than they 
pay for sheep sheared by hand. The Martin shears so closely and smoothly, It leaves the 
stubble in such fine condition, that the general appearance of the animal is a hundred per cent 
better than that of the animal sheared by hand, and the stock yards people willingly pay a 
premium for sheep sheared by this perfect machine. 

Ynil PAU'T PUT Ylllin CUEED ^*>en you shear them with a MARTIN Shear- 
lUUuAII I UUI I UUn OnCCr ingMachine.aclaim which cannot besuccessfully 
made for any other shearing machine ever invented. It means something to the sheep raiser 
to send his herd to market free from ugly wounds or scars which are sure to reduce the selling 
value of his animals. It means still more to him to turn his sheep on the range free from 
open sores caused by cutting when shearing, sores which become infected from poisonous 




.95 



IS OUR 
PRICE FOR 
THIS W0N- 
DERFUL 

SHEEP 
SHEARING 
MACHINE. 

Ready to fasten to a post or board, 
as shown In this illustration. 




NO MATTER IF YOU HAVE TRIED 

OTHER MAPUIMFQ which have proved utter failures and which you have given up 
U I na.II HlHUninttf) ln disgust, we want you to lay aside your prejudice and try the 
MARTIN at our expense. No sheep shearing machine on the market can compare 
with the Martin. We challenge the maker of any other machine on any and all good 
features. Order any other machine, If you like, and compare it with ours. Try them both 
See which runs easier, requires the least power to operate, clips closer; see which one clogs or 
sticks when shearing thick or matted wool, note carefully the materials and workmanship 
and it your judgment on every point Is not entirely in our favor, send our machine back at 
our expense and we will return your money. 

YOU CAN'T CLOG THE MARTIN, ^«n^g^h£$ES5 

handle the sheep. It Is the only machine which will clip the wool from every part of the 
animal, from the legs, from around the ears, etc. It shears over the abdomen without the 
slightest danger of injury to the sheep. You don't have to use the hand shears to start the 
shearing nor to finish up on the job, as you have to do when you use any other shearing ma- 
chine on the market. If the wool on the brisket is matted the Martin cutting head will 
eat its way under It, and do it easily and without extra exertion. No other machine will do 
this. The user of any other machine Is compelled to use the hand shears from a third to half 
the time, but the user of the ^MARTIN can throw away his shears, as he will never have 
further use for them. 

IT nflEC MAT MATTED whether you have ever used a shearing machine or not, you 
1 1 UULO IfU I mn I I Ell can learn to operate the MARTIN quickly and do perfect 
work with it. We send a book of instructions with every machine we sell, showing In both 
pictures and descriptive matter the various steps in shearing from the time the sheep is taken 
ln hand until the fleece Is entirely removed. It Is all very easy. By the time you have had 
the practice which comes from shearing a half dozen sheep you will be able to do as perfect, 
work, you will be able to clip as closely and as thoroughly as the most expert workman 
and speed will come to you as you become more experienced. Therefore, do not hesitate to 
order this machine. You will not have the slightest trouble In operating It, ln doing perfect 
work with it, as It Is so simply constructed and has absolutely nothing to get out of order. 




OUR FREE TRIAL OFFER AND REFUND PROPOSITION. 
SEND US AN ORDER FOR THIS PERFECT SHEEP SHEARING MACHINE 

at our price, $1 1.95. When it reaches you read our instruction book containing very full and very plain informa- 
b bearings and shear 50 sheep with it. We want you to use it in your own way, give it every trial you 
want to give it, and decide for yourself the merits of this machine. If you do not find that It does all we claim 
for it, if you are not satisfied after having taken the fleece from 50 sheep that this machine is a great economizer 
of time, that it will get more wool from every sheep than any other method of shearing will secure from it, if 
you do not feel that it is a wonderfully profitable' Investment for you and in every way a perfectly satisfactory 

shearing device, you may return it to us at our expense of transportation charges both ways and we 

will promptly refund your monev. 

OUR BINDING GUARANTEE. 

UIC Rill I n TIIIC MARTIN Sheep Shearing Machine in our own factory under our own 
nC DUH.II I niO ITIHn I in supervision and as we put into it the finest materials obtainable, 

all the steel we use is specially hardened and tempered for our use, and as we employ the most 

skilled workmen in Its construction, we give with every machine we sell a binding guarantee that If at 

any time within 20 years any piece or part gives out or breaks by reason of defective material or 

workmanship we will promptly replace such defective piece or part absolutely free of charge. This 

guarantee does not apply to comb or cutter, minor parts which are sometimes broken by careless 

handling and dropping on the floor. we guarantee the Martin Sheep Shearing Machine to be better made, to be 

longer lived, to be more durable, faster, easier to operate, simpler, stronger and to clip closer than any other shearing 

machine ever invented and in offering it to you we send it out under the strongest, most binding guarantee 

offered by any manufacturer or dealer. 



U our price for 
this wonderful 
sheep shearing 
machine, com- 
plete with stand 
exactly as shown 
in this illustra- 
tion. 



EXTRA PROFITS ON 200 HEAD OF SHEEP. 

TUIC IC UfUAT TUC MADTIII will do for you if you have a herd of 200 sheep, basing the figures on the most 
I nlO Iv Unfll inC mHnl in conservative estimates. 150 pounds extra wool at 25 cents per pound. . .837.50 

Cost of shearing, $6.67 instead of $30.00, saving 23.33 

Additional profits $60.83 

Add to this the Increased price your wool will bring because of better quality, add saving ln board of sheep shearers for days 
and weeks at a time, and you will find that your sheep will yield you from 60 to 75 cents a head more than they did before 
you used the Martin. _._ 

DESCRIPTION OF THE MARTIN MACHINE. , 

THE FRAME is made of the best gray Iron and is very substantially constructed. It is of graceful design and 

" very strong, and is well painted to preserve It from rust. THE BEARINGS are of the very best cold rolled steel, 

case hardened; they are accurately milled and properly equipped with oil holes. THE COMBINATION BALANCE 

AND DRIVE WHEEL weighs 20 pounds and Is accurately turned on a lathe to insure its running true. 

SMALL GEARS are made of the very best cold rolled steel, case hardened. SHAFT is of cold rolled steel 

made especially for use in these machines. CASING is of best cold rolled drawn steel tubing. ALL GEARS 

are carefully protected at the knuckle joints so that the operator cannot get his clothing or fingers caught 

in the mesh. THE HEAD is the most important part of the machine and the illustration herewith shows 

the general style of construction. The comb is carefully milled; it carries nine teeth and is adjustable to the 

cutter knife. The teeth are open and short and readily enter the wool and absolutely will not clog. It 

not require hard pushing, Just the gentlest pressure, just enough to keep the teeth against the uncut 

wool will keep It moving rapidly. The cutting blade which vibrates back and forth upon the teeth of the 

comb. Is speeded to about 1600 vibrations per minute and it possesses a cutting power excelling any other 

cutting head ever devised. It cuts so rapidly that there Is no limit to the amount of shearing It will do, 

the speed depending altogether upon the ability of the operator to handle the sheep. Because IHi HtAU. 

CCfirflll I V for those who are raising sheep in sections of the country where the 
tartulALLI weather becomes very warm and where it is desirable to leave longer 
stubble on the back as a protection against the sun, we equip the cutter head with a special 
comb guard, by the use of which the length of stubble may be easily regulated. For price 
of this attachment see price list below. 

No IOG4855 Martin Sheep Shearing Machine, ready to fasten to post -». . Qf - 

or board. Complete with four cutting blades. Price 3>l I .^O 

No I0G4856 Martin Sheep Shearing Machine. Complete with Iron ft y Q |- 

stand and four cutter blades. Price JjT V^ 

Extra Cutting Blades. Each *V'2^ 

Extra Combs. Each • • • ■ • • • ■ • J -xx 

Comb Guard, for regulating length of stubble to protect back of sheep from sun I 




af the short, blunt comb and protected cutting knife it Is absolutely impossible to cut 

the el.< dent. The cutter lever Is made of manganese bronze. It Is hung on perfect 

bearings and It will last forever. The comb knives are made of a special high grade cold 

ly hardened and tempered for use In these machines. One knife will 

mending on the condition of the wool; if it Is free from sand 

-t It will be at all to shi (1 with one knife. A small thumbscrew 

eutu* level he tension on the cutting knife and as the blade grows dull a 

new cutting Chla ratting head has an absolute 

ol as other machines do, but cuts It clean and smooth 

«nd doet not pull. 1 be dull cutter blades are quickly removed and sharpened blades Inserted. 

411 the wor. ire made of the bi led steel , case hardened and are enclosed 

handle heavily nickel plated 



iPEClA 



mcr. 



We will exchange one sharp blade for every two dull cutting blades sent us, or we will sharpen dull cutting blades free of charge, providing you pay postage^ 

*Hdress all orders to SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO, II 



age- 



f 




FACTOR V OF THE 

DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 
Capacity 30.000,000 Pourjos A YCAn. 



One Thousand Pointers 



FOR 



Stock Raisers 



A TREATISE ON 

Twentieth Century Methods 

of Breeding and Feeding Live Stock 

. , y ; r = 

Including a Digest of Government and Private 

Feeding Trials for the Past Two Decades; 

an Exhaustive Treatise on Diseases of all 

Live Stock, With a Chapter Devoted 

Entirely to the 

Truth on Stock Foods 



^2QS^ 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE WORLD'S MOST FAMOUS ANIMALS, 
ALSO PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR FARM BUILDINGS, Etc. 





H. O. 


BY 

DAVIS, M. 

PUBLISHED BY 


D. 


V. 


DAVIS 


STOCK FOOD 


CO MPANY, 


- 




CHICAGO 







F502 




ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS IN THE 
V£A« A. D. 1B98 BY 

DAVIS STOCK FOOD COMPANY. CHICAGO. ILL. 



THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN 

CONGRESS AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 



OF 



INTRODUCTORY. 

There has been a long established need of an exhaustive and comprehensive work on the gen- 
eral breeding and feeding of live stock together with a common sense treatise on diseases, couched in 
language and terms that the farmer could readily understand. True, a great many books have been 
published, and the author is indebted to many of them, which have been used as a reference in the 
compilation of this book. But it is also a fact that a few or none of them have hit the mark. By that 
we mean that one book was perhaps exhaustive in its especial line, but treated the subject too scientif- 
ically for the layman to fullv grasp. On the other hand, another book, while couched in terms and 
language which the layman could understand, did not treat the subject exhaustively — and it was 
the need of such a work that first suggested this book. 

On the other hand, as the American farmer knows, there are numerous stock food companies 
in existence that have attempted to advance the welfare of their goods by publishing a so called stock 
book, which was advertised in glowing terms, and its value to the farmer greatly exaggerated, for, in the 
main, they one and all contained glowing accounts of the enormous value of a certain stock food, the 
remaining space occupied by numerous »testimonials. It was this condition of affairs more than any- 
thing else that first made us hesitate in offering this work in connection with Davis Stock Food, but 
we finally decided to issue the work, knowing that the American stockman was fair minded and 
appreciative enough to recognize value. 

The enormous cost of this work and the publishing of this book, together with the infinite care 
and research necessary, would have made its production prohibitive unless we could, in a measure, 
have charged part of its cost on our advertising appropriation. With this idea in view, we have taken 
up all the feeding problems that the American stockman will meet. They have been discussed exhaust- 
ively. Government statistics, not only of this country, but of foreign countries, have been searched 
for data that would be of value to the American stock raiser. We have not thrust Davis Stock Food 
forward promiscuously through the book, but only in such cases where it will prove of invaluable assist- 
ance, and where we are willing to stand back of it in every sense of the word. In the treatment of 
disease we have not followed the steps of other stock food companies and simply told you that such 
and such a proprietary remedy was the only recognized cure. Instead of that, wishing to make the book 
valuable to all stock raisers, whether or not they patronize the Davis Stock Food Company, we have 
not only given good common sense home treatments, but we have given prescriptions that your home 
druggist can fill — and they will, one and all, be found reliable. We have, of course, told you those 
remedies manufactured by the Davis Stock Food Company that are applicable in the various 
diseases. We feel that we are thoroughly conversant with the live stock industry, and that the 
remedies that we are preparing cannot be improved upon for their various uses. We also know 
that they are offered at prices much less than the American farmer could secure them for were he to 
have them made up on a prescription. 

Knowing the full value that we are giving in our preparations, we have made a radical departure 
from the methods followed by our competitors. AA r e feel that, when the American farmer pays out 
his good money for an article, he is entitled to know just what he is buying, he is entitled to know 
whether or not the article is of any medicinal value, he is entitled to know that it contains no delete- 
rious or useless drugs, and we have, therefore, published in plain letters the contents of our pack- 
ages, so that every person may know the composition; and we can say to vou in all honesty that 
the various remedies that we are manufacturing are without question the best that we have been able 
to manufacture. Their formulae are without question the best that Twentieth Century medical science 
can produce. Extensive and thorough tests have demonstrated their worth, and, even though you 
do not care to purchase these remedies from us, you can do no better than go to your local druggist 
and have him mix the remedies for vou and furnish vou with the article. 



INTRODUCTORY 



Stock Food we have much to say in this work — much to say because we believe it worthy 
he space it occupies. It" you have used good stock foods before, you know how valuable an adjunct 

re in the proper care of domestic animals. If you have been so unfortunate as to have been 

died by the purchase of some of the numerous preparations on the market under the guise of stock 

Is, we ask you in all fairness not to condemn Davis Stock Food with them. We print the ingredi- 

k Food in plain letters on the label of every package. In the back of this book we give 

verbatim descriptions of each of the drugs used, taken from the United States Dispensatory (an official 

publication of the United States Government). By perusing this chapter on stock foods you do not 

have to take our word for what Davis Stock Food is. Take the word of the United States Government 

and the expert knowledge of the world on it. All we ask is a fair and impartial judgment. We expect 

to give a square deal, and ask a square deal in return. 

The Davis Stock Food Company is in existence not only for a day, or a year, but we hope for all 
time to come. We honestly think that Davis Stock Food has an impoi-tant mission in the live stock 
industry of this country in the coming years. Science is advancing in all lines. The world is moving 
rapidly. Improvements are matters of every day occurrence, and we shall do our best to keep pace 
with them. Above all, we wish the respect and confidence of the American farmer. Whether he 
purchases Davis Stock Food or Davis Veterinary Remedies or not, we want him to feel that we are 
just as much interested in his stock as he is himself, because the welfare of his stock is in common 
with the welfare of the live stock industry of this broad land. If at any time, under any conditions, 
there is any information that he thinks we can supply him with, we shall be only too happy to have him 
write us fully, and our organization is at his disposal. 

We have devoted several chapters in this book to common sense plans for farm buildings, such 
as suggested by the United States Government bulletins issued by the Department of Agriculture. We 
have given specific and full information not only on the ordinary farm buildings, but for the building 
of dipping vats, and the equipment of poultry farms. We shall be happy to furnish any additional 
information that our readers may wish. 

In conclusion we would ask you to thoroughly investigate this work. Keep it handy, where 
it can always be referred to. We are confident it will save you many a dollar; and, if you are convinced 
of the value of this work, of pur honesty of purpose, of our ability, and of our knowledge of the live 
stock industry, credit it to our account and grant us the privilege of a thorough trial of Davis Stock Food. 

Believe us, that Davis Stock Food, as a stock food, is as far ahead of any other stock food on 
the market as this book is ahead of other publications available to the farmer. As new discoveries and 
advancements are made in science, applying to the live stock industry, we will attempt to keep "abreast 
of them. This book will be revised with each subsequent edition, and kept up to date in every partic- 
ular. It is published in two styles of binding: the paper cover edition, at 50 cents a copy, and the 
heavy paper, cloth bound edition, at S3. 00 a copy. 

We hope to play a memorable part in the future live stock industry of America; and the day is 
not far distant when the live stock industry of America will control the live stock business of the world. 
Even now we are exporting breeding animals to the four corners of the globe, where but a decade ago 
we were importing. The wealth of the United States depends upon the American farmer, his efforts, 
his ingenuity, and his toil. He has made America the admiration of the world; and American live stock, 
through his efforts, is the best in the world. We are proud that we are identified with it. We shall 
be more than glad if we can assist in its future development. 

DAVIS STOCK FOOD COMPANY 



LIVE STOCK— PAST AND PRESENT. 

The condition under which all domestic animals are kept, while having improved a thousandfold, 
even in the past twenty-five years, is still far from the ideal, and is, in a great measure, responsible for 
the millions of dollars that are lost every year by the stock raisers of the United States. There are 
many stockmen who have given the matter thorough attention, and who are so fixed financially that 
they are now caring for and housing their stock in almost an ideal manner. But where one such man is 
found we find a thousand who, through perhaps no fault of their own, are unable to do likewise. On the 
other hand, the average stock raiser, it is safe to say, has never given the care of his animals adequate 
thought. Let us go back into the dim past, necessary in the consideration of the conditions in which animals 
found themselves in those days. The horse, wild and untamed, roamed the ranges and the forests at 
will, seeking the milder climates when winter's blasts swept over the country, endowed by nature with 
the instinct of self preservation and, in addition, with that intangible "sixth sense,'' telling him what 
and what not was the best for him to eat. These conditions produced a particularly rugged constitu- 
tion, peculiarly well fitted to battle with the elements. 

The ox in primeval times little resembled the high class animal we have today. In the hog we 
have, perhaps, the most radical change. Its ancestor — and not very many decades ago at that- — was 
an exaggerated form of what we call the razorback today. He had no one to carry him corn and slops; 
instead, he was compelled to wander many miles. His snout, by necessity, grew to an unusual length. 
His feet were sharp and strong to provide him with a weapon against attack, and also assist him in 
digging the various roots, barks and herbs (nature's stock food) out of the ground that he needed to keep 
his system in good, healthy condition. 

Today all this is changed. The horse has been deprived of his freedom, brought to the cities and 
compelled' to walk on roughly paved streets. His feet, by nature not intended for such contact, have 
been encased in steel, harness has been fitted to him, and after the day's labor he is compelled to stand 
in a narrow stall, tied by the head, deprived of the green, succulent grasses and the exercises which nature, 
in her wisdom, found necessary for him. While this is true of the city horse, it is also true, in a measure, 
of the horse of the farm, though not to so great an extent. All this the breeder must take into consid- 
eration. In supplying the cities he must, for instance, breed a horse of muscle, a horse that is hardy, 
that has strong legs and strong feet to meet the latter day conditions. Even his own horse, on the farm 
or ranch, while under radically different conditions from those which the Creator intended him to occupy, 
is unable to provide himself with the remedies that nature formerly gave him. The instinctive selec- 
tion of the various roots, herbs, barks, etc., has been bred out, and he is deprived of it. He, therefore, 
is 'as helpless as a new born babe when his body suffers from disease. 

The modern dairy cow and beef animal is under even greater disadvantage than the horse. 
Developed on two distinctly different lines, finely bred, they must by necessity have special care, and 
not every farmer is equipped to give them the care that they should have. In the dairy herd, where 
the sole idea is milk and butter fats, all the care and feeding must be with that idea in mind, taking no ' 
notice of the beef qualities other than to eradicate them as much as possible. In attaining these ends 
it is a curious fact, with which all dairymen are familiar, that the constitution of the modern dairy cow 
is materially weakened, and of all domestic animals they are probably the ones that are most in need of 
special care. The modern beef cattle have not lost, but if anything, have gained constitutionally. - They 
have been developed into a wonderfully perfect machine for the production of beef, and with them our 
problem is, while preventing disease, to produce the maximum amount of beef at a minimum cost. 

The American hog has set the pace for the world, and there is little resemblance between the finely 
bred pork machine of today and the razorback of yesterday. In the process of development his system, 
however, has also suffered, but more than anything else has he suffered from neglect. The farmer, who 
would no more think of neglecting his horse or his cow than his own household, will pick out the filthiest 

—7— 



L 1 V E STOC K— PAST AND PRESENT^ 



mil d hole on his farm, usually behind the barn, for the ho, pen. and one the helpless hog the manure pde 
71 on He is fed the refuse of the house, moldy corn, etc., in fact, almost everything ; conceivable 
hat SToth "stock will not eat. Under these circumstance's it is strange, mdeed, that the Amencan 
hog has given such an excellent account of himself in the markets ot the world. 

It was because of the foregoing conditions that stock foods first came 
Dishonest into existence. They proved of material benefit in the old world, where they 

Stock Foods -ere first introduced and adopted, and they have since been used continuously. 

MOCK v ooqs. ^ ^ evefything else, however, their reputation had to suffer because of numerous 
cheap preparations put up under the guise of stock foods. They were one and all recommended 
to tic farmer to do wondrous things. This one would cure diseases m each and every torn the 
„cx one would grow a mature animal in an incredible time; another-if you were to take the 
a dvert ement at its word-would enable you to raise stock without feed. Some, again, would lead 
to the b Uef that the mother would bear many fold if but their stock foods were used. All this o 
our e has proved very injurious to the legitimate stock food business, but the Amencan stock breeder 
of todav is broad minded enough, and has discretion enough, not to censure the good with the bad. 
Davis Stock Food is not a cure-all. It will not cure lock jaw or lung fever, neither will it cure 
hoe cholera or lump jaw, and we are sure that it will prove of little benefit in a case o lameness. It 
t fir t of all a tonic, a d gestive, a blood purifier and an intestinal antiseptic. It will help you to 
d^cr ase vo"; feed b lis b| -increasing the flow of gastric juice in the stomach and intestines, and thus 
d g t th feed that the animal eats in a more thorough manner, giving it more nutriment from th 
same f eel or same amount of gram. It tones up the system and increases the appetite, something that 
s vervfmportant, as all feeders know. It is an antiseptic in the alimentary ^\f^ hm ^\^ 
and destroying dangerous disease germs. It is absorbed by the system, enters the blood pur ifies . t and 
fs discharged through the skin and kidneys. But once disease enters the system-which it will even 
in th ^healthiest o^animals, and under the most ideal conditions-we do not recommend you to depend 
upon Dal Stock Food alone for a cure. It is true that the best treatment of disease is its P*^nUaa 
and the healthy animal, whose blood is pure and whose system is in good condition, is much less liable 
to be affected with disease than the one that is run down and in bad condition physically. 

We have in this book attempted to explain in every day language all the most — disease 
of live stock telling you their cause, their symptoms, and the most rational treatment for them. In 
tLereamajont of cases we manufacture remedies especially suited for the case. They are prepared 
£VS£S£ manner in our laboratories, under the eyes of trained chemists, and only absc £tely pur 
drugs are used in their preparation. Buying, as we do, all drugs m car loads, we are enabledto^ 
them for much less monev than the small druggist, but, while we would like to ^^ery stockman use 
Da's Stock Food Preparations, there are some who probably will not, others who, while in ^ ^ 

do not happen to have the right one at hand at the time when it is needed, ^ rt ^"^ a ^ 
upon a veterinarian entirely. No matter to which of these classes you ^-^ 7*? ^ 
book and we therein not onlv tell vou which one of our preparations is best suited for the particular 
d sease but we also give you good,' common sense, every day treatments, to be used - e-rgenc 
before the veterinarian can reach you, and treatments that will m a great many cases effect a cure, 
properly applied. 




GENERAL ADVICE. 

The conditions and surroundings of live stock today are largely created by man and are, to a 
greater or lesser extent, under his control. They may be conducive to good health and utility of 
animals, or, if these are neglected or improperly attended to, they may prove highly injurious, and are, 
not infrequently, the active cause in the production of disease. The greatest inroads of mortality 
among live stock is usually seen in crowded districts, or where animals are gathered in large numbers. 
The old adage, that "An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure," was never more applicable 
than in the live stock industry, for it is certainly much easier and more economical to prevent disease 
than to cure it. The stockman who understands this, and exercises his judgment accordingly, is 
usually well repaid for the trouble. 

In considering the general care of live stock, their quarters should be the first thing to receive 
attention. They should be such as to protect the animals from the inclement winters and spring rains, 
and at the same time provide shelter from the heat, flies and insects of summer. They should be 
light, dry and well ventilated. There is no greater foe of disease than plenty of sunlight and good pure 
air; sewerage, also, should be properly taken care of, and cleanliness is a matter of necessity. The 
manure pit should be removed from the barn, and not placed where every zephyr that blows will waft 
the foul odors and disease producing germs into the quarters of the stock. 

In a great many modern stables kindness has gone to extremes and produced barns and build- 
ings that are so warm as to make them not only uncomfortable but a direct cause of ill health. On 
the other hand, the average building for live stock is just the reverse, and is full of drafts, chilly and 
cold. The ideal temperature for a stable in winter is, approximately, 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and the 
animal heat, when the stock is housed, will increase this materially. 

Another mistake, and a very common one in the housing of animals, is that of too much crowding. 
Every stockman will find it economical to provide sufficient room, so that all his animals can be com- 
fortably housed, with sufficient space to move around in to insure pure air. Ninety square feet of floor 
space for each animal is a fair allowance. The stables should be cleaned every day instead of leaving 
it, as many do, for a rainy day's job. 

We think we are safe in saying that more animals suffer from overfeeding than 

Feeding and lack of feed, an especially hard condition to combat. The stockman who is in 

Watering. love with his work and with his animals is always liberal in his feeding and often 

gives them more than is good for them, in mistaken kindness. While a great 

many — in fact, we might safely say, the great majority of stockmen and farmers — who have no especial 

knowledge or information on the subject, are unaware of the exact amount an animal should have in order 

to maintain it in a healthy condition. The subsequent pages are mainly devoted to giving such rules 

for feeding as will serve as a guide to the breeder. 

In feeding cattle, sheep and hogs, which are necessarily fed in bunches, care 
Feeding. should be taken that animals of equal strength and vigor are placed together. 

The weaker ones should be given separate quarters, so that, when the feed 
trough is filled, all can get their share. It is a common thing to see a feed trough from which the smaller 
and weaker ones of the animals are forced away, while the stronger brethren get the lion's share. Too 
great a number should not be fed from any one trough. In feeding hogs for fattening, for instance, it 
is not advisable to have more than ten in a pen. This will be found much more economical and greater 
gains be made from the same amount of feed. The same rule will apply to cattle. 

— 9 — 



10 GENERAL ADVICE. 



Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the necessity of always having at 

Watering. hand a plentiful supply of good, fresh water in the feeding of all animals. Too 

often the hog is expected to drink from the same mud hole in which he wallows. 

Cattle, horses, in ; -k of all kinds, are often compelled to go to running streams, which is, we will 

lit, handy, and in a great majority of eases good, but if the farmer would protect himself absolutely, 

he would water his. stock on the streams that originate on his own land. The creek that originates 

fifteen or twenty miles up the country is very liable to carry disease into your herd. Should there be 

hog cholera up above on the stream, your hogs would become infected. It is thus disease is spread. 

So, by all means, if possible, water your stock with water that originates on your own farm. 

Stock of all kinds should always be watered before feeding, never after, and in winter the chill 
should be removed, if possible. Drinking to excess of ice cold water has caused many deaths and a 
large loss in the live -stock industry. 

It is very important that sufficient exercise be provided to maintain the general 
Exercise. health and vigor of all animals. Horses that are working steadily are, of course, 

provided with sufficient exercise, but if possible, once a week at least, they should 
be given the run of a good barn yard or lot and allowed their freedom. Milch cows are too often con- 
fined in the stable or a very small lot the year around. We cannot too strongly condemn the practice of 
keeping them in the stable too long at a time, and it will be found economical to provide a good sized 
exercise lot, where they can be given their freedom every day the weather permits. It will not only 
improve the quantity but also the quality of their milk and keep the animals in a much healthier con- 
dition. It is especially important that all breeding stock have sufficient room to exercise at will, if 
vigorous, healthy young animals are to result. The average stockman probably appreciates the necessity 
of penning feeding animals up for the latter part of the feeding period, for there is no economy in allowing 
such animals to run off a great percentage of the fat that they had succeeded in putting on. 

The average animal on a farm is fairly well protected against all kinds of weather 
Protection. if good stables are provided, but if it is necessary to expose them to inclement 

weather or cold, drizzling rains, they should be provided with good warm blankets, 
securely fastened. In the seasons when flies, insects and mosquitos abound, stockmen will find it econom- 
ical to use some of the various preparations on the market, such as Davis Fly Chaser, that have been found 
to possess undoubted merit in keeping such insects away. Especially is this true of the fattening animals 
and the dairy cows, as they not only act as an irritant and source of annoy^mce, but are a source of loss 
in nerve energy, and oftentimes an animal will consume all the feed it eats in fighting away these pests. 
In such cases a good fly chaser is of untold benefit, and the humane stockman will keep it at hand at 
such seasons. 

In another part of this book we have reproduced several illustrations of barns that have proved 
very satisfactory. They are not elaborate nor expensive, and are within the reach of all stock breedersv 
no matter how slim may be their purse. We have also given floor plans and such measurements as 
are necessary to convey a clear understanding of the subject. 

There are some points in the arrangement of your barns and stables, however, that it will be well 
to take into consideration. Always provide for adequate sewerage; if possible, face your stables south 
and east, with plenty of lights, so that the sunlight may stream in. Arrange them so that they may be 
easily cleaned and the manure easily carried away. Also build fchem in such a location that they will not 
get the drainage of the surrounding land, and do not place your barn on the side hill, where the drainage 
from it will run down directly into the creek from which your stock must get their water. 

The walls should be so placed that the light is admitted from the rear, thus protecting the horses' 

, and at the same time providing better ventilation in the stalls. The feed boxes should be so arranged 

for the horses that they can easily be cleaned, and in such a manner that each horse can eat from his 

own box only. The edge of the box and manger should be protected with strips of iron to prevent them 

from gnawing it, and thus contracting the habit. The bottom of the manger, in which the hay is kept, 

latted or open, so that dirt and dust will not accumulate. 



GENERAL ADVICE. 11 



It "will be foui-. to keep the interior of the stable whitewashed. A machine can be 

bcught for this purpose, making tne task not at all disagreeable, and an extremely short one, and the 
good gained more than repays the little time and money it costs. 

In dairy cows and horses grooming is essential, if the best results are to be 
Care of obtained. An every day grooming with a good, stiff brush for the horse is well 

the Skin. worth all the time and trouble it takes. In cows it is a matter of necessity, 

if cleanliness is to be observed. The hind quarters around the udders of the dairy 
cows should be kept free from long hairs, and in all up to date dairies a regular clipping with a clipping 
machine is adopted. Horses with long, thick coats should by all means be clipped, as they sweat easily, 
and the long hair will hold the moisture, so that the animal is more than likely to take cold if com- 
pelled to stand still after exertion. Clipping twice a year will keep an ordinary horse in good condition — 
once in the fall and once in the spring. This allows them to accustom themselves to the severe changes 
of winter; the spring clipping removes the winter coat before the hot weather sets in. Horses, how- 
ever, that cannot be protected from the cold by warm stables, should not be clipped in the fall, except 
on the legs. This is very important, if diseases of the feet and hoofs are to be avoided, as the long hair 
accumulates dirt and mud, this causing irritation and inflammation of the members. Good, clean bed- 
ding should be supplied at all times and the foul bedding removed every day. Sawdust or shavings are 
most desirable as a bedding, as they absorb moisture. 




THE CARE OF THE SWINE. 

The hog is probably the most abused animal and the least cared for among American farmers 
today. It is not caused by intent or purpose, but rather is due to thoughtlessness and following the prac- 
tice handed down to us by our forefathers. Give the American hog fair treatment and his share of good, 
clean, wholesome feed and there is no better paying investment on earth* When one stops to consider 
the conditions it is, indeed, marvelous that the American hog has made such a record for himself under 
such adverse conditions. Even on the average farm, where there is an abundance of pasture and green 
stuff growing, it is too often the case that the farmer never thinks of giving his hogs the benefit of it. 
Instead of confining them to close quarters and keeping them there until their lot becomes filthy and unfit 
for use, it will be found economy to provide plenty of good, green pasture for the swine. 

Give your breeding sows but little corn, the less the better. Instead, provide them with a good 
protein ration; give them plenty of green, succulent feed, with a good supply of pure water to drink. 
They will then amply repay you by raising such pigs as you never dreamed of before. Pigs should not, 
as a rule, be allowed to suckle their mothers more than six weeks; if they have access to green stuff and 
other green feed, it will be found that they will be eating and almost supporting themselves by that 
time. In fact, it should be the main business of the herdsman to see that the young pigs are made 
acquainted with grain, and are eating everything in this line before they are. weaned, so that there will be 
no setback when they are taken from the mother's milk. The carpenter builds and erects the frames 
of his building, first building it and later adding the roof and finishing touches. It will be well for 
the farmer to do likewise in raising his pork. The average farmer feeds to excess, and consequently 
has nice, fat, sleek looking pigs, which are very nice to look at and pleasing to the average eye, but far 
from profitable when looked at through the bottom of the pocketbook. They are much more suscep- 
tible to disease, and never develop the bone necessary to carry their weight. Instead of this, the sows 
and pigs should be fed on a high protein ration and given plenty of exercise. The pigs, after weaning, 
should be sustained upon the same ration, and have at least a ten-acre lot to run in. They should be kept 
on this until four months old or possibly five, by which time they will have attained a good frame and 
will be in prime condition to take on flesh for the market. They will also be healthy, and usually have 
ravenous appetites. At this time they should be separated according to their size, and the pigs 
intended for the market placed in lots for feeding. We do not advise over ten pigs to the lot, and the 
lot should not exceed in size over 400 square feet. It should be supplied with plenty of good, pure 
drinking water, and running water should be in front of them at all times, if possible. , They should 
be provided with good, warm, dry sleeping quarters, and a good, clean floor and troughs for feeding. 
It is at this time that corn has proved itself the premier fattening feed, all things taken into consideration. 
The pigs should be gradually brought up to the full quantity of feed necessary. Green stuff should be 
fed them every day if possible. If this is inconvenient, at least once a week — but preferably once a day 
— give them a good mash; this, as a variety from the other feed, keeping them from getting stale. 

It is just at this stage that Davis Stock Food will show most gratifying results. A tablespoonful 
for every 500 pounds live weight, mixed with the feed, will increase the appetite, materially assist the 
digestion, keep the bowels open and decrease the fattening period by at least 20 per cent. With the 
proper care and constant use of Davis Stock Food, hogs at this time should gain from two to three 
pounds a day. 

The problem of feeds and feeding is one in which we are all interested, and it 
Feeding. behooves the stockman of today to give careful attention and a thorough study 

to the subject — no matter what class of live stock is being raised, or for what 
purpose. There are always certain feeds in the way of grains and grasses that apply to each individ- 
ual case. The dairy cow would be of but little use, and give but small returns, were she fed on a beef 
ration, and it would take us a long time to fill the lard barrel comfortably if we were feeding for bacon 

— 12 — 



THE CARE OF THE SWINE. 13 



with lean producing foods. The United States government and numerous individual stockmen, who 
had the necessary facilities, have spent much time and money in researches to perfect and bring to 
our knowledge the uses and abuses of the various feedstuffs, and the profitable feeding of animals. 
They have reduced this to a science, and a profitable one at that. They also have been instrumental 
in giving us the special purposes of the various animals in more definite form. No stockman would 
now think of going into the dairy business with Hereford cattle, and his neighbor w r ould scarcely start a 
herd of Jerseys for beef production. At the same time all stock raisers know that — or should know 
— taking the same animal, surprising results can be obtained by the judicious use of the proper feeds, 
while improper feeding can make almost any animal an unprofitable investment. 

It is essential that the stockman should become acquainted with the principles of digestion and 
the constituents of the various feedstuffs, so that he may know how to best attain his ends. He should 
also become familiar with some of the terms that are now in common use. 

From time immemorial grazing was the chief dependence foi securing the production of meat 
and milk, and the maintaining of our animals. It is within the recollection of many men now living 
that live stock was expected to do little more than maintain the body during the cold or winter months. 
At that time the demands of the market were much simpler than at present and our population 
infinitely less. The past four or five decades, however, have seen more or less changes and especially 
the past twenty-five years. To apply the name dairy cow, as now used, to an animal twenty-five years 
ago, would have been considered absurd by modern dairymen, for the ideal dairy cow of today is a 
machine run under high pressure continuously for the production of milk, which milk must be rich in 
the several elements for which it is intended, that is, butter fats or cheese. The successful dairyman of 
today must understand the care of his animals thoroughly. He must provide proper winter quarters 
for his herd, and throughout the entire year, from month to month, provide such a ration as will make 
his cow capable of meeting the demands of the market. He must now buy various kinds of the com- 
mercial feedstuffs, carrying a certain percentage of the various constituents that are necessary to produce 
the class of milk that his business demands, and the more up to date dairyman does not stop here; he 
also resorts to additional other methods that will assist him in obtaining the maximum amount of nutri- 
ment from the grain fed. We ask you, Mr. Stockman, if it is not poor economy for you to pay from 
$25.00 to $30.00 a ton for feedstuff that is but 50 per cent digestible, when it is possible to increase the 
digestiblity 20 per cent without any material increase in cost? Under ordinary circumstances 
you obtain 1,000 pounds of actual nutriment from every ton of feed. By the addition of such an article 
as Davis Stock Food, its digestibility is increased until you can obtain 1.200 to 1,400 pounds actual 
nutriment from each ton. You are therefore obtaining from 200 to 400 pounds more feed for the same 
money ; certainly good business in itself, in addition to the fact that you are keeping your cow in better 
condition. 

The numerous and exacting, demands of the public today, and consequently of the market, have 
forced the stockman and farmer into a new range of thought and practice. They have compelled them 
to meet these conditions, and deliver lean bacon or fat bacon, milk rich in butter fats or carrying a 
medium amount of butter fats and the production of quantity, the chief end. 

To attain all these ends involves many difficult questions. It means that the science of farming 
must be thoroughly equipped with the production of forage and grain crops peculiar to each man's 
business. The demand must be supplied, and once supplied, used to the best advantage, wasting noth- 
ing. With all these considerations in view, the farmer must understand the question of what feed- 
stuffs he can raise most economically, and what he must produce. 



FEEDSTUFFS. 



To start at the very beginning— plant life is the foundation of all animal life. In some manner, 

. great extent inexplicable to us, the farmer carries to his fields and plants a few seeds, and, with the 

proper care and attention, he carries back from those same fields a thousandfold — mother earth having 

matured the seeds he planted, and gathered from — we know not where — the innumerable constituents 

necessary for its production. 

In feeding the grains and grasses to our live stock, the second period in our operations com- 
mences. We may take grasses or grains and burn them, and we obtain nothing but heat; we feed 
them to our animals, and they not only support the bone and muscle and furnish the nerve force, but 
supply to the animals the same amount of heat that we obtain by burning the grain. For, no matter 
how cold the weather, the normal temperature of the animal's body remains the same. In the first 
instance the plant is wholly burned up, except the mineral portion of it, while all those elements that go 
to produce heat, muscle and energy, when used in the animal body, escape in the form of various gases. 

To give the stockman some idea of the various constituents of feedstuff's in the animal body, it 
has been estimated by Knop, a German scientist, that if all species of the vegetable kingdom were 
collected into one great mass, the ultimate composition of all the dry matter resulting from this 
mixture would be as follows: 

Per Cent 

Carbon 45 

Oxygen 42 

Hydrogen 6.5 

Nitrogen 1.5 

Mineral compounds (ash) 5 

This is, of course, a general average. On another page of this book we present a complete list of 
all feedstuffs, giving the average analysis of each, showing the farmer just the amount of carbohydrates, 
protein, fat, and ash in the various feedstuffs. 

Lawes and Gilbert of England, also the Maine Experiment Station in this country, have made 
analyses of the entire bodies of steers and domestic animals. These results, combined with our knowl- 
edge of the constitution of the animal tissues, enable us to calculate very closely the proportion of carbon 
and other elements in the entire body of the ox, which are as follows: 



CONSTITUENTS 



Carbon 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Mineral compounds (ash) 



Fat Ox 

Lawes and Gilbert 

Per Cent 




Two Steers, 2 .years 

old. Maine Station 

Per Cent 



From the figures already given it is easily seen that animals like plants consist of carbon in greater 
proportion than that of any other element, and that the quantities of other elements stand in approxi- 
mately the same order in the animal as they do in the plant, the most striking difference being that there 
is a greater proportion of oxygen in the plant and a much higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen 
in the o 

Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen constitute approximately 85 per cent of the bodies of fat oxen 
and stc 

— 14 — 



FEEDSTUFFS. -15 



In raising grain, grasses or forage crops for animals it is well for the farmer to know at what season 
of the year it is the most profitable time for harvesting it, and there is a much wider difference in the 
nutritive qualities of hay cut at various times than the ordinary stockman appreciates. For instance, 
timothy hay, cut as per the following table: 

Maine State College 
Timothy Percentag* of Water 

Nearly headed out 78 . 7 

In full blossom 71.9 

Out of bloom 65 . 2 

Nearly ripe 63 . 3 

This explains severed things. It tells us first why it is difficult for us to cure early cut grasses. 
The facts, as shown by above table, that are true of timothy, are true of practically every species of grain 
forage, and when the farmer or stockman is soiling his crops, it is well for him to bear it in mind. As the 
greater percentage of grasses and forage plants are composed of water, so is the animal body, which is 
shown by the following table, which means that the percentage shown is the amount of the entire body 
consisting of water at the time of the analysis: 

Water in Entire Body, 
Per Cent 

Ox, well fed, Lawes & Gilbert 66.2 

Ox, half fat, Lawes & Gilbert 59 

Ox, fat, Lawes & Gilbert ' 49 . 5 

Steer, seventeen months old, medium fat, Maine Experiment Station 59 

Steer, seventeen months old, medium fat, Maine Experiment Station 56.3 

Steer, twenty-seven months old, fat, Maine Experiment Station 51 .9 

Steer, twenty-seven months old, fat, Maine Experiment Station 52.2 

Calf, fat, Lawes & Gilbert 64 . 6 

Sheep, lean, Lawes & Gilbert 67 . 5 

Sheep, well fed, Lawes & Gilbert 63 . 2 

Sheep, half fat, Lawes & Gilbert 58. 9 

Sheep, fat, Lawes & Gilbert 50 . 9 

Sheep, very fat, Lawes & Gilbert ' 43 . 3 

Swine, well fed, Lawes & Gilbert 57 . 9 

Swine, fat, Lawes & Gilbert 43 . 9 

Chicken flesh . . . . , '. . 74. 2 

Fowl flesh 65 . 2 

Goose flesh 42 . 3 

Turkey flesh 55.5 

The percentage of water varies greatly with the species, age and condition. The hog carries a 
much smaller proportion than the ox. The calf's body, even though fat, is comparatively watery, and 
it is noticeable that with oxen, sheep and hogs the lean animals carry a much larger proportion of water 
than the fat. 

All the foregoing should serve to illustrate the necessity of proper feeding, and to seeing that your 
stock has at all times an adequate supply of good, pure water. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 

From now on feedstuffs will be spoken of as containing certain amounts of protein, carbohydrates, 
fats and moisture, and it is well for the stockman and feeder to understand the various terms, as they 
are now in common use in agricultural publications, and, while the majority of farmers and stock feeders 
understand them, it will do no harm to go into them in some detail in this volume. 

For the sake of brevity and convenience, all nitrogenous compounds of feedstuffs are designated 
by the single term protein. 

In the following table will be found the average composition of American feedstuffs. It is taken 
from the Farmers' Bulletin, No. 22, United States Department of Agriculture, 1895. Following this 
is a table giving the average digestibility of American feedstuffs, taken from various authorities and 
compiled by Lindsay of the Massachusetts Experiment Station in 1896. 

Following this, we present a table, giving the average digestible nutriments of American feed- 
stuffs, showing the amount of nutriments that the stock feeder should obtain from each 100 pounds of 
the various feeds. It is, however, a deplorable fact, that while this amount of nutriment should be 
obtained, it is very seldom available, owing to the inability of the digestive organs of the various animals 
to properly assimilate it. It is for this purpose chiefly that Davis Stock Food was placed upon the 
market, and we will attempt to make it clear in this volume just how and why Davis Stock Food 
accomplishes this purpose. 

TABLE No. I 

Average Composition of American Feedstuffs. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Concentrates. 

Corn, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, sweet 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 

Corn germ 

Hominy chops 

Germ meal 

Dried starch and sugar feed 

Starch feed, wet 

Maize feed, Chicago . 

Grano-gluten 

Cream gluten 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat, all analyses 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Flour, high grade 

Flour, low grade 





PERCENTAGE 


coMPOsrnoN 




Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


10.6 


1.5 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


5.0 


11.3 


1.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


5.0 


8.8 


1.9 


11.6 


2.8 


66.8 


8.1 


15.0 


1.4 


9.2 


1.9 


68.7 


3.8 


10.7 


1.4 


2.4 


.30.1 


54.9 


0.5 


15.1 


1.5 


8.5 


6.6. 


64.8 


3.5. 


9.1 


1.3 


9.0 


12.7 


62:2 


5.8 


10.7 


'4.0 


9.8 


4.1 


64.0 


7.4 


11.1 


2.5 


9.8 


3.8 


64.5 


8.3 


8.1 


1.3 


11.1 


9.9 


62.5 


7.1 


10.9 


0.9 


19.7 


4.7 


54.8 


9.0 


65 . 4 


0.3 


6.1 


3.1 


22.0 


3.1 


9.1 


0.9 


22.8 


7.6 


52.7 


6.9 


5.8 


2.8 


31.1 


12.0 


33.4 


14.9 


8.1 


0.7 


36.1 


1.3 


•39.0 


14.8 


8.2. 


0.9 


29.3 


3.3 


46.5 


11.8 


7.8 


1.1 


24.0 


5.3 


51.2 


10.6 


10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 


71.9 


2.1 


10.4 


1.9 


12.5 


1.8 


71.2 


2.2 


10.5 


1.8 


11.8 


1.8 


72.0 


2.1 


12.2 


0.6 


14.9 


0.3 


70.0 


2.0 


12.0 


2.0 


18.0 


0.9 


63.3 


3.9 



No. of 
Analyses 



86 

68 

26 

77 

18 

7 

5 

3 

12 

6 

4 

12 

3 

1 

3 

20 

11 

310 

13 

262 

1 

1 



-16- 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



17 



TABLE No. I— Continued. 
Average Composition of American Feedstuffs. 



FEEDSTUFFS- 



Concentrates. 

Flour, dark feeding 

Bran, all analyses 

Bran, spring wheat 

Bran, winter wheat 

Middlings 

Shorts 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye flour 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley 

Barley meal 

Barley screenings 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dry 

Malt sprouts . . 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Oat feed 

Oat dust 

Oat hulls 

Rice 

Rice meal 

Rice hulls 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat flour 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middlings .... 

Sorghum seed 

Broom corn seed 

Kaffir corn seed 

Millet seed 

Hungarian grass seed. . v . 

Flaxseed 

Flaxseed, ground 

Linseed meal, old process . 
Linseed meal, new process 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cotton seed meal 





PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION 


Water 


Ash 


* 

Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


9.7 


4.3 


19.9 


3.8- 


56.2 


11.9 


5.8 


15.4 


9.0 


53 . 9 


11.5 


5.4 


16.1 


8.0 


54 . 5 


12.3 


5.9 


16.0 


8.1 


53.7 


12.1 


3.3 


15.6 


4.6 


60.4 


11.8 


4.6 


14.9 


7.4 " 


56.8 


11.6 


2.9 


12.5 


4.9 


65.1 


11.6 


1.9 


10.6 


1.7 


72.5 


13.1 


0.7 


6.7 


0.4 


78.3 


11.6 


3.6 


14.7 


3.5 


63.8 


9.3 


5.9 


18.0 


5.1 


59.9 


10.9 


2.4 


12.4 


2.7 


69.8 


11.9 


2.6 


10.5 


6.5 


66.3 


12.2 


3.6 


12.3 


7.3 


61.8 


75.7 


1.0 


5.4 


3.8 


12.5 


8.2 


3.6 


19.9 


11.0 


51.7 


10.2 


5.7 


23.2 


10.7 


48.5 


11.0 


3.0 


11.8 . 


9.5 


59.7 


7.9 


2.0 


14.7 


0.9 


•67.4 


7.7 


3.7 


16.0 


6.1 


59.4 


6.5 


6.9 


13.5 


18.2 


50.2 


7.3 


6.7 


3.3 


29.7 


52.1 


12.4 


0.4 


7.4 


0.2 


79.2 


10.2 


8.1 


12.0 


5.4 


51.2 


8.2 


13.2 


3.6 


35.7 


38.6 


9.7 


10.0 


12.1 


9.5 


49.9 


10.0 


6.7 


11.7 


6.3 


58.0 


12.6 


2.0 


10.0 


8.7 


64.5 


14.6 


1.0 


6.9 


0.3 


75.8 


13.2 


2.2 


4.6 


43.5 


35.3 


10.5 


3.0 


12.4 


31.9 


38.8 


11.1 


5.1 


27.1 


8.3 


40.8 


13.2 


4.8 


28.9 


4.1 


41.9 ^ 


12.8 


2.1 


9.1 


2.6 


69.8 


11.5 


3.4 


10.2 


7.1 


63.6 


9.3 


1.5 


9.9 


1.4 


74.9 


14.0 


3.3 


11.8 


9.5 


57.4 


9.5 


5.0 


9.9 


7.7 


63.2 


9.2 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


8.1 


4.7 


21.6 


7.3 


27.9 


9.2 


5.7 


32.9 


8.9 


35.4 


10.1 


5.8 


33.2 


9.5 


38.4 


10.3 


3.5 


18.4 


23.2 


24.7 


6.1 ' 


5.5 


16.8 


20.4 


23.5 


8.2 


7.2 


42.3 


5.6 


23.6 



Ether 
Extract 



No. of 
Analyses 



6.2 
4.0 
4.5 
4.5 
4.0 
4.0 
3.0 
1.7 
0.8 
2.8 



2 
1 
2 
2 
1 

5.6 
1.7 
5.0 
7.1 
7.1 
4.8 
1.0 
0.4 
13.1 
0.7 
8.8 
7.3 
2.2 
1.4 
1.1 
3.3 
7.6 
7.1 
3.6 
3.0 
3.0 
4.0 
4.7 
33.7 
30.4 
7.9 
3.0 
19.9 
27.7 
13.1 



1 

88 

10 

7 

32 

12 

10 

6 

4 

7 

1 

10 

3 

2 

15 

3 

4 

30 

6 

>4 

2 

1 

10 

2 

3 

5 

4 

8 

4 

2 

2 

2 

3 

10 

2 

1 

1 
50 

2 
21 
14 

5 

2 
35 



18 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



TABLE No. I— Continued. 
Average Composition of American Feedstuffs. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Concentrates. 

Cotton seed hulls 

Cotton seed kernels (without hulls) 

Cocoanut cake 

Palm nut meal 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower seed cake ' 

Peanut kernel (without hulls) 

Peanut meal 

Rape seed cake 

Pea meal 

Soja bean. . . 

Cow pea 

Horse bean '. 

Roughage. 

Corn Forage, Field Cured. 

Fodder corn 

Corn stover 

Corn husks 

Corn leaves 

Corn Forage, Green. 

Fodder corn, all varieties 

Dent varieties 

Dent, kernels, glazed 

Flint varieties 

Flint, kernels, glazed 

Sweet varieties 

Leaves and husks 

Stripped stalks 

Hay from Grasses. 

Hay from mixed grasses 

Timothy, all analyses : . 

Timothy, cut in full bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom 

Timothy, cut when nearly ripe 

Orchard grass 

Red top, cut at different stages 

Red top, cut in bloom 

Kentucky blue-grass 

Kentucky bluegrass, cut when seed in milk . 
Kentucky bluegrass, cut when seed ripe 

Hungarian grass , 

Meadow fescue 

Italian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass 

Rowen (mixed) 



PERCENTAGE (IMPOSITION 



Water 



11.1 

6.2 

10.3 

10.4 

8.6 

10.8 

7.5 

10.7 

10.0 

10.5 

10.8 

14.8 

11.3 



42.2 
40.5 
50.9 
30.0 

79.3 
79.0 
73.4 
79.8 
77.1 
79.1 
66.2 
76.1 



15.3 


5.5 


13.2 


4.4 


15.0 


4.5 


14.2 


4.4 


14.1 


3.9 


9.9 


6.0 


8.9 


5.2 


8.7 


4.9 


21.2 


6.3 


24.4 


7.0 


27.8 


6.4 


7.7 


6.0 


20.0 


6.8 


8.5 . 


6.9 


14.0 


7.9 


16.6 


6.8 



Ash 



2.8 

4.7 
5.9 
4.3 
2.6 
6.7 
2.4 
4.9 
7.9 
2.6 
4.7 
3.2 
3.8 



2.7 
3. '4 
1.8 
5.5 



1.1 
1.3 



2 




Protein 



4.2 
31.2 

19.7 
16.8 
16.3 
32.8 
27.9 
47.6 
31.2 
20.2 
34.0 
20.8 
26.6 



4.5 
3.8 
2.5 
6.0 

1.8 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
2.7 
1.9 
2.1 



7.4 
5.9 
6.0 

5.7 
5.0 
8.1 
7.9 
8.0 
7.8 
6.3 
5.S 
7.5 



7. 

7. 
10. 
11 



Crude 
Fiber 



46.3 

3.7 

14.4 

24.0 

29.9 

13.5 

7.0 

5.1 

11.3 

14.4 

4.8 

4.1 

7.2 



14.3 
19.7 
15.8 
2;. 4 

5.0 
5.6 
6.7 
4.3 
4.3 
4.4 
8.7 
7.3 

27.2 
29.0 
29.6 
28.1 
31.1 
32.4 
28.6 
29.9 
23.0 
24.5 
23.8 
27.7 
25.9 
30.5 
25.4 
22.5 



Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 



33.4 
17.6 
38.7 
35.0 
21.4 
27.1 
15.6 
23.7 
30.0 
51.1 
28.8 
55.7 
50.1 



34.7 
31.5 
28.3 
35.7 

12.2 
12.0 
15.5 
12.1 
14.6 
12.8 
19.0 
14.9 

42.1 
45.0 
41.9 
44.6 
43.7 
41.0 
47.5 
46.4 
37.8 
34.2 
33.2 
49.0 
38.4 
45.0 
40.5 
39.4 



Ether 

Extract' 



2.2. 

36.6 

11.0 
9.5 

21.2 
9.1 

39.6 
8.0 
9.6 
1.2 

16.9 
1.4 
1.0 



1.6 
1.1 

0.7 
1.4 

0.5 
0.5 
9 
0.7 
0.8 
0.5 
1.1 
0.5 

2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
2.2 
2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
3.9 
3.6 
3.0 
2.1 
2.7 
1.7 
2.1 
3.1 



No. of 
Analyses 



20 

2 

600 
2 

7 
2,480 
500 
2 
8 
5 
1 



35 
60 
16 
17 

26 

63 

7 

40 

10 

21 

4 

4 

26 

68 
10 

a — 

11 

12 

10 

9 

3 

10 

4 

4 

13 

9 

4 

4 

23 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



19 



TABLE No. I— Continued. 
Average Composition of American Feedstuffs. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Hay from Grasses. 

Mixed grasses and clovers 

Barley hay, cut in milk 

Oat hay, cut in milk 

Swamp hay 

Salt marsh hay 

Wild oat grass 

Buttercups 

White daisy 

Johnson grass 

Fresh Grass. 

Pasture grass 

Kentucky bluegrass 

Timothy, different stages 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Red top, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Rye fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

B arley fodder 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 

Italian rye grass, coming into bloom . 

Tall oat grass, in bloom 

Japanese millet 

Barnyard millet 

Red clover 

Red .clover, in bloom 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Japan clover 

Alfalfa 

Cow pea 

Soja bean 

Pea vine 

Vetch 

Serradilla 

Flat pea 

Peanut vines (without nuts) 

Sanfoin 

Fresh Legumes. 

Red clover, different stages 

Alsike clover 

Crimson clover 





PERCENTAGE 


COMPOSITION 




Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


12.9 


5.5 


10.1 


27.6 


41.3 


2.6 


15.0 


4.2 


8.8 


24.7 


44.9 


2.4 


15.0 


5.2 


9.3 


29.2 


39.0 


2.3 


11.6 


6.7 


7.2 


26.6 


45.9 


2.0 


10.4 


7.7 


5.5 


30.0* 


44.1 


2.4 


14.3 


3.8 


5.0 


25.0 


48.8 


3.3 


9.3 


5.6 


9.9 


30.6 


41.1 


3.5 


10.3 


6.6 


7 7 


30.0 


42.0 


3.4 


10.2 


6.1 


7.2 


28.5 


45.9 


2.1 


80.0 


2.0 


3.5 


4.0 


9.7 


0.8 


65.1 


2.8 


4.1 


9.1 


17.6 


1.3 


61.6 


2.1 


3.1 


11.8 


20.2 


1.2 


73.0 


2.0 


2.6 


8.2 


13.3 


0.9 


65 . 3 


2.3 


2.8 


11.0 


17.7 


0.9 


62 . 2 


2.5 


3.4 


11.2 


19.3 


1.4 


76.6 


1.8 


2.6 


11.6 


6.8 


0.6 


79.4 


1.1 


1.3 


6.1 


11.6 


0.5 


79.0 


1.8 


2.7 


7.9 


8.0 


0.6 


71.1 


1.7 


3.1 


9.2 


14.2 


0.7 


69.9 


1.8 


2.4 


10.8 


14.3 


0.8 


73.2 


2.5 


3.1 


6.8 


13.3 


1.3 


69.5 


2.0 


2.4 


9.4 


15.8 


0.9 


75.0 


1.5 


2.1 


7.8 


13.1 


0.5 


75.0 


1.9 


2.4 


7.0 


13.1 


0.6 


15.3 


6.2 


12.3 


24.8 


38.1 


3.3 


20.8 


6.6 


12.4 


21.9 


33 . 8 


4.5 


21 .2 


6.1 


10.7 


24.5 


33.6 


3.9 


9.7 


8.3 


12.8 


25.6 


40.7 


2.9 


9.7 


8.3 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


2.9 


9.6 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


2.8 


11.0 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


3.7 


8.4 


7.4 


14.3 


25.0 


42.7 


2.2 


10.7 


7.5 


16.6 


20.1 


42.2 


2.2 


11.3 


7.2 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


5.2 


15.0 


6.7 


13.7 


24.7 


37.6 


2.3 


11.3 


7.9 


17.0 


25.4 


36.1 


2.3 


9.2 


7.2 


15.2 


21.6 


44.2 


2.6 


8.4 


7.9 


22.9 


26.2 


31.4 


3.2 


7.6 


10.8 


10.7 


23.6 


42.7 


4.6 


15.0 


7.3 


14.8 


20.4 


39.5 


3.0 


70.8 


2.1 


4.4 


8.1 


13.5 


1.1 


74.8 


2.0 


3.9 


7.4 


11.0 


0.9 


80.9 


1.7 


3.1 


5.2 


8.4 


0.7 



No. of 
Analyses 



17 
1 
1 
8 

10 
1 
2 
2 
2 



18 

56 
4 
5 
6 
7 

11 
1 

14 
4 

24 
3 

12 
2 

38 
6 

10 
9 
7 
7 
2 

21 
8 
6 
1 
5 
3 
5 
6 
1 

43 
4 
3 






COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



TABLE No. I— Continued. 
Average Composition of American Feedstuffs. 



; EEDST1 



Fresh Legumes. 

alfa 

Cov. 



radiHa 

Hor- '.' 

Fla: 

Straw. 

Wheat 

Rve 



Wheat chaff 

aff 

Buckwheat straw 



Hi.'- i 

Silage. 

Corn 

Sorghum 

Red clover . 

Soja bean .* 

le pomace 

• pea vine ■ 

a and soja bean vines, mixed. 

Field pea vine 

Barnyard millet and soja bean 

Corn and soja bean 

Rye 

Roots and Tubers. 

ato 

Bee • imon 

:.r 

t, mangel. . 

Turnip . . 

Rutabaga . 

rrot 

Parsnip 

A rt 

Sweet potato 

Miscellaneous. 

Cal i 

Spurry 

Sugar beet 

Pumpkin (field) 

Pumpkin (garden) 



PERCEN PAGE composition 



Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 
Exl racl 


Klli 

Extract 


71.8 


2.7 


4.8 


7.4 


12.3 


1.0 


83.6 


1.7 


2 . 4 


4.8 


7.1 


0.-1 


75.1 


2,6 


4.0 


6.7 


10.6 


1 .0 


79.5 


3 . 2 


2.7 


5.4 


8.6 


0.7 


84.2 


1.2 


2.8 


4.9 


6 . 5 


0.4 


66.7 


2.9 


8.7 


7.9 


1 2 . 2 


1.0 


9.6 


4.2 


3. t 


38.1 


43 . 1 


1.3 


7.1 


3.2 


3.0 


38.9 


46 . 6 


1.2 


9 . 2 


5.1 


4.0 


37.0 


-12.4 


2.3 


14.2 


5.7 


3.5 


36.0 


39.0 


1.5 


14.3 


9.2 


4.5 


36.0 


34.6 


1.4 


1 4 . 3 


10.0 


!.(» 


34.0 


36 . 2 


1.5 


9.9 


5 . 5 


5.2 


43.0 


35.1 


1.3 


10.1 




4.6 


40.4 


37.4 


1.7 


9.2 


8.7 


8.8 


37.6 


34.3 


1.4 


79.1 


1.4 


1.7 


6.0 


11.0 


. S 


76.1 


1.1 


0.8 


6.4 


15.3 


0.3 


72.0 


2.6 


4.2 


8.4 


11.6 


1.2 


74.2 


2.8 


4 1 


9.7 


6.9 


2. 2 


85 . 


0.6 


1 .2 


3.3 


8.S 


1.1 


79.3 


2.9 


2.7 


6.0 


7.6 


1.5 


69.8 


4.5 


3.8 


9.5 


ll.l 


1.3 




3.5 


5.9 


13.0 


26.0 


1.6 


79.0 


2.8 


2.8 


7.2 


7.2 


1.0 ' 


76.0 


2.4 


2.5 


7.2 


11.1 


. 8 


80.8 


1.6 


2.4 ' 


5.8 


9.2 


. 3 


78.9 


1.0" 


2.1 


0.6 


17.3 


0.1 


88 . 5 


1.0 


1.5 


0.9 


8.0 


0.1 


86.5 


0.9 


1.8 


0.9 


9.8 


0.1 


90.9 


1.1 


1.4 


0.9 


5.5 


0.2 


90.5 


0.8 


1 .1 


1.2 


6.2 


. 2 


88.6 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


7.5- 


0.2 


88. 


1.0 


1 .1 


1.3 


7.6 


0.4 


88.3 


0.7 


1.6 


1.0 


10.2 


0.2 


79.5 


1 .0 


2.6 


0.8 


15.9 


0.2 


71.1 


1.0 


1.5 


1.3 


24.7 


0.4 


90.5 


1.4 


2.4 


1.5 


3.9 


0.4 


75.7 


4.0 


2.0 


4.9 


12.7 


0.8 


88.0 


2.4 


2.6 


2.2 


4.4 


0.4 


90.9 


0.5 


1.3 


1.7 


5.2 


0.4 


80.8 


0.9 


1.8 


1.8 


7.9 


0.8 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



21 



TABLE No. I 
Average Composition of 



—Continued. 
American Feedstuffs. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Miscellaneous. 

Prickley comfrey 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 

Apples 

Cow's milk 

Cow's milk, colostrum 

Mare's milk 

Ewe's milk 

Goat's milk 

Sow's milk 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp 

Beet molasses 

Apple pomace 

Sorghum bagasse 

Distillery slops 

Dried sediments from distillery slops 





PERCENTAGE 


; COMPOSITION 




Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


88.4 


2.2 


2.4 


1.6 


5.1 


0.3 


84.5 


2.0 


2.3 


2 


.6 


8.4- 


0.5 


55.3 


1.0 


2.5 


4 


.4 


34.8 


1.9 


80.8 


0.4 


0.7 


1 


.2 


16.6 


0.4 


87.2 


0.7 


3.6 






4.9 


3.7 


74.6 


1.6 


17.6 






2.7 


3.6 


91.0 


0.4 


2.1 






5.3 


1.2 


81.3 


0.8 


6.3 






4.7 


6.8 


86.9 


0.9 


3.7 


"** 




4.4 


4.1 


80.8 


1.1 


6.2 






4.8 


7.1 


90.4 


0.7 


3 3 






4.7 


0.9 


90.6 


0.7 


3.1 






5.3 


0.3 


90.1 


0.7 


4.0 






4.0 


1.1 


93.8 


0.4 


0.6 






5.1 


0.1 


8.5 


4.7 


84.4 








2.5 


10.7 


4.1 


71.2 






0.3 


13.7 


10.8 


29.2 


48.4 








11.6 


89.8 


0.6 


0.9 


2 


.4 


6.3 




20.8 


10.6 


9.1 






59.5 




76.7 


0.5 


1.4 


3 


.9 


16.2 


1.3 


83.9 


0.6 


0.6 


3 


.2 


11.7 




93.7 


0.2 


1.9 





.6 


2.8 


0.9 


5.0 


11.3 


27.4 


8 


.0 


36.1 


12.3 



No. of 
Analyses 



41 

2 

3 

793 
42 . 



7 

96 

7 

85 

46 

3 

144 

6 

16 

35 

7 

2 

1 

1 



TABLE No. 2. 
Average Digestibility of American Feedstuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

A. Experiments* with Ruminants. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Concentrates. 

Dent corn 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn and cob meal . . . 

Gluten meal 

Gluten meal (Chicago) 
Gluten meal (Kings) . 

Gluten feed 

Gluten feed (Buffalo) . 
Gluten feed (Pope's) . 
Gluten feed (Peoria) . 
Gluten feed (Atlas) . . 
Maize feed (Chicago) . 
Cream gluten (Pope's) 
Wheat bran 



No. of 
Trials 



12 
5 

2 
3 
8 
2 
2 
8 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
11 



Dry 

Matter 
Per Cent 



91 

88 
59 
79 
87 
88 
81 
84 
83 
87 
86 
80 
84 
93 
61 



Protein 
Per Cent 



76 
60 
17 

52 
88 
89 
91 
85 
86 
86 
83 
73 
84 
84 
79 



Crude 

Fibre 

Per Cent 



58 



65 
45 



72 
66 

77 
78 

72 



Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 
Per Cent 



93 
93 
60 
88 
88 
93 
79 
87 
84 
90 
90 
84 
85 
88 
69 



Ether 
Extract 
Per Cent 



86 
92 
50 

84 
93 
93 
94 
83 
S7 
81 
79 
91 
90 
98 
68 



Authority 



K. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 






DIGESTIBILITY OP FFEDSTUFFS. 



TABLE No. 2— Continued. 
Average Digestibility of American Feedstuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

A. Experiments with Ruminants. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Concentrates. 

Wheat bran, spring wheat 

Wheat bran, winter wheat 

Wheat middlings 

Rye meal 

Barley 

M alt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Oats 

Rice meal 

Flaxseed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Cot ten seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cotton seed meal 

Cotton seed hulls 

Cotton seed hulls when fed with cotton seed 

meal 

Cotton seed feed (hulls and meal) 

Cotton seed feed (hulls and meal) 

Pea meal 

Soja bean meal 

Peanut feed 

Roughage. 

Fodder Corn, Field Cured. 

Dent and flint varieties, average 

Dent, mature 

Dent, in milk 

Dent, immature, B. & W. (coarse) 

Dent, immature, no ears formed 

Flint, mature 

Flint, ears just forming 

Sweet, mature 

Corn Stover, Field Cured. 

Corn stover, all varieties 

Corn stover 

-■n stover, shredded, fed dry 

Corn stover, shredded, fed wet 

Corn stover, tops and blades 

er, leaves 

er, stalk below ear 

er, stalk above car 

Corn stover, husks 

r, leaves below cur 



No. of 
Trials 


Dry 

Matter 

Per Cent 


Protein 
Per Cent 


Crude 

Fiber 
Per Cent 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 
Per Cent 


Ether 
Extract 
Pei Cent 


2 


63 


80 


24 


70 


76 


3 


62 


77 


27 


65 


64 


4 


79 


82 


36 


85 


85 


2 


87 


84 


. . 


92 


64 


4 


86 


70 


50 


92 


89 


1 


67 


80 


34 


69 


100 


12 


63 


73 


40 


62 


86 


2 


62 


79 


53 


59 


91 


39 


70 


78 


20 


76 


83 


12 


75 


63 


26 


86 


85 


7 


77 


91 


61 


55 


86 


3 


79 


89 


57 


78 


89 


3 


80 - 


85 


74 


84 


93 


2 


66 


68 


76 


50 


87 


2 


56 


47 


66 


51 


72 


6 


76 


88 


32 


64 


93 


13 


41 


6 


47 


34 


79 


3 


41 




38 


49 


78 


3 


46 


45 


37 


50 


82 


11 


55 


62 


46 


54 


85 


2 


87 


83 


26 


94 


55 


10 


79 


87 




73 


85 


2 


32 


71 


12 


49 


90 


23 


68 


55 


65 


73 


74 


14 


66 


48 


57 


72 


76 


11 


63 


50 


64 


66 


75 


4 


57 


27 


59 


61 


76 


8 


65 


62 


71 


64 


66 


9 


71 


65 


76 


73 


70 


3 


70 


70 


72 


71 


67 


6 


67 


64 


74 


68 


74 


8 


60 


45 


67 


61 


62 


4 


62 


52 


67 


64 


52 


2 


57 


40 


65 


56 


72 


2 


60 


36 


70 


59 


74 


2 


60 


55 


71 


62 


. 71 


2 


56 


56 


61 


59 


63 


2 


67 


21 


74 


69 


80 


2 


55 


22 


71 


54 


64 


2 


72 


30 


80 


. . 


33 


2 


65 


35 


78 


68 


56 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



23 



TABLE No. 2-^-Continued. 

Average Digestibility of American Feedstuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

A. Experiments with Ruminants. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Corn Forage, Green. 

Dent fodder corn, average glazing and 

mature 

Dent fodder corn, mature 

Dent fodder corn, glazing 

Dent fodder corn, in milk 

Dent fodder corn, immature 

Dent fodder corn, glazing, B. & W. (coarse) . 

Sweet fodder corn, roasting ear stage 

Sweet fodder corn, in milk 

Hay from Grasses. 

Meadow hay, rich in protein 

Meadow hay, medium in protein . . ' 

Meadow hay, poor in protein 

Timothy, all trials 

Timothy, cut in bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom. 

Orchard grass 

Red top 

Hungarian 

Mixed, rich in protein 

Mixed, medium in protein 

Rowen, average 

Dried pasture grass • 

Barley hay 

Oats and vetch . . . : 

Timothy and clover, poorly cured 

Blue joint grass (calamagrostis canadensis) 
in bloom 

Blue joint grass, past bloom 

Wild oat grass (danthonica spicata) 

Cat's tail millet (pennesetum spicatum) .... 

Johnson grass 

Witch (quack) grass (triticum repens) 

Sorghum fodder (leaves) 

Sorghum bagasse (stalks after juice is re- 
moved 

Swamp hay 

Salt hay of black grass (Juncus Gerardi) . . . 

Low meadow fox grass (spartina juncea) .... 

Highgrown salt hay (largely spartina juncea) 

Branch grass (spartina juncea with spartina 
stricta, var. glabra) •. 



No. of 
Trials 


Dry • 

Matter 

Per Cent 


Protein 

Per Cent 


Crude 

Fiber 

Per Cent 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 
Per Cent 


Ether 
Extract 
Per Cent 


13 


66 


53 


52 


74 


76 


4 


65 


51 


55 


72 


73 


9 


67 


54 


51 


75 


78 


9 


70 


61 


64 


76 


78 


11 


68 


66 


67 


71 


68 


2 


52 


24 


46 


39 


78 


6 


72 


62 


60 


77 


79 


2 


77 


77 


• 75 


81 


74 


48 


67 


66 


63 


68 


57 


94 


61 


57 


60 


64 


53 


28 


56 


50 


56 


59 


49 


26 


57 


48 


52 


63 


57 


5 


60 


56 


58 


63 


57 


10 


53 


45 


47 


60 


53 


3 


56 


60 


61 


55 


55 


3 


60 


61 


61 


62 


51 


2 


65 


60 


68 


67 


64 


20 


58 


58 


60 


50 


48 


2 


, , 


40 


49 


.58 


50 


. 8 


65 


68 


66 


64 


47 


1 


71 


72 


77 


73 


60 


4 


59 


65 


62 


63 


41 


2 


58 


60 


66 


54 


19 ' 


2 


55 


38 


53 


60 


58 


2 


69 


70 


72 


69 


52 


1 


40 


57 


38 


43 


37 


3 


64 


58 


68 


65 


50 


2 


62 . 


63 


67 


59 


46 


1 


55 


45 


58 


54 


39 


4 


61 


58 


62 


66 


57 


2 


63 


61 


70 


65 


47 


1 


61 


14 


64 


65 


46 


2 


39 


34 


33 


46 


44 


2 


60 


63 


60 


56 


41 


2 


53 


57 


51 


52 


24 


2 


53 


63 


50 


53 


47 


2 


56 


62 


52 


54 


31 



Authority 



M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



L. 
L. 
L. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 



24 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



TABLE No. 2— Continued. 
Average Digestibility of American Feedstuff s, with Additions from the German Tables. 

A. Experiments with Ruminants. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



No. of 

Trials 



Dry 

Matter 

Per Cent 



Hay from Grasses. 

Buttercups (ranunculus acris) 

White weed (ox eye daisy) (leucanthemum) 
vulgare) 

Straw and Chaff. 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Barley straw 

Soja bean straw 

Oat chaff 

Wheat chaff 



Grasses, Green. 

Pasture grasses, mixed 

Timothy . . . ; 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Oat fodder, m bloom 

Rye formation of heads 

Sorghum, average 

Barley, in bloom 

Hungarian grass, early to late bloom 

Barley and pears, full bloom 

Oats and peas, bloom 

Rowen grass, mostly timothy, two-thirds 
grown 



Hay from Legumes 

Red clover in bloom 

Red clover, late bloom, fair quality 

Red clover, good quality 

Alsike 

White 

Crimson 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa, late bloom 

Alfalfa, stage not given 

Cow pea vine, fair quality 

Soja bean 

Vetch 

Seradilla, in bloom. 

Peanut vines 

Sanfoin 



2 
2 



7 
9 
19 
5 
4 
2 
2 



4 
5 
1 
2 

2 
4 
4 
8 
2 
2 



46 
2 
2 
3 
1 
9 

28 
2 
1 
2 
2 
6 
2 
2 
2 



Protein 
Per Gent 



56 

58 



43 
46 
48 
53 
55 
42 
26 



71 
58 
56 
64 
74 
67 
67 
63 
60 
68 

66 



61 
55 
52 
62 
66 
62 
60 



59 
62 
65 
62 
60 
62 



56 

58 



11 
21 
30 
20 
50 
38 
6 



70 
50 
59 
75 

79 
46 

72 
63 

77 
81 

72 



62 
55 
49 
66 
73 
69 
74 
77 
69 
65 
71 
76 
75 
63 
70 



Crude 

Fiber 

Per Cent 



41 

46 



52 
60 
54 
56 
38 
45 
37 



76 
52 
51 
60 
80 
59 
61 
70 
43 
57 

64 



49 
46 
48 
53 
61 
45 
43 
49 
43 
43 
61 
54 
50 
52 
36 



Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 
Per Cent 



67 

67 



38 
37 
44 
54 
66 
49 
29 



73 
64 
54 
63 
71 
74 
71 
67 
61 
66 

68 



69 
64 
58 
71 
70 
62 
66 
64 
72 
71 
69 
66 
63 
70 
74 



Ether 
Extract 
Per Cent 



70 
62 



31 
32 
33 
42 
60 
48 
34 



63 
47 
51 
70 
74 
74 
60 
62 
60 
74 

52 



62 
53 
43 
50 
51 
44 
39 
54 
48 
50 
29 
60 
65 
66 
66 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



25 



TABLE No. 2 — Continued. 

Average Digestibility of American Feedstuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

A. Experiments with Ruminants. 



FEEDSTUFFS 



Legumes, Green. 

Red clover, late bloom 

Rowen, late bloom 

Crimson clover, late bloom .... 

Alfalfa '. . . 

Cow pea, ready for soiling 

Soja bean, before bloom 

Soja bean, seed half grown .... 
Canada peas, just before bloom 



Silage. 

Dent corn, grain milk stage to mature 

Dent corn, immature 

Dent corn, stage uncertain 

Dent corn, fine crushed (steers) 

Dent corn, fine crushed (sheep) 

Dent corn, uncooked, ears mature. . . . 

Dent corn, cooked, ears mature 

Flint, ears glazing 

Sweet, some ears matured 

Soja bean ' 

Cow pea vine 

Barnyard millet and soja bean 

Corn and soja bean 



Roots and Tubers. 

Potato 

Potato 

Beet, mangel 

Beet, mangel 

Sugar beet 

Sugar beet 

Turnip, flat 

Rutabaga 



Miscellaneous. 

Cow's milk 

Acorns, fresh 

Dried blood ...... 

Meat scrap 

Fish guano 

Beet pulp 



No. of 
Trials 



2 

2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 



17 

13 
4 
2 
2 
1 
1 

11 
2 
4 

*4 
4 
3 



23 

3 

18 

2 
28 
2 
2 
2 



5 
2 
2 
5 

2 
7 



Dry 

Matter 

Per Cent 



66 
61 
69 
67 
76 
66 
62 
71 



64 
64 
60 
64 
54 



75 
68 
55 
60 
59 
69 



85 
77 
88 
79 
89 
95 
93 
87 



98 
88 
63 
93 

82 



Protein 
Per Cent 



67 
62 
77 
81 
74 
79 
69 
82 



52 
54 
24 
38 
22 
45 
39 
65 
54 
66 
57 
57 
65 



61 

44 

77 
75 
62 
91 
90 
80 



94 
83 
62 
93 
90 
63 



Crude 

Fiber 

Per Cent 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 
Per Cent 


Ether 
Extract 
Per Cent 


53 


78 


65 


52 


65 


61 


56 


74 


66 


45 


76 


52 


57 


84 


59 


£0 


72 


54 


41 


73 


54 


62 


71 


52 . 


62 


69 


85 


70 


66 


71 


56 


68 


70 


75 


65 


76 


64 


55 


68 


59 


71 


86 


70 


75 


87 


77 


79 


82 


71 


72 


83 


49 


57 


61 


52 


72 


63 


69 


59 


72 


65 


75 

90 
91 
96 


82 


43 


91 
95 




100 


100 


50 


100 


97 


98 


74 


95 


84 




98 


100 


62 


91 


88 




100 


100 
98 

76 


83 


84 





Authority 



M. 
M, 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



L. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 



26 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



TABLE No. 2 -Continued. 

Average Digestibility of American Feedstuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

B. Experiments with Pigs. 



l'KKnsrri 1 s 



Concentrates. 

Corn meal 

Corn meal 

Corn kernels, whole 

Corn and cob meal 

Pea meal 

Barley meal 

Barley meal f. 

Wheat, whole 

Wheat, cracked 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat bran 

Rye bran 

Potato 

Potato 

Dried blood 

Flesh meal , 

Sour milk 



No. of 

Trials 



4 
2 
1 
1 
1 
8 
1 



2 
2 

2 

8 
4 
1 

8 

1 



Dry 

Matter 

Per Cent 



92 

90 
83 
76 
90 

82 
80 
72 
82 
77 
61 
67 
93 
97 
72 
92 
95 



Protein 
Per Cent 



86 
88 

69 
76 
89 
76 
81 
70 
80 
73 
75 
66 
73 
84 
72 
97 
96 



Crude 

Fiber 
Per Cent 



40 
39 
38 
29 
78 
15 
49 
30 
60 
37 
34 
9 
55 



Nitrogen' 
Free 

Extract 
Per Cent 



95 
94 
89 
84 
95 
90 
87 
74 
83 
87 
66 
75 
98 
98 
92 

99 



Ether 
Extract 
Per Cent 



76 
80 
46 
82 
50 
65 
57 
60 
70 

72 
58 



87 
95 



Authority 



L. 
M. 
M. 
M, 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
L. 
L. 




THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION. 

The first process of digestion in feedstuffs occurs in the mouth when the feed is masticated or ground 
up by the teeth, thus preparing it for the more thorough action of the various digestive juices. While 
the feed is being ground, the salivary glands of the mouth excrete the saliva continuously, it is mixed 
with the feedstuffs and has for its purpose the conversion of the starch or carbohydrate in the feedstuffs 
into sugar. The saliva has no action whatever on anything except starchy matters, and the feed remains 
in the mouth such a comparatively short time that but little action can take place here, the action of the 
saliva on the starch continuing in the stomach. The chemical composition of saliva varies somewhat, 
but in the horse the following table is considered a fair average : 

Parts 

Water 992 

Mucus and albumen 2 

Alkaline carbonates * 1 . 08 

Alkaline chlorids 4 . 92 

Alkaline phosphates and phosphate lime traces 

1000 

The next process of digestion occurs in the stomach, under tke influence of the gastric juices. In 
the different animals this varies greatly, inasmuch as the stomachs of our different domestic animals also 
vary to a great extent, from that of the hog holding 7 to 9 quarts, to that of the ox holding over 300 
quarts. It has been ascertained with comparative accuracy that the composition of the gastric fluid 
is as follows: 

Water 986"!: 

Organic matter (especially ferments) 4 . 05 

Sodium chlorid 4.37 

Calcium chlorid 11 

Hydrochloric acid 4 . 05 

Potassium chlorid 1 . 52 

Ammonium chlorid 47 

Calcium phosphate 1.18 

Magnesium phosphate 57 

Ferric phosphate 33 

The constituents in the gastric juice that are active in affecting the various changes are pepsin, 
rennet and acid. Pepsin is a soluble ferment which acts upon the feed only in the presence of dilute 
acid. Rennet has the power of curdling milk. Hydrochloric acid is present in considerable quantities 
in the gastric juice, and has for its function the change of the sugar of feed into levulose and glucose. 
The chief action, however, of the ga§tric juice is the conversion of albuminoids into peptones, leaving 
the fatty matter and the cellulose to be attacked later. While the horse and hog have but one stomach, 
the ox and sheep have stomachs consisting of four distinct compartments, namely, the rumen or paunch, 
which is known as the first stomach; the honeycomb or reticulum, which is the second stomach; the 
manyplies or omasum, which is the third stomach; while the fourth stomach is called the rennet or 
abomasum. This fourth stomach in ruminants corresponds to the single stomach of the horse and the 
pig. None of the first three stomachs secrete any fluid. The vocation of the rumen is more that of a 
storehouse than anything else. It is here that all the feed eaten by the cow first goes after mastication, 
and there it lies for some .time, to be acted upon by the saliva. And a very large amount of it may be 
broken up and digested more or less by the process of fermentation. After the cow has the rumen well 
filled, the process of rumination, or what is commonly known as chewing the cud, occurs, as the feedstuff 
is returned in little balls from the rumen to the mouth to be remasticated by the cow and returned to 

—27— 



THE PROCESS OP DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION. 



third stomach, from which it passes rapidly into the fourth. Here the gastric juices get in their action, 
the albuminoids to peptones and breaking tip the globules of fat and oil and setting their 

From the stomach the food is passed into the small intestines, encountering here the action of 
the bile, which is secreted by the liver. The pancreatic juice also mixes with the food at this point, and 
the bile, containing a small amount of ferment, converts the starch into sugar. Its main function, how- 
ever, is to aid in the absorption of fat. In the small intestines a part of the fat contained in the food is 
broken up into glycerine and fatty acids; the latter unite with the bile and pancreatic juice, forming a sort 
soap, which aids in holding the remaining fat in a perfect emulsion. . The bile facilitates the passage of 
this emulsified fat through the membranes of the intestines, aiding materially in the assimilation. The 
bile also has a further function, inasmuch as it prevents the putrefaction and decomposition of the food 
in the intestinal canal. 

This is one of the digestive juices that is excreted at approximately the same 
• Pancreatic time as the bile, so that these fluids act together. It contains four ferments, 

[nice. one of which splits fats into glycerine and fatty acids, another converts st: 

into sugar, a third ctirdles milk, while the fourth changes protein compounds 
into soluble peptones. Unlike the gastric juice, the pancreatic juice acts upon protein as an alkaline 
solution. It is very essential to digestion, and is assisted material^ by the component parts of Davis. 
Stock Food, which stimulate its secretion. 

The processes of digestion are continued along the small intestines next. There are a number of 
varieties of digestive juices excreted by the small glands in the walls of the small intestines, which further 
the digCNtive processes that have been started heretofore. Davis Stock Food is valuable here in stim- 
ulating the various glands in the walls of the intestines and increasing their excretions. It also tones up 
the walls of the intestines, exciting the muscles to action, should they become dormant, thus keeping 
the food moving and preventing constipation. Davis Stock Food is also very valuable at this time as 
an intestinal antiseptic, and, while it may not have come in contact with all the feedstuffs in the stomach, 
here it is thoroughly distributed, and will destroy the various minute organisms which find their way 
into the small intestines. By the time the food is carried this far the greater percentage of it is in condition 
to be absorbed; for it must be understood that as yet the food to all intents and' purposes is outside the 
body. As yet the animal has derived no benefit from it. The entrance of food into the body is brought 
about by absorption in two different ways. The inner walls of the digestive tracts are everywhere lined 
h blood vessels, and everything that is soluble in water is gradually absorbed by these small vessels. 
The walls of the intestines are also lined with small projections, known as villi. The cells of these villi 
separate from the fluid contents of the intestines sugar, fat, peptones, salts and other materials and deliver 
them into the ducts of the lymphatic system, by which they are carried forward to the heart, to be mingled 
i the blood. The material drawn into the lymphatics by the villi is called chyle, and has a milky 
appearance, owing to the fat held in suspension. It is with this chyle and in this solution that 
Davis Stock Food is absorbed and held in suspension until delivered to the heart by the lymphatic vessels. 
If a horse is fed on hay exclusively, and we make an analysis of the chyle, we find that it contains approx- 
imately 1 per cent fat, while, if the horse is fed on oats heavily, we find that the chyle will analyze 3 per 
cent fat, which is in itself an excellent illustration of the food value of different articles. 

By the foregoing methods we find that the body is continually assimilating and taking up material 
to maintain existence. On the other hand, the body must also take care of the worn out and useless 
tissues, which is principally done by what is known as the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system 
removes the broken down tissues of the body, and the material thus drained is known as the lymph. It 
varies greatly in composition, in accordance with the state of activity of the organs contributing to it and 
the locality from which it is taken. It is estimated that for every 220 pounds body weight there are 
7j/2 pounds of lymph and 6 pounds of chyle formed daily The rest of the broken down and poisonous 
matter in'the system is carried through the veins by the blood, a part of it to be removed through the lungs 
in the form of poisonous Expired air contains 45 per cent less oxygen and about the same per- 

more of carbonic acid gas than the air inhaled. The lungs also throw off quite a little moisture, 
and it is estimated that an ordinary sized man will throw off 134 pounds of water each day through the 



THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION. 29 

lungs. All the blood of the body is filtered or purified by the kidneys. The skin also helps to throw off 
the impurities. For instance, the moisture given off by the sweat of a man is estimated at from 1 to. 2 
pounds daily, although it may be increased to 5 pounds. Carbonic acid gas and traces of ammonia are 
also thrown off by the skin. 

The one fact about all feedstuffs that interests the stockman most is the per- 
Digestibility Of centage of digestibility, for this is the only part of the feed that has any value 
Feedstuffs. to him. In milk, for instance, we have a food that is practically all digestible, 

and most of the nutriments contained therein yield to the digestive juices, if 
they are working properly. It is, however, a fact to be regretted that the digestion of our domestic 
animals of today is inadequate to cope with the various conditions by which they are surrounded, and 
exhaustive experiments have demonstrated beyond the possibility of a doubt that the percentage of 
indigestion among domesticated animals is very large. With one animal it is because of lack of proper 
mastication ; in another an insufficient secretion of saliva ; while in another it may be owing to an insuffi- 
cient secretion of the gastric juice or lack of muscular activity in the walls of the stomach. Still another 
cause of the trouble is inactivity of the liver or ineffective glands in the walls of the intestines. A large 
majority are troubled with inadequate muscular activity in the walls of the small intestines, causing what 
is known technically as the arrest of peristalsis. (By the peristaltic action, from which the word per- 
istalsis is derived, is meant the involuntary motion of the intestines tending to move the food backward 
continuously.) Thus it can readily be seen that, such action absent, constipation will be the result. 

No matter from which one of the foregoing causes or from how many of them the animal suffers, 
Davis Stock Food is prepared to cope with any and all of them. It stimulates the salivary glands, 
and increases the secretions of the stomach. It also has a tonic effect upon the walls of the stomach, 
increasing the secretions of the various digestive juices and inciting the muscles to greater action. The 
liver is acted upon and kept in a healthy condition, so that the flow of the bile can go on uninterruptedly 
when it is wanted. The walls of the intestines, together with the thousands of small glands, are 
stimulated, and it tones up the muscles, bringing them into action, thus insuring healthy activity of 
the intestinal muscles and preventing constipation. 

Charcoal, one of the ingredients of Davis Stock Food, absorbs all foul gases, and keeps the 
alimentary tract pure and sweet. Santonica is what is known technically as anthelmintic, which 
means to expel worms, and guards against the development of worms in the alimentary canal. The 
sulphur, iron, nux vomica, sodium chloride and gentian are absorbed by the small capillaries and the 
villi, the salt being taken directly into the blood, while the gentian, iron, sulphur and nux vomica are 
absorbed by the villi and carried through with the chyle. They enter the blood thus, reaching all the 
glands and stimulating them, at the same time purifying the blood by contact. They are thrown off by 
the kidneys, skin and lungs. 

The best results are obtained from feeding when the rations contain a sufficient 

Feeding. supply of protein, in correct proportion with the hydrates, or what is known as 

a balanced ration ; that is, an ideal proportion for correct feeding should be 

one part of protein to approximately seven and one-half parts of carbohydrates. There are cases, 

however, where a narrower ration is advisable, but it is seldom that a ration of less than from one to five 

will be found profitable. 

Experiments by Voif and Weiske have shown that a moderate addition of salt to the feed mate- 
rially increases the activity of the secretions of the body juices and their circulation, thereby increasing 
the protein consumption in the body. Salt has a stimulating influence on the body of the animal and 
assists in facilitating the passage of albumen from the digestive canal into the blood. The feeding 
of salt is therefore especially valuable with horses, young animals and milch cows, when fed to. their 
full capacity. 

Salt has another action, however, inasmuch as it increases the amount of urine passed off. If, 
after supplying salt in an excessive amount, the animal is prevented from drinking water, the water will 
be drawn from the tissues of the body and the live weight of the animal will shrink very rapidly. It is 
therefore important that the animal should have just the proper amount of salt in its ration, and it will 
be found that in a great majority of cases the proportion contained in Davis Stock Food will be the 



30 THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION. 



correct one. Various authorities and exhaustive experiments have determined the eorrect amount of 
salt eaeh 1,000 pounds of live weight of the animal should have dtiring twenty-four hours, and it is on this 
basis that Davis Stock Food is prepared. There are, of course, exceptional cases, but they are so 
few as to be scarcely worth mentioning. 

The formation of fat and its storage in the body will take place whenever the supply of it in the 
feed exceeds the immediate demand of the system. It can therefore readily be seen that you cannot 
expect animals to gam weight until they have had sufficient feed to supply the body with a maintenance 
ration, and, after the body has taken its full quota, the surplus is then stored; thus we get our increase 
in the weight of live stock. All feeders know how hard it is to force a bunch of stock on full feed, and the 
herdsman who can turn this trick, without throwing the animals off their feed, is to be envied and con- 
gratulated by his fellows. We can honestly recommend Davis Stock Food in just such cases as this. 
The digestive organs and the entire system are not overworked in an attempt to digest an abnormal 
amount of nutrients, but Davis Stock Food, exercising its several functions, tones up and increases the 
capacity of the glands, increases the assimilative powers 15 to 20 per cent, thus enabling the feeder to 
feed under high pressure and turn his stock off in twenty to sixty days less time — a point well worthy 
of consideration, and one which needs no argument on our part. 

As far back as 1884, Sanborn, of the Missouri Agricultural College, in Bulletin No. 10, gave his find- 
ings on the influence of feeds on pigs. He observed that pigs fed on middlings had a much larger amount 
of lean and a correspondingly less amount of fat than pigs fed on corn meal. He says: "Experience con- 
vinces me that the exclusive use of corn meal for a feeding ration is detrimental to a vigorous and healthy 
muscular development, producing a pig easily subject to disease, distasteful to consumers, and more 
costly than is necessary." A ration rich in protein will produce much heavier gains than one poorer 
in that constituent. Animals fed on protein rich rations carry a much greater amount of blood than 
those fed on corn. Their livers are heavier and more developed, while, as a general thing, the kidneys 
are likewise heavier. All of which will teach the farmer the value of the protein rich ration, and not 
only the value of feeding it, but the importance of seeing that it is properly digested after it is fed. 

In young animals, especially pigs, it is very desirable to feed hardwood ashes and bone meal, 
which materially assist in the building up of bone. Especially is this true where corn is the excessive 
diet, at which time there is a marked tendency toward lack of development in the bony structure. 
Exhaustive and numerous experiments that have been conducted during the past ten years have proved 
beyond any question that the ration rich in protein is more conducive to rapid growth and fine general 
appearance for the animal when young than rations rich in carbohydrates and poor in protein. 



^ae^ 



AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS. 

It is a peculiar fact that, of all American feedstuff s available to the stockman 
Corn. and farmer, corn seems to be a favorite among domestic animals. No farmer 

who has stood in a feed lot and watched his stock at feeding time can have 
failed to realize the extraordinary relish with which they eat corn. It may be possible to explain this, 
in part at least, by the large amount of oil it contains and also by the physical construction- of it, which, 
upon mastication, breaks up into small, hard, nutty particles, making it much more palatable than 
other grains, which, upon crushing, mingle with saliva and become a sticky dough. 

There are" a great many varieties of corn, some flourishing in one climate and some in another, • 
and there seems to be a popular fallacy that yellow corn is more nutritious than white; while at times 
you will find the reverse view taken. Exhaustive chemical analyses of both kinds can find no reason 
for either assumption. 

One of the chief characteristics of corn as a feedstuff is the extreme richness in starchy matter 
or carbohydrates and a comparatively smaller percentage of protein and ash, as compared with various 
other grains. Therefore, for fattening processes, there is no grain that can in any way equal corn, 
if it is fattening alone we look for. But, lacking as it is in protein and ash, the stockman can readily 
see that it is ill suited for the production of bone and muscle in young and growing animals. 

The cob of the corn consists largely of crude fiber, and therefore has a very low feeding value; 
its chief value, when ground together with the corn, making corn and cob meal, being that it supplies 
a certain amount of roughness or volume and has proved more digestible as a whole than the pure corn 
meal, which is in itself very concentrated. 

While, corn is the main standby in a great many of our states, yet its full merits still remain 
unappreciated by farmers at large. Enterprising seed houses will advertise in glowing terms the 
phenomenal merits of a new, heretofore unknown»plant or grain. They will tell you that it will grow 
50 tons to the acre, will reach a height of from 5 to 8 feet, and give the American farmer a hitherto 
unknown yield, but nothing has ever been developed by them anywhere near equaling corn. For example, 
suppose you were tq read an advertisement expounding the merits of a forage plant with some high 
sounding name, in which the advertiser would tell you that it would grow to a height of 7 to 15 feet in 
four or five months, that it would produce, under favorable circumstances, 7,000 pounds of grain or 20 
tons of green forage to the acre; you would certainly agree with him that it was a phenomenal plant 
and something that you most assuredly could use; more than that, you would probably buy it; still, 
the foregoing description would fit corn very nicely. There is no plant or grain which can be raised that 
will give the same amount of green forage per acre that corn will. But different methods, different soil, 
and even different seed are necessary if a farmer is to raise corn for ensilage fodder or grain. Extensive 
experiments have been conducted by the various experiment stations throughout the country in order 
to ascertain the best grade of corn for the several localities and the best methods of planting it. We 
present below a table of results, obtained by planting various ^distances apart, of experiments conducted 
bv Hunt and Morrow, and set forth in Bulletin No. 13: 



Results of Planting Corn Kernels Various Distances Apart in Rows. 

Illinois Station. 



Average of Three Years' Trials. 



Thickness of Planting 


Yield, per Acre 


Digestible Substance per Acre 


Distance Between Kernels 
in Row 


Kernels, 
per Acre 


Good Ears, 
Bushels 


Poor Ears, 
Bushels 


Stover, 
Pounds 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Total, 
Pounds 


3 inches., . .• 

6 inches 


47,520 
23,760 
15,840 
11,880 
9,504 
5,940 


13 
37 
55 
73 
63 
49 


46 
39 
22 
16 
11 
6 


3,968 
3,058 
2,562 
2,480 
2,398 
2,066 


2,250 
2,922 
2,977 
3,113 
2,782 
2,141 


6,218 
5,980 
5,539 
5,593 
5,180 
4,207 


9 inches 


12 inches 


15 inches 


24 inches ' 





-31- 






AM KR1CAN FEEDSTUFFS. 



You will observe that where the corn was planted but 3 inches apart and 47,000 kernels to the 
there were but 13 bushels of sound ears and 46 bushels of poor ears or nubbins per acre, 
while the largest yield of good ear corn came from planting 12 inches apart, 11,000 grains to the acre, 
which gives us 73 bushels of good corn and 16 bushels of nubbins to the acre. Morrow holds that 10,000 
stocks of good corn per acre, secured by planting about 12,000 kernels, will give the best returns in grain 
for Illinois farmers. 

Armsby, of the Pennsylvania Station, studying the returns of corn crops at four stations, reports 
the following yields of ears and stover: 

Siat ion Ears Stover 

New Jersey (Dent) 4,774 lbs. 4,041 lbs. 

Connecticut (Flint) 4,216 lbs. 4,630 lbs. 

Wisconsin (Dent) ". 4,941 lbs. 4,490 lbs. 

Pennsylvania (Dent) 3,727 lbs. 2,460 lbs. 

Average 4,415 lbs. 3,838 lbs. 

We learn from the above that somewhat more than one-half the total weight of the corn crop 
grown for grain is found in the ears. 

Concerning the nutrients in corn, Armsby gives the following: 

Digestible Nutrients in One Acre of Corn and Stover. Average of Crops at Four Stations. 

Ears, Stover, Total Crop, 

Digestible Nutrients Pounds Pounds Pounds 

Protein .244 ' 83 327 

Carbohydrates 2,301 1,473 3,774 

Ether Extract 125 22 147 

Total 2,670 1,578 4,248 

Per cent .. . . . 63 37 100 

We learn that 37 per cent of the total digestible nutrients in a crop of corn grown for the grain 
is in the stover and 63 per cent in the ears. 

Wheat during the past few years, owing to an enormous production and con- 
Wheat, sequent lower prices for this grain, has come into quite .general use. Inas- 
much, however, as the cost of production is much higher than that of corn it 
is doubtful whether or not it will ever come into universal and constant use. Wheat carries a higher 
percentage of starch, less ether extract and more protein, stamping it as a more nearly balanced ration 
than corn, and one which meets the requirements of young and growing animals much better. It is a 
very satisfactory feed for all kinds of farm stoek if used intelligently, and can ofttimes be economically 
added to other grains. It is also good practice occasionally to give fattening stock a change from 
corn to wheat, so as to give variety and keep the appetite on edge. 

The feeding of wheat to both hogs and cattle, as a fattening feed, produces a meat in which there 
is a marked difference from that of corn fed — it producing meat of a brighter red in cattle and, if any- 
thing, more solid on pork, which is, perhaps, a little finer, and has a decidedly pleasant flavor. 

At times, when wheat is bringing comparatively low prices, the farmer should never attempt to 
market anything but his number one — the lower grades can be fed to his stock to much better advantage 
and will bring him greater returns. 

Red Dog, or what is known as low grade flour, contains most of the germs of 

By Products the wheat grain, being very rich in fat and protein, giving it a high feeding 

of Wheat. value, especially for young pigs, horses on hard work, and milch cows. It will 

pay the farmer to watch the market for this article which he can often get for 

as low as $20.00 a ton, and which will prove a profitable and economical feed at this price. 

The terms middlings and shorts are somewhat synonymous, and the same will be furnished by 
a great many feeders if either one is asked for. 

In these days of up to date milling methods shorts are very often but a ground over bran, with 
little or no flour in it, and therefore of comparatively small value as a feed. Middlings, in the true sense of 



AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS. 33 



the term, contain quite a little of the wheat berry, and are especially valuable for feeding pigs and horses; 
in either case, however, they should be mixed with some other feed to obtain the best results. Skim 
milk and middlings, together with Davis Stock Food, make almost an ideal feed for producing bone and 
rapid growth in young pigs. Davis Stock Food assists materially in the digestion and assimilation. 

Bran is the husk of the wheat berry, as it were. The flakes carry with them a 
Bran. part of the outer layer of the wheat grain, which is very rich in protein, and 

in addition carries some starch. Bran has become a comparatively common feed 
in well managed stables, and is a most excellent feed for use in the form of a mash two or three times 
a week, as it is laxative in its effect and very beneficial, owing to its bulk and the amount of crude fiber 
it contains. It is, however, rather hard to digest, and all mashes made from it should have 1 table- 
spoonful of Davis Stock Food mixed with it to assist in the digestion, especially if it is fed to horses on 
hard work. B.ran is also very valuable, when mixed with corn meal, for steers, it serving to supply bulk 
and protein to the feed. Perhaps, however, the one place where bran is a feed par excellence is for the 
dairy cow, supplying not only bulk, but protein and ash, two ingredients which are highly important in 
the production -of milk. Bran should not be fed to young pigs, as it is too coarse and contains too much 
crude fiber for the digestive apparatus. 

Rye is used quite extensively in some of the foreign countries as a feed for work- 
Rye, ing horses, it being added to other grains. It has been claimed, however, 

by dairymen, that the feeding of rye to cows imparts an objectionable flavor 
to butter, sometimes making it bitter. As a feed for young pigs, when mixed with other grains, it 
has proved very beneficial, and the quality of pork produced by it, when used in small quantities 
with other grains, is very satisfactory. 

At first glance it would be difficult to understand how American stockmen could 

OatS. get along without oats, especially the horseman. As a crop it ranks third in 

importance among the cereals of the United States. It is a crop that is always 

■ fairly sure, and that gives the farmer adequate returns for the labor and time necessary in its production. 

Properly ground, it is a feed par excellence for young pigs, owing to the high percentage of protein 

it contains. 

Practically all stockmen are familiar with the fact that new oats are unfit for 
New OatS feeding purposes, especially for. horses, they loosening the bowels, often causing 

as a Feed. profuse diarrhea and a very soft, flabby muscle. In general terms, their use 

puts the animal out of condition. It is therefore important that oats be allowed 
to ripen in the bin, as it we're, before they are used as a feed to any extent. 

There is something about oats that will give mettle and life to the horse eating 

Mature OatS. it that no other grain imparts. And as far back as 1845 analyses by Norton 

proved it to contain a stimulating principle, it being estimated that 2^ pounds 

of oats contain sufficient of this stimulant to exert an influence on a horse for an hour. It is claimed, 

however, that grinding and crushing oats destroys or weakens this principle. It is therefore not 

advisable to grind them for horses. 

Grotmd oats, however, are a very satisfactory feed for dairy cattle, and with the hulls removed 
there is nothing better for pigs. 

While barley is one of the standard crops of the United States, its use as a feed 
Barley. is still more or less limited, and in some parts of the country there is quite a 

little prejudice against its use, some even going so far as to assert that it is detri- 
mental as a feed. This is without foundation, however, for through numerous feeding trials with pigs 
it has been proved that hulless barley gives better returns than corn. Some authorities regard barley 
next to oats as a feed for horses. 

in Europe it is a very common feed for dairy cows. It is there sown with oats, and the crop har- 
vested and ground previous to feeding. It is regarded as one of the best feeds available. 

SJg-. 3. 






34 AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS. 



Barley is also very beneficial in its influence on the quality of both milk and butter. For the 
production of pork there is nothing better, as it produces a flesh of very fine quality, hard and with an 
excellent flavor. 

The chief use of barley in this country is by the breweries. From them we get a large amount of 
by products, all of which are valuable feeds. In its manufacture of beer the brewery extracts from the 
grains all the soluble sugar and dextrine. The result is a liquor known as wort, which, upon fermen- 
tation and further treatments, constitutes beer. It will be seen from this that the brewery does not 
caije for grains high in protein, the reverse, in fact, being the ^ase. Therefore the barley for the brewery 
is not the best for the feeder, and vice versa. 

Malt from the breweries is undoubtedly a good feed for stock, although we do 

By Products not advise feeding it by itself, it being much better to use it in a mixture with 

as Feeds. other grains. Wet brewery grains can only be fed in the vicinity of the brewery, 

owing to the vast amount of water they contain. These by products have led to 

the practice of feeding dairy cows, for the production of milk, in the vicinity of breweries in the city. 

Owing to the nature of the feed it has often resulted in producing very unsanitary, in some cases even 

filthy, surroundings which should not be tolerated in the production of milk for human use. We do not 

wish you to infer from this that there is anything poisonous or deleterious in wet brewery grains, or that 

they produce any inferior quality of milk, when supplied in medium quantities, while fresh, and fed in 

water tight boxes, which are kept clean. Used in this way there is nothing better for dairy cows, 

provided an adequate supply of nutritious hay and roughage is supplied with it. 

Much better than the wet grains, however, are the dried brewery grains, which are procured by 
thoroughly drying all the wet grain, this giving us a concentrated feedstuff, very rich in protein and 
ether extract. 

Another by product of the brewery is malt sprouts, which carry a very large amount of digestible 
protein, sometimes as high as 18 to 19 per cent, thus making an excellent feed where cattle or stock can 
be induced to eat it. ' They should be thoroughly soaked in water for several hours before feeding, as they 
will absorb an immense amount of it. Two to 4 pounds of sprouts can be fed to dairy cows with advantage, 
once they become accustomed to it. 

Buckwheat is seldom used as a feed for live stock, but there are districts where 
Buckwheat. large quantities of by products from the whole grain can be obtained, and, to 

stockmen understanding their use, they can be utilized with fairly good results. 
We wish to call stockmen's attention, however, to the hull, which is sometimes offered for sale, and which 
is practically useless, owing to the large amount of crude fiber it contains. The middlings, on the 
other hand, are a most excellent feed, and have a reputation for producing milk in large quantities. 
They should, however, only be used in connection with other feeds, and not fed by themselves. 

Sorghum, in this country, is used both as a human and animal food. (Kaffir 
Sorghum. corn and millets are classed with sorghum.) The yields of Kaffir corn and millets 

are very satisfactory. Kaffir corn is raised, especially in Kansas, in great 
quantities for the seed, and there are cases where it has run one hundred bushels to the acre, fifty, how- 
ever, being a fair average. Enthusiasts who have fed it claim that it is fully equal to Indian corn, pos- 
sibly ranking a little lower than barley in feed value. We will refer the reader to the tables in another 
part of this book for comparative analyses and nutritive value of this crop. 

The chief oil bearing seeds under cultivation in the United States are cotton 

Oil Cake and and flax. In experiments carried on by the Iowa Experiment Station ground 

Oil Meal. flaxseed, fed with skimmed milk, gave excellent results. As a rule, however, 

neither flaxseed nor cotton seed should be fed excessively, a small quantity of 

them being mixed with other grains, if they are to be vised at all. The chief by products that the American 

feeder is interested in are oil cake and oil meal. These are by products from the mills. The mills 

first take the crushed seed and heat it. It is then placed between cloths, one on the top of another, and 

subjected to hydraulic pressure to extract the oil. The residue, after the pressure, appears in hard slabs. 

These slabs constitute the oil cake of commerce, and are used as feed. They are, in this country, usually 



AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS. 35 



ground up at the mills, and the farmer buys it either-this way, already ground, or in cake secured by the 
above process, which is known as the old process. It is, as a whole, better for feeding than the new 
process cake, which is made as follows: 

In the new process the seed is crushed and heated as in the old, but it is then placed in a large 
""yiinder and naphtha is poured over it, which slowly filters through and extracts the oil. Steam is then 
let into the cylinder, and all the naphtha which had not been drawn off heretofore is gradually driven 
out. This is done so effectually that no odor of naphtha remains. Next the meal is transferred to driers 
and is thoroughly dried, thus becoming the oil meal of commerce. This meal is less digesrtible than the 
old process product, although it contains a higher percentage of protein, and, in spite of the fact that 
some authorities claim that it is equal in feeding value to the old process, use does not bear out this 
contention. 

The following is a simple method of ascertaining whether oil meal is extracted by the new or old 
process : First pulverize a small quantity of the meal and put a level tablespoonful into a tumbler. Add 
ten tablespoonfuls of boiling hot water, stir thoroughly and leave to settle. If the meal was made by the 
new process it will settle in the course of an hour and leave about half the water clear at the top. If the 
old process was resorted to the mass will remain jelly like. 

There is no more valuable addition to American feedstuffs than oil cake. Its 
Value as a Feed, general effect is to place the animal in excellent condition, making the skin soft 

and pliable and giving a sleek coat. It should not, however, be fed to horses 
in any great quantity, as it is a fattening feed rather than a flesh hardener. It is for fattening steers 
and sheep that oil meal shows at its best, and two or three pounds can be given to steers (and larger amounts 
if the price will allow it) with very beneficial results. We cannot, however, too strongly recommend that 
the American stockman buy the oil cake in the nut form, especially for cattle, as it is more palatable and 
gives better results than when fed in the form of meal. 

In the South cotton seed is a common feed for steers and dairy cows, a large 
Cotton Seed. percentage of it being used without treating of any kind. Roasting or boiling, 
however, makes it more palatable, less laxative, and productive of a more rapid 
gain than the raw seed, although it makes a trifle more expensive feed. Cotton seed meal is a by product 
of the mills. The kernels are crushed and heated, going through a process somewhat like flaxseed. Up 
to the present time cotton seed meal has proved a very good ration for draft horses, and further experi- 
ments with it will still closer determine its worth. 

In the South a great many steers are fattened almost exclusively on cotton seed hulls and cotton 
seed meal, the feeder starting with a ration of 3 or 4 pounds per head, gradually increasing this amount 
to as high as 10 pounds per head, including all the hulls the animal will eat. Various experiments with 
dairy cattle have demonstrated that cotton seed meal, fed in connection with corn or other grain, will 
materially increase the production Of milk and butter. Six pounds of cotton seed meal per head can 
safely be fed in addition to other grains, although, as an average, we recommend four to five. Such a 
method of feeding has- often increased the yield of milk 15 to 25 per cent. The only effect it seems to 
have upon butter is that it hardens it and at the same time gives it a tallowy consistency. 

Regarding the use of cotton seed meal for calves and pigs, it cannot, at the present writing, be 
recommended under any circumstances. In Bulletin No. 109, of the North Carolina Experiment Station, 
statistics regarding the feeding of two calves from one to six ounces of cotton seed reportr their death after 
one month's feeding. In Bulletin No. 21, issued by the Texas Experiment Station, Curtis sets forth the 
results of another experiment made by him. To make the comparison fair and equal, he took two lots 
of pigs, feeding one of them on corn and the other on cotton seed and cotton seed meal. The pigs fed on 
corn made excellent gains, with no deaths in the lot, thus demonstrating without a doubt that normal 
conditions were present. On the other hand, the pigs fed on cotton seed and cotton seed meal- 
sickened and died, all within eight weeks after the feeding began. Eighty-six per cent of the pigs 
receiving pure cotton seed meal died ; 75 per cent of the pigs receiving roasted cotton seed died ; and more 
than 25 per cent of the lot receiving boiled cotton seed died. The pigs that lived through the above 
trial for a month or more were permanently stunted in their growth. The first appearance of sickness 



36 AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS. 



occurred in from six to eight weeks after cotton seed meal was added to the ration. It was initiated by 
dullness of the animal, a loss of appetite and tendency to lie apart, quick breathing in all the fatal cases, 
and when the animal became exhausted it would drop suddenly, showing more or less evidence of acute 
internal pain. Upon the occurrence of death, a quantity of bloody foam was expelled from the mouth 
and nostrils. 

All efforts to determine just what in cotton seed meal is the cause of this deadly effect upon the 
animals in question have so far proved futile; some, however, ascribing it to the lint of the seed, others 
to the leathery seed pulp, stating that it causes injury to the sensitive linings of the digestive tract, 
while still others maintain that there is a deathly poisonous principle in the seed itself, as in the case of 
the castor oil bean. 



Uses of Cotton 
Seed and Cot- 
ton Seed Meal. 



Taken as a whole, therefore, cotton seed meal, when used properly and in the 
proper proportions, is a very satisfactory supplementary feed for all kinds of 
live stock, except swine and calves. Wet or moldy seed, however, should never 
be fed. 



Extensive use of the pea in stock feeding among the ■ Canadians has gradually 
Field Pea. taught the American farmer its merits. In many parts of the United States, 

more especially along the northern boundaries of the corn belt, extensive 
crops of this feed are grown. The field pea is extremely rich in protein, and is especially valuable in 
the feeding of pork, although too concentrated to be fed alone. It should always be fed with a mixture 
of other grains. 

The cow pea also is quite in favor as a feed among foreigners, especially in the 
Cow Pea. southern countries, because it there grows rapidly and yields an enormous for- 

age crop. It is rather difficult, especially in the northern climates, to ripen 
the pea before frost sets in, and for this reason it is used largely as a forage crop. In the South, however, 
where it can be ripened and thrashed, the seed is most valuable. Like the field pea, it produces very 
satisfactory pork, and is especially valuable for bacon feeding. 

This is a native of Japan, is very rich in protein, and ranks with cotton seed meal, 
Soja Bean. its results in the production of butter and milk being even greater. It will 

prove a comparatively expensive feed, however, if the grain alone is allowed to 
ripen and is used, for the yield per acre is comparatively small. It has proved very satisfactory as 
a forage crop. 



TRUE AND COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDSTUFFS. 

The price that must be paid on the open market for various feedstuffs does not represent their 
actual value as a food, by any means. Neither does the number of pounds that it is possible to get out 
of an acre of ground represent the feeding value of the crop. It is to these particular points that we 
especially would like to call stockmen's and farmers' attention. 

If, for instance, a bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds, this does not indicate that there is 60 pounds 
of feeding value therein, by any means. By referring to our tables, published on another page, and 
in which we give the average composition of American feedstuffs, it will be noted that, taking an aver- 
age of 310 analyses of wheat, 10. 5 per cent of wheat is water, 1 . 8 per cent ash, 11.9 per cent protein. 
1.8 per cent crude fiber, 71 . 9 per cent carbohydrates, and 2. 1 per cent ether extract or pure fat. 

By referring to table No. 2, we find that from average experiments in the digestibility of wheat, 
62 per cent of the total amount of dry matter was digestible; 77 per cent of the protein was digestible; 
27 per cent of the crude fiber digestible; 65 per cent of the carbohydrates digestible; and 64 per cent 






TRUE AND COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDSTUFFS. 37 

of the ether extract digestible. Our analyses showed 11.9 per cent protein, with 77 per cent cf this 
digestible (but you must understand that this is only under the most favorable conditions). We find 
that we have had 9. 1 parts of protein in wheat available. We find 1.8 parts of crude fiber, but find 
that only 27 per cent of this is digestible. Therefore only 0.4 of one part of crude fiber is available. 
We find 71.9 parts carbohydrates, of which but 65 per cent is digestible. Therefore, but 46.7 of the 
carbohydrates are available. We find 2. 1 parts pure fat or ether extract, of which but 64 per cent is 
digestible, this leaving us but 1.3 available. In other words this will, under the most favorable 
circumstances, leave us 573^ per cent of our wheat available for use by the animal, and in a bushel ©f 
wheat, instead of having 60 pounds of feed, we have in reality but 34}^ pounds of actual feed ; and, 
with wheat worth 60 cents a bushel, our feed costs us 1.7 cents a pound, provided circumstances are 
favorable all around, which means that the system of your animal must be in perfect condition, that 
its bodily functions must work right, that the salivary glands must perform their functions satis- 
factorily, that the stomach must be doing its full share of duty, that the digestive juices are present 
in sufficient quantity, that the intestinal digestion is perfect, the capillaries, the villi and the 
lymphatic system all in perfect working order, absorbing and extracting all the nutrients. We will 
venture to say, without fear of contradiction of any kind, that there are comparatively few domestic 
animals, tinder ordinary conditions, that are able to extract as much as 34*^ pounds of actual 
nutriment from a bushel of wheat. As a matter of fact, actual feeding trials will demonstrate that less 
than 30 pounds of nutriments can be extracted and assimilated by the ordinary domestic animal. To 
be fair and safe in our figures, let us say 30 pounds. 

And this brings us to the mission of Davis Stock Food in a nutshell. On the foregoing pages 
we have told you why Davis Stock Food came into existence. We have made you familiar with the dif- 
ferent ingredients from which it is made. In another part of this book we quote extracts from the 
United States Dispensatory of the actions of each and every drug used; and we think you will agree 
with us beyond all question of a doubt that the drugs gathered together in Davis Stock Food, form, as a 
whole, an ideal combination for the proper and necessary assistance of all the digestive organs. Davis 
Stock Food, fed to the extent of 5 tablespoonfuls to 1 bushel of wheat, will, therefore, by actual 
demonstration, increase the digestive juices and digestive powers of the animal to such an extent that 
from 15 to 20 per cent more of the grain is drawn into solution and digested. In other words, with 
the addition of 5 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food the animal is enabled to assimilate 15 to 20 per 
cent more of its feed ; thus, instead of its obtaining 30 pounds of actual nutriment from the grain, 6 
pounds more, or 36 pounds, of actual nutriment is obtained and assimilated. Thus 5 tablespoonfuls 
of Davis Stock Food is equal to 6 pounds of wheat worth 60 cents a bushel, or 1 cent a pound. Five 
tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food cost you 2 cents and have saved you 6 cents, leaving you an actual 
profit of 4 cents; or, to carry the same illustration still further, 1 pound of Davis Stock Food costs 12 
cents and will save 36 pounds of wheat, the latter worth 36 cents. At this rate, 20 cents worth of Davis 
Stock Food will save you 1 bushel of wheat — actually save it, too — for if you increase the digestibility 
of your animals it can readily be seen that you can feed that much less wheat and obtain the same 
results. You are therefore for all practical purposes buying wheat at 20 cents a bushel — certainly a 
good proposition and one on which we think you will agree with us. In the foregoing we have 
simply used wheat as an example, but the same is true of all other grains, and 'further on, when 
we attempt to give you actual maintenance rations, we will try to demonstrate what' is saved in each 
and every grain that the stockman uses. We will show you what your ration will <;ost, at approxi- 
mately market price, at the present time, and what you will save on a whole ration. We are now only 
talking of the actual money saved in the feed by the judicious use of Davis Stock Food. 

We have thus far left out of the reckoning the direct, individual benefit derived by your animal, 
and, consequently, by yourself, which is, perhaps, of greater importance than the actual saving in feed. 
It will be impossible to correctly form an estimate of the actual benefit derived from a health standpoint, 
but we think you will agree with us that it is no small item. Another thing that we will attempt to make 
clear to the feeder is the most profitable combination of grains for him to use for various purposes, whether 
he be located -north, south, east or west. In order to intelligently bring this matter to the feeder's 
attention, it will be necessary for him, however, to refer to the tables of analyses and familiarize himself 



TRUE AND COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDSTUFFS. 



mon • with the actual digestive values of the various Eeedstuffs. This may prove a little trouble-,, 

some at lirst. but he will find himself amply repaid. He will learn what percentage of waste the different 
grains have and how the coarse feeds differ from the actual grains themselves. It will teach him that, if. 
he is feeding for the production of pork, certain grains that at fust sight apparently are higher in price \ 
than others are cheaper in the long run. He will also learn that some feeds are better adapted, or, in other 
words, can be more easily digested, by certain animals tlr.n others, although they may be of practically 
the same composition. From other sources in this book he will learn that, if feeding for fat, he must 
obtain a gram or feed high in carbohydrates and ether extract, and he will learn fro 1 what source to 
obtain it. or what grains to feed in order to obtain the best and quickest results. If eding for bacon 
or fat pork, he will know what feed is richest in protein, and how to use it most successfully. It is, in 
short, along this line that the American farmer of today must travel in order to obtain the maximum 
value at the minimum price. All this is necessary on account of the unequal digestibility the differ- 
ent grains through analyses are shown to possess. He will notice at a glance, by referring to the tables, 
that, while from 84 to 88 per cent of the dry matter of the cereal grains, oats excepted, is dissolved by 
the digestive juices, the solubility of bran and oat feeds is on an average of only about 62 per cent, oats 
being nearly 20 per cent less digestible than corn, barley or rye. 

We are well aware that a great many farmers, unfortunately, boohoo the idea of going into mat- 
ters as here suggested by us, they stating that it is red tape and useless; that old Brindle is a better | 
■judge than they or we will ever be; that they will leave it to her to get what she can out of the grain; 
that it is too much trouble to figure out the protein contents and the digestibility of the various grains. 
As Jordon ably puts it: "Once in awhile someone talks thoughtlessly about leaving the, question of 
food valuation to the old cow. It is sometimes considered a telling argument against the chemist's , 
wisdom that he and the old cow do not agree. Certainly the cow knows better than the chemist i 
what she likes to eat, and it is of little use to offer her feed that she does not relish. Even the chemist 
knows that. If, however, a dozen commercial feedstuffs were brought together upon the barn floor, 
it would be much safer to trust an agricultural chemist, especially one experienced in stock feeding, 
to select the ration than any cow ever grown. The cow would probably get at the corn meal, and stay 
with it until well on the road to a fatal case of indigestion ; and her judgment is just about as good as that 
of a child with a highly cultivated sweet tooth." 

There are numerous points that the stockman must take into consideration when figuring out or 
combining the ration. One that may look to him practically correct will prove chemically wrong, while, 
on the other hand, the one which seemed chemically right, may prove practically wrong. The ration 
must be palatable and contain neither too much bulk nor too little. The texture must be considered, so 
that the feed may not be too coarse nor too fine. Palatability is highly important, for unless the animal 
enjoys its feed and is possessed of a desire to eat it, any skillful feeder knows that the ration will fail in 
bringing the desired results. He must consider, also, the use to which the animal is to be put, if he would 
feed correctly, and be careful that the ration is suited for each particular case. 




THE HORSE. 



The Mainte- 
nance Ration. 



By maintenance ration we mean the amount of nutritives or feed necessary 

<to maintain 1,000 pounds of live weight for twenty-four hours, this meaning that 

the horse is to get sufficient feed to supply the waste of the body, without taking 

into consideration any gain in weight. On the other hand, the amount fed must 

be sufficient to provide against loss in weight. 

It can easily be seen that the maintenance ration for a horse will vary greatly under different 
conditions. There is but one exception to the above statement, and that is in the case of growing animals 
or foals. Here it is necessary to supply the animal with sufficient feed, not" only to maintain the body 
as it is, but to supply them with the necessities conducive to growth. Horses at rest will not require 
the same amount of feed "as a horse under heavy work, etc. 

All of the foregoing conditions we will 
attempt to meet and explain in the following pages. 
As the result of numerous experiments and 
investigations, both in this country and Europe, 
it has been determined beyond the shadow of a 
doubt that the average horse, doing average work, 
i will require approximately 7 pounds of nutrients 
for each 1,000 pounds live weight, per day. This 
means that the.horse must receive sufficient feed to 
obtain that amount of digestible nutrients and that 
it must be in such condition that the digestive 
organs can take care of it. It is, indeed, most 
important of all that the digestive organs are in 
condition to extract it, for it can be readily seen that 
if the various glands and digestive apparatus are 
not equal to their task the horse will grow poor 
instead of maintaining his weight. For this reason, 
in all rations, and in all figures that'we quote regard- 
ing rations, it is understood, whether specifically 
mentioned or not, that Davis Stock Food is to be fed in connection with the ration. If it is not, we 
strongly advise increasing the amount of feed at least 20 per cent, in order to allow for the waste in 
digestion. Following, we give a few rations, each of them figuring for a 1,000-pound horse. If your 
horse weighs 1,500 pounds, increase them by one-half. 

Ration No. I. For instance: No. 1 calls for 10 pounds of timothy hay, 5 pounds of good, No. 1 
oats and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. This for a 1,000-pound horse. If your horse weighs 
1,500 pounds, it will be 15 pounds timothy hay, IY2 pounds of oats and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock 
Food. This will maintain your horse for twenty-four hours. If figuring timothy hay at the rate of $10.00 
a ton, your hay will cost you 1Yi cents, your oats, counted at 32 cents a bushel, will cost you 7}4 cents, 
and your Davis Stock Food will cost you 1 1-5 cents, making the entire maintenance ration for your horse 
cost 16 1-5 cents per day. Without Davis Stock Food, it will be necessary for you to feed 18 pounds 
of timothy hay, worth 9 cents, 9 pounds of oats, worth 9 cents, the total figuring up at 18 cents a day, as 
against 16 cents if Davis Stock Food is used. This is but a fair general estimate, and illustrates 
our method of figuring. The rest of the rations can be computed on the same basis, as follows: 

Ration No. 2. Ten and one-half pounds of timothy hay, 43^ pounds of cracked corn and 3 
tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 

—39— 




Per cher on Stallion, 
THOR. 



40 



THE HORSE. 



Ration No. 3. 

Dav S k Food. 
Ration No. 4. 



Eleven pounds of mixed hay, 5 pdunds of bran and :\ tablespoonfuls of 




rots, 



r ots. 



A Pair of Missouri Mules that are Hard 

to Beat. Owned by 

B. K. MIDDLET0N, Mexico, Mo. 



Eleven pounds o( mixed hay, 4 pounds of oats, or 3 pounds of cracked corn 
and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 

Ration No. 5. Nine pounds of timothy hay, 3 pounds of 
corn, 9 pounds of carrots and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock 
Food. 

Ration No. 6. Nine pounds of mixed hay, 9 pounds of car- 

3 pounds of oats and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 
Ration No. 7. Ten pounds of mixed hay, 8 pounds of car- 

4 pounds of bran and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 
The above are a few simple illustrations, which the stockman 

may use, always remembering that he must add one-tenth to the 
ration for each 100 pounds that his horse weighs over 1,000 pounds 
(with the exception of Davis Stock Food, which is the same in all 
the rations). 

A horse under heavy work in the cities will require a some- 
what heavier ration than these given. For a 1,500-pound horse, on 
heavy work, we would, for instance, recommend the following: 

Fifteen pounds of timothy hay, 20 pounds of oats and 4 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 
Without Davis Stock Food, give the horse 20 pounds of hay and 28 pounds of oats. 

A horse on the above ration should consume not less than 8 gallons of water a day, which he will 
drink readily if Davis Stock Food is ied. 

There are, of course, numerous other grains, besides oats, which a horse will eat readily, but we 
do not recommend them, especially for a horse on heavy work, except, perhaps, in the winter time, 
when one feed of corn daily will prove very beneficial, inasmuch as corn has a high value on account of 
the heating properties it imparts. It is also desir- 
able, if possible, to at least twice a week give the 
horse a good warm mash, with 2 tablespoonfuls of 
Dayis Stock Food added. This will serve to vary 
the diet and keep the bowels in good condition. 
Dusty hay should be avoided under all conditions, 
and if nothing but dusty hay is available it should 
be thoroughly sprinkled before placed in the manger. 

It is never advisable to feed a horse whole 
wheat alone, but where other grains are not avail- 
able it can be used if it is cracked up, not grinding 
it, and then it should be used in connection with 
other feeds. Cracked rye, a pound or so added to 
the ration, can also be used advantageously, but, 
under no circumstances, should rye be fed alone. 

Corn, next to oats, is undoubtedly the most 
common grain used for the feeding of horses in the 
United States, and it always will be extensively 
used, especially in the corn belts. When feeding 
this at all, it should be fed on the cob, if possible. 
Corn meal is too concentrated, and the horse not 
only bolts it, but it will lay in the stomach in a sod- 
den mass, thus preventing the digestive juices from 
working on it properly. 

Numerous experiments the world over, made by companies owning large numbers of horses, and 
who were, therefore, vitally interested in the feeding question, have demonstrated that corn is not an 




ORTLEY ROSE, No. 170S. 
B. R. Middle ton up. Owned by 
B. R. MIDDLETON. 
Mexico, Mo. 



THE HORSE. 



41 




High School Saddler, 

GX.OE LIGHT. 

Owned toy 

B. E. MIDDLETON, 

Mexico, Mo. 



ideal feed for horses by any means, especially not for work horses. We will grant that nothing will 
fatten as quickly as corn, but a horse cannot be prepared for the market on corn alone, as it produces 

loose, flabby flesh. The horse lacks the life and ginger imparted by oats, which 
is so much desired by horse owners. The Paris Omnibus Company, who own 
and use close to 12,000 head of horses in their business, should be an authority 
on horse feeds. Many years ago they gave corn a thorough test. They 
attempted to replace oats with corn, gradually increasing the corn ration and 
decreasing the feeding of oats, until, at the end of four months, the horses thus 
dieted weighed about 15 pounds more than before they were put on the ration. 
They had been at work steadily ; still they were in good flesh, nor had they 
grown too fat. All of which would seem to favor corn, were it not for the fact 
that they seemed soft, lost in energy and were much less spirited than on the oat 
feed. The company at this time, therefore, finally adopted a mixture of 
approximately 6 pounds of corn and 12 pounds of oats as the common ration, 
and their subsequent experience proved this a much better one than straight 
oats. On the other hand, the London Omnibus Company, owning practically 
as many horses as the Paris company, objected, after a thorough trial, to the 
use of corn as a feed for their horses, because it increased the mortality among 
them. The horses seemed to wear out in muscular energy much sooner, the 
nervous strain seemed heavier, and the result was that the veterinarian had 
his hands full. Berlin made similar reports. With young and growing animals, extensive research 
has shown that oats mixed with middlings proved a very satisfactory ration. 

Timothy hay is the most popular grass in use 
Hay and among American horsemen. The chief reason 

Roughage. for this is owing to its freedom from dust. 

Upland Prairie is extensively used in the 
middle and western states. Clover hay should not be used unless 
it is dry and free from dust and dirt. Under these circumstances 
it can be fed advantageously to growing colts and idle horses. The 
farmer will also find fodder corn, which has been thickly sown, an 
excellent roughage. The horse will eat the leaves and relish them. 
They are full of nutriment, and can often be economically substi- 
tuted for hay; in fact, the farmer who has a larger amount of stock to feed will find it much to his 
advantage to sow more fodder corn, cutting and curing it properly when it has reached a height of 3 to 4 
feet. This can, in many cases, be done with the binder, and when the farmer takes into consideration 
the tonnage he obtains per acre, he will be agreeably surprised with the results, and wonder why this 
method has not been thoroughly tested out. ■ 

Millet hay is injurious, and should not be fed to horses. 
It produces an increased action of the 
kidneys, causing lameness and swelled 
joints, injuring the texture of the bone 
by rendering it softer and less tenacious, 
often to such an extent that the liga- 
ments and muscles are torn loose. The 
horseman should therefore be extremely 
careful in the use of millet. From the 
foregoing it will be seen that there is 
quite a field to choose from for available 
grains and nutriments for horses. Suc- 
cessful horse feeding is, indeed, an art 
in itself, simple as it may seem to the initiated. The truth of this statement can easily be ascertained by 
noticing the horses in any large barn. Given two grooms, horses as nearly alike as possible, the same 




A Prize Winning Four-in-Han d. 

Owned by G. A. WATKINS, 

Detroit, Mich. 




Pair of Prize Winning Shetlands. 
Owned, toy G. A. WATKINS, 
Detroit, Mich. 






THE HORSE. 



equipment, and one ream will leave the barn in tine fettle, with coats shining and in the best of flesh, 
seeming to grow fat on hard work, while the other team, handled by the other man, will seem lifeless, 
look out of condition and poorer, even though both may have received the same amount of feed. It 
seems as though some men have an inherent instinct, making them successful in the handling of 
stoek, while others perform the duties mechanically, with the above results. 

If wo desire to have good horses, the training and care must start with the foal, 

The Young and every man breeding or raising horses should understand the care and han- 

Animals. dling of a colt thoroughly. Every farmer or breeder knows that the young foal 

soon after its birth should get a good quantity of the first milk of the dam. This 

milk contains a substance known as colostrum, which possesses purgative properties, tending to empty 

and clean out the alimentary tract of the foal of the fecal matters collected there during fetal life. If 

the colostrum does not do this successfully, a very small dose of castor oil should be administered, together 

with a small teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food, thus placing the alimentary tract in condition to properly 

utilize the milk of the dam. All horse raisers have doubtless been troubled with the dam giving an 

insufficient supply of milk, in which case the mare should have an abundance of milk producing feed, with 

Davis Stock Food given three times a day. This will materially increase the flow of milk, and force the 

growth of the colt. If, in the grass season, plenty of good green grass should be given the mare and she 

should be put on pasture, if possible. If however, green grass is not available, oats and wheat bran, 

with an equal rate of corn, should be given. Even if the mare is put on pasture, it will be found good 

practice to give her a feed of oats twice a day for a while. 

In man} r instances, however, just the reverse of the above conditions occurs, and there is an over- 
supply of milk, or the milk is too rich, thus causing indigestion and diarrhea in the colt. At such times 
the feed allowance to the mother should be restricted, and she should be milked by the attendant at least 
once a day. If the colt develops diarrhea, Davis Scour Cure is recommended. This is a remedy used 
by the leading veterinarians throughout the United States, perfectly harmless, and one which has been 

thoroughly tested, it leaving no 
bad after effects whatever. When 
milking of the mare is made neces- 
sary, the colt should be allowed 
to take the first milk, the attendant 
stripping the last, for it should be 
borne in mind that the last milk 
carries the greatest amount of 
fat, which is usually the disturb- 
ing element. 

To guard against this latter 
condition, a mare should always 
be confined for three or four days 
after foaling, her feed being re- 
stricted the first week. Should the 
farmer not at the moment be in 
possession of a bottle of Davis 
Scour Cure, in a great many cases 
scours can be checked by boiled 
milk, care being taken in giving it 
to the foal that it does not choke. 
After this, under favorable con- 
ditions, the dam and foal will 
shift for themselves, which, how- 
ever, does not mean that they should be neglected under any circumstances. In the case of constipation, 
a teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food, together with a small quantity of castor oil, will usually prove 
effective. If it is not, an injection of warm water to which soap has been added should be used. 




Prize Winning French Coach Stallion, 

PALADIN. 

Head of Oaklav/n Stud. 

Owned by DUNHAM & FLETCHER, Wayne, IU. 



THE HORSE. . 43 



If the dam and foal are on pasture, the colt will usually start nibbling grass very 

Handling soon. It will, however, be found good practice to place the feed box for the 

the Foal. dam low enough so that the colt can get at it. It will be noticed that the foal 

will follow the mother to the box and nibble at her feed, thus acquiring a taste 

for grain. It will also be found beneficial to build a lot in a suitable place, and so arrange it that the foal 

can get through but the dam cannot. This can be done by either raising the bottom of it high enough 

• to let the colt through, or by paneling up and down; then place a trough in this enclosure and put 

therein a quantity of ground grain, with which 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to every 10 

pounds of grain has been mixed. This enclosure should be located near the water; and it will be found 

good practice to place a lump of rock salt at the side of it, thus inducing the dam to loiter around 

it. Thus the colt will get into the habit of running in and out, partaking of the feed often through 

the day, and in the course of a -much shorter time than would otherwise be the case it will be 

found better developed and further ahead than foals not receiving similar treatment. 

In many cases they will practically wean themselves, but should they not, we strongly recom- 
mend weaning not later than five or six months old. At this time the foal should also be halter broke, 
which can be done by first having small halters made and putting them on the colts, leaving them on 
all the time; not, however, attempting to lead them at once, but each time the attendant goes around 
to feed them he can occasionally grasp the halter and lead the colt a few steps this way and that. This 
method will be found very effective, and will obviate the trouble usually experienced in halter breaking 
the young animal. 

It must be remembered that the foal is in the habit of partaking of milk from the dam many times 
a day. He should, therefore, have feed in front of him all the time, so that he can partake of it just as often. 

A great many horsemen will probably read this chapter and disagree with us 

Feeding after regarding the methods of feeding after weaning. And they may, at that, be 

We a n i n g . more nearly correct than we are, as- far as their experience goes. This is easily 

• explained, because colts are notoriously nondescript. They are awkward and 

vary greatly in disposition, making it impossible to la}' down any possible rules but those that common 

sense and patience indicate. There are, however, 
certain feedstuffs which have a distinct advantage as 
colt feeds. We know of nothing better than oats, 
with shorts, bran and barley taking second place. 
Occasionally a little corn can be used with advantage, 
but we do not recommend it very highly, owing to its 
lack in bone and muscle making material. With all 
those feeds, Davis Stock Food should be mixed in the ~ 
proportion of 1 heaping tablespoonful for every 10 
pounds of feed. It is especially advantageous in the 
feeding of colts, before the digestion of the young 
animals is fully developed, when it needs more assist - 
wm. penn, 2:07M. ance in its work of gathering the nutrients than is the 

n. w bo wen Delphi, ind case at a rrxore mature age. In this connection it must 

be remembered that in nature's regime the colt can, 
when grass is abundant, almost take care of itself, and cured grains are not so necessary to push its 
development as when this is not the case. 

The fact must not be overlooked that at this time the mouth is more or less sore 

Teething from the teeth breaking through the gums, which makes the eating of coarse, 

Time. hard grains painful, and the colt will refrain from eating rather than endurethe * 

pain resulting from mastication". To obviate this, feed steamed oats or barley 

taken with bran, to which Davis Stock Food has been added in proportion of 1 heaping tablespoonful 

to 10 pounds of grain. The practice common among some horsemen, of feeding only concentrated grains 

at this age is not to be recommended. Many of them do this simply because they object to the big belly 




14 



THE HORSE. 



which the cah usually carries at this stage. But this is no logical objection, for the colt will soon round 
into form. 

The fallowing table will serve as a guide as to the amount of grain that they should be fed per day" 
up to the age of three years: 

Up to the age of 1 year '. . . .From 2}/ z to 3 lbs. 

From 1 to 2 years of age From &y z to 6 lbs. 

From 2 to 3 years of age From 7 to 9 lbs. 







With this should be given a good allowance of 
hay, although the colt should never have all the hay 
in front of it that it will eat. Rather supply it with 
a certain amount, and keep the appetite keen. An 
oversupply tends to gorge the digestive tract with 
more matter than it can take care of, and such treat- 
ment may result in lasting injury to the colt. 

There are cases where sick- 

Raising ness or death of- the dam 

by Hand. makes it necessary to raise 

a colt by. hand. At such 

times, if the foal has never- received any of the 

mother's milk, the bowels should be emptied by a 

active forest king,- No. 6343. small dose of castor oil to which has been added a 

International Champion, 1905. small teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food. To one quart 

Owned by . . a 

teuman's pioneer stud farm, of cow's milk, add one-half pint^ of water, a table- 

Busnneii, ni. spoonful of sugar and a teaspoonful of Davis Stock 

Food. .This should be heated to blood temperature 
and the colt induced to drink when it will. It should also be remembered that the colt should be fed in 
small quantities six ■ or eight times a .day, 
and not be compelled to wait five or six 
hours for a feed. Care must be taken, 
however, against the too free use of cow's 
milk in feeding foals. It is much better 
to make a mash of milk and bran with 
Davis Stock* Food added inducing the colt 
to partake of this as soon as possible, for 
the excessive feeding of colts by hand on 
cow's milk is largely instrumental in pro- 
ducing windsuckers. 

' There is no better 

The Stallion. grain to use in the 

feeding of stallions 

than good, sound oats. They should, 

ever, not be used excessively. It is 

advisable to vary the diet occasionally 

'with a ration of corn or barley, and, once 

a week at least, a good bran mash. The 

addition of a tablespoonful of Davis Stock 

Food to each feed for the stallion is especially recommended. It keeps his blood pure and the digestive 

apparatus in healthy condition. The entire system is toned up when the stallion is fed regularly on Davis 



|l^ EM 

IK :ff- i> ■ ^maW^mmmm^mmmmmls^maM J^l ^m 

mm mm ' w^VI 

Jm JIP W 



CAROLINA, Reg. No. 32931. 

Owned by 

JOHN B. CASTLEM AN, 

Louisville, Ky. 



THE HORSE. 



45 



Stock Food, and a higher percentage of colts and better foals will be the result. He should also be given 
plenty of exercise, so that he will not become overloaded with fat. The exercise, however, should be 
confined to a walk, four or five miles a day, if the stallion be a draft horse; if a roadster, possibly 
six to eight, but not more. We do not recommend the feeding or giving of various nostrums and 
mixtures to the stallion to increase his foal getting power. This is not only the rankest nonsense, but, 
in many cases, harmful as well. Anything that will tend to increase the general health and vigor of 
the horse, will likewise increase his ability as a foal getter by adding to his virility and sexual power. 

This, of course, principally applies to the mare in foal. A mare, not in foal 

Care Of should receive practically the same treatment as the horse ; but with mares 

the Mare. used for breeding purposes, we would recommend, if anything, an excessive 

protein ration. By this we mean a feeding ration of possibly one part protein 

to six parts carbohydrates. Another point worth remembering is that a mare used for ordinary work 

during the gestation period usually brings forth a better foal than one who is allowed to run idle during 

the entire period of pregnancy. 

The period of gestation will average about 330 days, seldom less than 287 days, and very seldom, 
indeed, last longer than 420 days, although such cases are on record. As in the stallion, it will be found 
that if the mare is fed regularly with Davis Stock Food, mixed in proper proportion with her other 
feed, it will aid in the exercise of her normal functions and keep her system in perfect condition, bring- 
ing forth a fine, healthy colt. The one thing which it is necessary to bear in mind in the care of a pregnant 
mare is to avoid constipation, and this Davis Stock Food accomplishes, keeping the bowels open and 
working naturally. 



Ration for Car- 
riage Horses. 



There is no doubt but that 

oats lead all other feeds as 

a ration for the carriage 

horse, containing as they 
do a stimulating principle which gives the horse 
mettle and energy, thus liberating style and action. 
For a variety, an occasional feed of rolled barley 
with bran will prove beneficial. For the average 
carriage horse, it will be found that from 33^ to 4 
quarts of oats at a feed, together with 1 table- 
spoonful of Davis Stock Food, will prove sufficient 
to keep him in good condition. If, however, the 
horse is working during the regular hours of the 
day, and especially around meal time, we advise 
the use of 3 quarts of oats in the morning, with a 
tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food; 3 quarts of 
oats at noon, with a tablespoonful of Davis 
Stock Food; and G quarts at night, with a table- 
spoonful of Davis Stock Food. After the evening 
feed hay should be withheld for at least an hour, 
preferably one hour and a half, when 10 to 12 
pounds of hay, free from dtist, may be put in the 
manger. Should the horse suddenly be laid off, 

and the owner is not in a position to give him sufficient exercise, the above ration should be reduced at 
least 30 per cent, giving not over 8 pounds of oats during the entire day, with the largest feed at night. 
Do not feel for a moment that this is an unkindness to the horse, for, in fact, it is just the reverse. 
You will understand that the full feed we prescribe, 12 pounds of oats a day, will not only provide main- 
tenance for the body, but also supply the fuel and energy necessary in his work, if Davis Stock Food is 
used regularly; if it is omitted, increase the feed allowance 20 per cent. 




Champion Saddle Stallion, 

BLACK ARTIST. 

Winner of 31 Sweepstakes and 1st Prizes. 

Owned by LEE BEOS., 

San Angelo, Texas. 






THE HORSE. 



The draft horse, on heavy work, is entitled to eare and consideration in the 

Feeding the supply and preparation of his ration. He certainly earns it and will repay 

Draft Horse. amply the attention given him. His appetite is usually hearty, and care should 

be taken not to do or give him anything that will cause loss of appetite. In 

supplving a ration for the draft horse we would still recommend a straight oats ration, with perhaps 

•an mash two or three times a week. At times, however, oats constitute too costly a ration to be 

. lnsivelv, and at such times we would recommend rolled wheat and rolled barley, added to the 

oats in proportion of half and half, or a corn and cob meal and oats ration, the corn and cob meal 

mixed in proportion of one-third corn and cob meal and two-thirds oats, will prove very beneficial. In 

addition to this we would advise the limited use of roots, such as carrots, whenever available. 

Regarding hay, a good rule to go by is to give the horses 2 potmds of hay for each 100 pounds of their 

weight. Thus the hay ration to a 1,200-pound horse should be 24 pounds. This is when the horse 

is used on heavy work. We also advise the evening feed for the work horse to consist of at least 

one-half of the day's grain allowance — that is, suppose you should be giving 8 quarts to a feed, thus 

making a total of 24 quarts a day, instead of giving the horse 
8 quarts morning, noon and night, give him 6 in the morning, 6 
at noon and 12 at night, always adding to each feed a heaping 
tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food -By using Davis. Stock Food 
you will be enabled to reduce the amount of grain from 15 to 20 
per cent We at least ask all feeders to try our method. It has 
been thoroughly tested by some of the largest team owners 
in the country, and there is absolutely no risk connected with its 
use. The ingredients are well known and harmless, and no matter 
from whom you buy Davis Stock Food, your money will be 
cheerfully refunded if you are not entirely satisfied with the results. 
We would also like to call your attention to the fact that, unlike 
other so called stock foods on the market, -in the case of Davis 
Stock Food you know exactly what you are getting, as the formula 
■is printed in plain letters on each and every package. 

We would also call the horseman's attention to the impor- 
tance of cutting the grain ration in two whenever the horse is laid 
off for a day, this for the same reason which we advanced in the 
case of carriage horses in the preceding paragraphs. Comparatively 
few horsemen are aware of the fact that failing to do this is the 
cause of numerous cases of azorturia. If you would avoid this 
fatal disease among your horses, by all means cut down the 
allowance on idle days. 




Per c heron Stallion, 

CASINO, No. 45462. 

Winner St. Louis World's Fair. 

Owned by 

J. W. and J. C. EOBISON, 

Towanda, Kan. 



Horses should always be watered before feeding, and also an hour or so after, if convenient. 
We cannot too strongly urge, however, the importance of giving a horse all the water he wants. By 
this we do not mean to withhold the water for six or seven hours, and then take the horse to the trough 
and allow him to drink an unlimited amount. Try to arrange it so that the horse may have a drink 
even' hour, if he wishes it. In other words, at any time he wants it. 

It is mistaken kindness to keep the manger filled* with hay because the horse is confined to the 
stall sometimes for ten to twelve hours on a stretch. He falls into the habit of gorging himself with hay, 
under such circumstances, continuing to eat of it as long as it remains in front of him, not only causing 
a waste, but doing himself a severe injury by weakening the entire digestive system. And there is still 
another point which must be taken into consideration by, the humane and careful feeder, namely, the 
regulation of the feeding hours for his horses. By all means, have certain hours for feeding and adhere 
to them as nearly as possible. The digestive system and the whole body soon accustoms itself to this order, 
with the natural consequence that they become thrifty and remain healthy. 



THE HORSE. 



47 



In the following table we give a list of the rations used by the armies. in the various countries: 





WEIGHT OF HORSE 


RATION 


GOVERNMENT 


Concentrates 


Roughage 


United States, Artillery 

United States, Cavalry 

Germany, Cavalrv 

Great Britain, Cavalry 

Great Britain, Cavalry 


1,050 to 1,200 lbs . . 

950 to 1,150 lbs . . 

1,050 lbs 


12 lbs. oats, corn or barley. 
12 lbs. oats, corn or barley. 

10 lbs. oats 

11 lbs. oats 

10 lbs. oats 

12-14 lbs. oats 


14 lbs. hay. 

14 lbs. hay. 
(5.5 lbs. hay. 
(7.7 lbs. straw. 
(5.5 lbs. hay. 
(7.7 lbs. straw, 
j 12 lbs. hay. 
( 8 lbs. straw. 
( 12 lbs. hay. 
( 8 lbs. straw. 




Severe duty. ...:.. 



Following this is a list of the rations given by the street car companies to their horses, covering 
various cities of England and Evtrope: 

Rations for British Tramway (Street Car) Horses. — Fleming. 



London 


Liverpool 


Glasgow 


Edinburgh 


Dublin 


Corn 


Pounds 

7 


Corn 


Pounds 

. .12 


Oats 


Pounds 

. 6 


Oats 


Pounds 

. . 8 


Corn 


Pounds 

.. .14 


Oats 


.. 3 


Beans 


. . 4 


Corn 


.11 


Corn 


. . 4 


Oats 


...3 


Peas 


. . 3 


Cut hay 


. .14 


Hav 


. 8.5 


Beans 


. . 4 


Hav 


. . .12 


Hay ....... 


. .12 


Bran 


1 


Straw 


. 1 


Hay 


. 14 


Bran 


. . . 5 


Straw 


. . 1 






Bran 


. 5 


Marshlum 


. . 2 













Rations for Street Car Horses in Various European Cities. — Mattes. 



CITY 


Daily Allowance Per Horse 




Nutrients 


in Ratio 






Corn 


Oats 


Hay 


Straw 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Nutritive 
Ratio 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pour.ds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Bremen 


14.3 

7.7 


2.2 
11 


8.8 
4.4 


2.2 
3.3 


2.03 
1.76 


13.38 
11.42 


.75 - 

.84 


1:7.7 


Brussels ; 


1:7.7 


Bordeaux — 


















Winter ....■« 


15.4 




13.2 


1.1 


1.94 


13.96 


.75 


1 


8.2 


Summer 


11 


4.4 


13.2 


1.1 


1.94 


12.85 


• 75 


1 


7.6 


Hamburg 


17.6 


1.7 


7.7 


4.4 


2.01 


15.17 


.86 


1 


8.6 


Munich 


6.6 


11 


5.5 


4.4 


1.76 


11.13 


.79 


1 


7.4 


Vienna 




15.4 


11 


2.2 


1.83 


13.54 


.73 


1 


8 4 















IMPORTED ALBANY, No. 132876. 

Undefeated English Champion. 

Imported toy C. A. JAMISON of Peoria, 111., 

To head his "Four Hundred" — the Hamlet Herefords — at Hamlet, Indiana. 

CATTLE FEEDING. 

In the. calf, nature intended milk to be the chief feed for the first few weeks of 
The Calf. its life, and, as in the case of the colt, the calf should receive the first milk of 

the mother, called colostrum, soon after its birth, so that it may clear the ali- 
mentary canal and get it in condition to properly digest and assimilate subsequent food. As stated pre- 
viously in connection with the mare, milk is the ideal diet for the young animal, nature having propor- 
tioned its ingredients perfectly, it being comparatively rich in protein, thus enabling the calf to consume 
relatively larger quantities of protein in comparatively small bulk, supplying the growing animal with 
that element most essential. In these days of the cream separator, when the calf can be most profitably 
fed on skim milk, radical changes have been made in methods and extensive experiments conducted in 
order to find a substitute for the fat extracted by the separator. Naturally, in the looking-for a substi- 
tute to replace these fats, we turn to carbohydrates, the most concentrated of which is sugar. In 
experiments by Wolff, with three calves, each fourteen days old, and weighing 117, 130 and 114 pounds, 
respectively, we find the following results: 

Calf No. 1 was given 13.2 pounds cow's milk, mixed with an equal amount of whey; calf No. 2 
was given 22 pounds of skim milk, and calf No. 3, 17.6 pounds of milk and 3.9 of cream. To this was 
added sugar in the amounts specified in the table: 





Consumed 


Gain Per 

Day, 
Pounds 


Pounds of 




Organic Sub- 
stance, Pounds 


Protein, 
Pounds 


Sugar, 
Pounds 


Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 


Organic Mat- 




Fat, Pounds 




ter to 1 Pound 
of Growth 


No. 1 , 


2.3 

2 

3 


.54 

.70 
.73 


1.29 
1.02 
1.02 


.51 

.22 

1.22 


4.8 
2.2 
5.6 


1.88 
1.14 
3.38 


1.35 


No. 2 

No. 'A 


1.88 
.97 





— 48- 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



49 




The most interesting point about these experiments is the demonstration of the fact that an actual 
■gain can be brought about by a ration comparatively poor in protein, but having a wide nutritive ratio. 

It also demonstrates thor- 
oughly that sugar can be 
advantageously used instead 
of the more costly fat, 
although it still remains 
doubtful as to whether car- 
bohydrates can be used to 
replace fats entirely. In 
addition to this it is not 
advisable, however, for the 
average farmer to buy any 
more material than neces- 
sary to use in his feeds. 
What he wants is to secure 
as rapid a growth as possi- 
ble, and we would recom- 
mend the feeding of skim 
milk, to which a reasonable 
amount of Davis Stock Food 
and ground oats (with the 
hulls removed) has been add- 
ed. Flaxseed meal, cooked 
to a porridge and mixed with 
the milk, together with one 
tablespoonful of Davis Stock 
Food is an admirable mix- 
ture and has been thoroughly tested. The proportion of this should be about one part flaxseed 
meal to five parts milk. This should be gradually increased to one-fifth flaxseed meal. This ration, how- 
ever, is rather expensive, and should not be con- 
tinued beyond ninety days. During this entire 
period the calf should have access to feed troughs 
containing dry oatmeal, to each 10 pounds of which 1 
tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food has been added. 
It will be found that the calves, inside of ninety 
days, will be eating a considerable amount of this 
mixture, thus preparing them for weaning. The 
above methods will produce a rapid growth, pro- 
vided Davis Stock Food is used regularly. By 
this we, of course, do not mean that the desired 
growth cannot be obtained without the use of 
Davis Stock Food, but the growth will be much 
more satisfactory and the general health of the 
animal- better where it is used regularly. 

A great many stockmen have been very 
successful in raising the orphan calf on hay tea. 
The hay should be cut early, so that it contains 
intact the most soluble matters. It should there- 
upon be chopped up fine, placed in a sufficient 

quantity of water and boiled down quite well, so that it does not contain too much water. This will 
extract all the soluble constituents of hay, resulting in a tea which is as digestible as milk. To each 2 



Carload of S. M. S. White Face Calves. 

Bred and Raised by 

SWENSON BROS., Stamford," Texas. 

Sold to Dan Black, Lyndon, Ohio, who fed them and later exhibited the carload at the Inter- 
national at Chicago, 1904, winning grand championship for feeders of all ages and classes. Other 
picture on following page shows them in finished form. 




BLACK'S OHIO CHAMPION. 

' Bred and Raised by 

SWENSON BROS., Stamford, Texas. 

Fed by Dan Black, Lyndon, Ohio, and sold by him to Ohio State 
Agricultural College, where he is being fitted for the International. 






CATTLE FEEDING. 























L _ dl 






_'" lh 








!k~<- Mtetf 




|fl& 1 












r^woP 








p b "■ 






f -^Tr 








lux 




p JE 




^jmS 


BX-i 



Carload of Feeders, GRAND CHAMPIONS, International, 1904. 

From the Famous S. M. S. Ranch. 

Owned by SWENSON BROS., Stamford, Texas. 

Fed and Exhibited by Dan Black, Lyndon, Ohio. 



gallons of this hay tea add 4 ounces 
of flaxseed and 4 ounces of wheat 
middlings, with 1 tablespoonful of 
Davis Stock Food; mix thoroughly. 
Two gallons will be sufficient for 
one day for a calf ; in fact, a calf may 
not drink that much at first. It 
will, however, soon get to like it, and 
as its appetite increases, increase 
the amount of wheat middlings to 
a pound a day for each calf. If 
properly prepared, calves will make 
surprising gains on this ration, and 
the farmer should have no trouble in 
obtaining a gain of 2 pounds a day. 

We assume 
After that the raisers 

Weaning. of calves here- 

tofore have 
taken into consideration the use 
to which they were to be put. If 
they were intended for beef pro- 
duction, they should at this point be 
thrifty, fat and with a sleek coat, 

while the dairy calf will be in fair flesh, and have a bright, alert eye. The stockman should now 

appreciate the iact that at no stage of the animal's life can gains be made so cheaply, and this should 

be a natural reason for his pushing them 

ahead as rapidly as possible. He must 

not, however, look only for gain in pounds 

per day, but remember that in the 

calf it is the material for the making of a 

mature animal which counts, and to this 

end he should feed them a ration that will 

build bone and muscle rather than lay on fat, 

giving them plenty of roughage in the way 

of corn forage, clover, alfalfa, etc. There is 

nothing that can compare with alfalfa and 

clover for young animals, both of them being 

very rich in protein and therefore unequaled 

for system building. The bowels of the 

calves must at all times be kept in good 

condition, and free from parasites. For 

this there is nothing better than charcoal, 

sulphur and santonica, all of which are part 

of the ingredients of which Davis Stock Food 

is composed. Davis Stock Food should 

therefore be a regular part of calves' ration if the best results are to be obtained. 

The methods adopted in the feeding for beef must necessarily vary in different 
Feeding parts of the country. From the various State Experiment Stations, and the 

for Beef. experience of well known feeders, we have, however, attempted to show the 

results, approximately, that should be expected from each section. The success- 
ful production of beef on the farm is one of the hardest problems, everything taken into consideration, 




LEEDALE QUEEN. 

Grand Champion Female, World's Fair, 1904. 

Grand Champion Female, San Antonio Fair, 1904. 

Junior Champion Female, Ft. Worth, 190&, 

and 16 first prizes at other shows. 

Bred and Owned by LEE BROS., San Angelo, Texas. 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



51 




LADY BRITON 16th, No. 90715. Sweepstakes Cow at Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, 1901. 
Owned by C. G. COMSTOCK & SON, Albany, Mo. 



with which the farmer has to deal, although, on the face of it, it may seem comparatively simple. It is 

comparatively easy for any of us to fatten cattle. It is also comparatively easy for any of us to feed 

economically; but to obtain both results at 
one and the same time, and still, keep the 
appetite of the steer on edge, is a question 
that has been the bane of the world's most 
successful feeders for many years. In the 
early stage of the feeding period it is a com- 
paratively 
easy matter 
to regulate 
the feed in 
the proper 
proportion 
and obtain 
the desired 
results, but 
as the period 

advances it becomes more and more difficult, the animal acquiring 

a more dainty appetite and is therefore more easily thrown off his 

feed. Every experienced feeder knows that no greater calamity 

could occur in the feed lot than to have his animals suddenly go off 

their feed and before they can be brought back he will have lost, 

in many instances, the entire profit on the bunch. Many other 

things must be taken into consideration as well, such as the 




Champion Hereford Bull, POLSON, No. 4923C 
Owned by LEE BROS., San Angelo, Texas. 




BLACKBIRD 24th. 

1st Prize Aberdeen Angus Cow, 

at World's Fair, 1904. 

Owned by C. J. MARTIN, 

Churdan, Iowa. 




J2 



weather, the environment, the attendants, etc. The Kansas 
Station conducted a trial on corn and corn meal with two 
bunches of steers, with the result shown in the following table: 

Feeding Corn and Corn Meal to Steers. — Kansas Station. 



ONWARD 4th, No. 123694. c^^„a t«o1 

Champion Hereford Bull at American Royal second inai 

Live Stock Exposition, 1903-1904. 

Kansas City. 

Owned by S. L. STANDISH, 

Breeder of Hereford Cattle, Hume, Kansas. 



FEED 


Arerage 
Weight of 

Steer at 
Beginning 


Total 
Grain 
Eaten 


Fodder 
Eaten 


Total 
Gain 


Feed for 100 Pounds 
Gain 




Grain 


Stover 


First Trial. 














Corn meal . 


1,211 


3,575 


940 


268 


1,334 


350 


Ear corn. . 


1,215 


4,027 


1,341 


284 


1,418 


472 


Second Trial. 














Corn meal . 


1,129 


2,646 


607 


290 


911 


209 


Ear corn. . 


1,158 


3,223 


535 


230 


1,402 


232 



CATTLE FEEDING. 




There were five steers in each of these lots, and the first 
trial lasted six months, the second five. The animals used 
were ranch steers in the first instance, and grade Shorthorns in 
the second. All were from two to three years of age. By looking 
over the table you will notice that the steers fed on ear corn gained 
considerably more than those fed on corn meal, but it required more 
grain to obtain the increase. This can perhaps be explained by the 
fact that the ear corn was not properly masticated and broken up. 
The digestive juices therefore had a better opportunity to exercise 
their functions on the corn meal. The second trial especially is in 
favor of the corn meal ration. In the second trial the five animals fed 




PLUCK'S EXPECTATION and FLUCK'S PROXY. 
Grand Champion and Prize Winning Steers at World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904, 

and Chicago International. 
Bred and Owned by H. J. FLUCK, Goodenow, 111. 



YOUNG ALICE'S PRINCE, No. 17111, 

and ROYAL PRINCESS. 

Grand Champion Bull and Cow, 

World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904. Owned by 

DURHAM PARK STOCK FARM, 

David Harrell, Proprietor, 

Liberty Hill, Texas. 

on corn meal consumed a total of 

2.646 pounds of corn meal and 607 

pounds of stover. They gained in 

weight 290 pounds in five months. 
The above tests are fairly 

representative, and, although not ' 

high pressure feeding by any means, serve to illustrate the difference in value between corn meal 

and ear corn. While these gains are very satisfactory as a whole, they can be increased materially by 

the judicious use of Davis Stock Food, for it goes without saying that the more grain you can induce 

steers to eat (provided, of course, they 
digest all of it), the more profitable 
will be the venture. Davis Stock 
Food gives them a keen appetite, 
inducing them to eat larger quantities, 
at the same time it takes care of 
the digestive organs and enables them 
to digest a larger percentage of feed 
than they could possibly do without 
its assistance. It is easy enough for 
us to tell you this, and we might add 
that we know it, but every man 
ought to use his own judgment; and 
if the foregoing statements can be 
borne out through practical tests, the 
American farmer or stockman is 
enterprising enough to adopt the 
methods that will assist him in 
obtaining the results most desired. 




Aberdeen Angus Bull, ZAIRE THE GREAT 
1st Prize Winner International, I9i 



904. 



No. 49792. 



Bred and Exhibited by M. P. and S. E. LANTZ, Carlock, 111. 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



53 



He can demonstrate our assertions to his own satisfaction, incurring no risk whatever, for the money is 
cheerfully refunded in every instance unless all our statements are borne out by actual tests. 

Feeding steers today is hardly 
a profitable proposition unless hogs 
are run after them to pick up the 
grain and corn that passes through 
them undigested. In the case of ear 
corn especially this is absolutely nec- 
essary, but with ground feed, to which 
has been added 1 tablespoonful of 
Davis Stock Food to every 5 pounds 
of grain, but little feed will pass 
through undigested and the hogs 
would get but a scant living unless 
they were fed regularly, the steers 
being able, to digest and assimilate 
practically all of the nutrients con- 
tained in the feed. Corn and cob meal 
will, however, give better gains than 
corn meal alone. With the assistance 
of a good digestion and a tonic, good 
steers can be made to gain from 2 to 3 




Prize Winning Aberdeen Angus Steer, PLUNKELL. 

Bred and Exhibited by M. P. and S. E. LANTZ, 

Carlock, HI. 



In a great many sections of the country farmers have mills that will grind corn cob and 
We advise the use 



pounds a day. 
husk together, 
of this, as extensive trials and ex- 
periments have shown that there is 
a material saving therein, and, at 
the same time, the steers are kept 
in better health. It will be found 
profitable to add oil meal or cotton 
seed meal to the corn ration. 

In the 
Kaffir Corn. western 

states 
Kaffir corn has, within recent 
years, risen much in the feeders' 
favor. Especially is this the case 
in Kansas where Georgeson, of 
the Kansas Experiment Station, 
conducted feeding experiments 
with Kaffir corn and corn meal 
with the results shown in the fol- 
lowing table: 




BT/BT OF BUTTONW0OD. 

Grand Champion Polled Durham Cow at World's Fair, St. Louis. 

Champion for Four Years at International, Chicago. 

" Never Defeated in the Show Ring." 

Owned by ARCADIA FARM, Flescher S. Hines, Proprietor. 

Malott Park. Ind. 



and 



Feeding Kaffir Corn in Comparison with Corn and Corn Meal to Steers.— 


-Kansas Station. 






Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


Feed Eaten 


Average 

Gain 

per Steer, 

Pounds 


Feed for 100 lbs. Gain 


FEED 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Roughage, 
Pounds 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Roughage, 
Pounds 


Lot 1 , corn meal ... 


1,036 
1,021 
1,025 


16,271 
16,271 
16,271 


9,297 
10,300 
10,828 


326 
299 
313 


997 
1,086 
1,041 


• 569 


Lot 2, red Kaffir corn meal 


688 


Lot 3, white Kaffir corn meal 


692 







54 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



The results of these tests, as shown by the table, demonstrate that Kaffir corn compares favorably 
with maize. The same results can be obtained by any feeder in the states in which Kaffir corn can 
be profitably grown, and even better results can be obtained if Davis Stock Food is used. Thus far we 
have taken into consideration the feeding of only 
one kind of grain at a time*, but the stockman knows 
by this time that a combination of two or more 
grains will usually give better results than any one 
of the grains alone, provided the mixture is prop- 
erly balanced. Again, the Kansas Experiment 
Station furnishes us data to show the value of 
a properly balanced ration. They conducted 
exhaustive tests with steers, using ear corn in one 
case and a balanced ration, consisting of corn meal,- 
oil meal, bran and shorts in another ration (all 
properly balanced.) It required 1,275 pounds of 
corn for each 100 pounds gain, while but 905 
pounds of the balanced ration was necessary to 
produce 100 pounds gain, thus showing a material 
saving and demonstrating the value of the balanced 
ration. 




THE WOODS PRINCIPAL. 

Champion Hereford Steer. 

Owned by GEO. P. HENRY, Good enow. 111. 



In the past few years the South has awakened to her natural advantages for 

Feeding in the production of live stock, and, where past generations exerted all of their 

the South. energies toward the production of cotton, the present generation has wisely 

taken to diversified farming and live stock. The Southern Experiment Stations 

are largely responsible for this, for they have demonstrated without any possible doubt that 

cotton seed meal together with cotton seed hulls 
have a high value as a feed for beef production; 
nothing that we are able to grow in the north can 
equal it. The Texas Experiment Station has- 
gone into this matter extensively, feeding cotton 
seed meal and hulls in different proportions to 
fattening steers, and have ascertained that the 
most economical way of feeding them to steers 
to obtain the largest gains, was by feeding 1 
pound of cotton seed meal and 3 pounds of 
corn hulls, or in that proportion. Cattle in 
the South, however, that are fed extensively 
on cotton seed meal and hulls, are occasionally 
affected at the rainy seasons of the year with 
inflammation of the eyes, which at times termi- 
nates in the total loss of the sight. For this 
reason we strongly advise the provision of a 

larger variety df feeds; once or twice a week, perhaps, change from the cotton seed ration to one of 

the other standard grains that are available. 




IMPORTED BRITISHER, No. 145096. 

Record Breaking Champion of England and America. 

Weight at 5 years, 2,835 Pounds. 

Bred by A. E. Hughes, Leominster, England. 

Owned by GILTNER BROS., Eminence, Ky. 



Too much importance cannot be laid upon the the value of proper surroundings 
Environment and correct methods during the fattening period. To feed and fatten steers 
and Conditions, economically, when the fattening period has once been thoroughly instituted, 

they should be provided with a good shelter to protect them, not only from 
the weather but also to give them a shelter from the hot sun and insects. The feed lot should be 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



55 



comparatively small, restricting their exercise. The stockman must also remember that it is the greatest 
economy to push steers as rapidly as possible, as the longer the feeding period is drawn out the greater 
will be the expense. The gains made 
in the latter part of the feeding period 
cost comparatively much more for 
each pound than the earlier gains. 
Davis Stock Food has solved the 
problem of rapid feeding by inducing 
the steers to eat heartily at all times, 
keeping their appetite keen and at 
the same time so strengthen and tone 
up their digestive - system that they 
are able to obtain the maximum of 
nutriment from the feed. Our con- 
tention cannot be any better demon- 
strated than by looking over the table 
of G. D. Gillett, who, in his own 
generation, was considered a king 
among feeders. We are indebted to 
Professor Henry, of the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station, for perpetuating 
this table in his book, "Feeds and 
Feeding." We copy it direct from 
this work. 




PERFECTION, No. 92891. 
Owned by G. H. HOXIE, 
President Mallory Commission Company, 
Chicago, 111. 



Cost of Steer Twelve Months Old. 

Value of calf at birth $ 3 . 00 

Expenses of dam of calf, chargeable to calf for one year, as follows: 8 per 

cent interest on $50.00, value of cow 4. 00 

Keep of yearling and feed of cow for twelve months 12 . 25 

Insurance on cow " 1 . 00 

Risk of failure of cow to breed 1 . 75 

Loss of calves by death, etc 1 . 00 

(No corn fed up to twelve months.) 

Value of pasture and keep up to twelve months 6 . 00 

Total $29.00 

Weight of calf at twelve months of age, 700 pounds, at 5 cents l 35. 00 

Profit at twelve months of age $6 . 00 

Cost from Twelve to Twenty-Four Months of Age. 

Value of steer at twelve months of age $35 . 00 

Value of shock corn, 110 bushels, at 35 cents 38 . 50 

Pasture, twelve to twenty-four months 3 . 00 

Interest and risk 2 . 80 

Total $79.30 

Less 500 pounds pork, at 5 cents, made on droppings of steer- 25. 00 

Net cost, twelve to twenty -four months $ 54. 30 

Weight of steer at twenty-four months of age, 1,600 pounds, at 6J^ cents . . . 104. 00 

Profit at twenty -four months of age $49 . 70 



56 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



Cost from Twenty-Four to Thirty-Six Months of Age. 

Value of steer at twenty-four months of age $104.00 

Value of shock corn consumed in entire year, 125 tmshels at 35 cents 43. 75 

Pasture, May 1st to November 1st 4.00 

Interest and risk 8. 32 



Total $160.07 

Less 500 pounds of pork at 5 cents, made on droppings of steer 25. 00 

Cost at thirty-six months of age $135.07 

Weight at thirty-six months of age, 2,200 pounds, at 7 cents 154. 00 



Profit at thirty-six months o.: age 



$18.93 



An additional argument for 
forced feeding can be found in the 
market. The time was, and not so 
very far back, when the farmer did 
not consider it advisable to fatten 
steers for the market under four 
years old, while the butcher of today 
demands what is practically baby 
beef. He wants his steer from one to 
two years old, ranging from 1,000 to 
1,500 pounds in weight. The age is 
now counted in months instead of 
years. The high pressure feeding to 
obtain this kind of beef requires, of 
course, expensive feed, but from the 
price .they bring, it pays in the 
long run. 
The feed lot should be high and dry end, above all, open. Sheds on the 
windward side, where the animals may lie in comfort, are recommended, and 
which the 




FIRST PRIZE WINKING CARLOAD OF DEHORNED SHORTHORN CATTLE 
at Fort .Worth, Texas, Fat Stock Show, 1899. 

Exhibited hy M. SANSON, 

President Cassidy So. W. Commission Co., 
No. Fort Worth, Texas. 



The Feed Lot. 



the open lot to 
steers have access is much the 
best, even in winter The feed 
rack should be built so that 
it is protected from winds and 
driving storms and constructed 
so that it can easily be filled 
from the Avagon. Young ani- 
mals should be fed at least 
three times a day, while 
through the latter part of the 
feeding period, morning and 
evening is sufficient for the 
concentrated feeds. Roughage 
or fodder should be in front 
of them at all times. When 
the steers are first placed in 
fattening, care should be taken 
to bring them on full feed 

dually, the time necessary varying from thirty to sixty days. A constant and plentiful supply of 
roughage will materially assist the inauguration. Once the feeding period is well under way, everything 




IMPORTED ALBANY. 
Photograph Courtesy of FRANK B. HINES, Albion, 111. 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



57 



should run with clocklike precision; the feeding in the morning and evening should be at the same 
regular hour so that the animal may know when to expect it, instead of running wildly about the lot 
every time the attendant comes into view. Kindness should be practiced, and the attendant who ill 
treats his charges should not be tolerated for a moment. The steers- should have all the grain they 
will readily consume, but all remaining should be removed at once and fed to the hogs. The subsequent 
feeds should be reduced to just the amount they will eat up clean. The farmer must be careful not to 
overfeed his cattle, which, from a desire to push the feeding, he naturally is apt to do. Scouring 
should also be carefully watched, for a single day's scouring on the part of steers will knock off all the 




< IMPROVER (19206) No. 94020. 

Bred hy J. H. Arkwright, Hampton Court, Leominster, England. 
Property of T. F. B. SOTHAM, Kankakee, 111. 
Improver was a winner at the Great American Shows and sire of many prize winners including the 

$6,000 FULFILLER and the $4,000 GOOD CROSS. 



gains they have made in a week. Scouring is the result of a derangement of the digestive system, 
and the careful feeder will use Davis Stock Food to prevent it. Animals of the same size and 
strength should be fed from the same trough and at the same time. If there are in the bunch any 
animals which are smaller in size and weaker than their companions, they should be placed in separate 
lots so that they will get their full quota of grain without having to fight for it every step of the 
way. In the following tables we give, eight different rations, together with the gains that each ration 
produced in actual feeding tests. These tests were conducted by the Ontario, Kansas, and Texas 
Experiment Stations, and are fairly representative. 






TATTLE FEEDING. 



ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 



Roots and Barley. 

rounds 

Average weight of steers fed 1,061 

Daily gain 2.14 



Hay 12. 

Roots 46. 

Bran 5. 

Barlev 11.25 



Roots and Corn. 

Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed 1,106 

Daily gain 2.31 

Hay 9.5 

Roots '. 34. 

Bran . 3.5 

Corn 9 . 25 



IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
Corn and Oil Meal. 

Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed 1,340 

Daily gain 2.8 

Snapped corn 22 . 5 

Corn meal 4 3.7 

Oil meal 4.2 

Hav 5.7 



OREGON EXPERIMENT STATION. 
Wheat and Silage. 

Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed 847 

Daily gain 2 . 

_ 

Chopped wheat 10. 3 

Clover hay 8 . 

Corn silage 18 . 



Balanced Ration. 

Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed 1,083 

Daily gain 2.4 

Corn meal 10 . 

Shorts 5. 

Bran 2 . 

Oil meal 4. 

Tame hav 6.5 



KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION. 

Corn and Stover. 



Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed 1,211 

Daily gain ..." 1.7 

Ear corn 26.7 

Stover 5 . 



TEXAS EXPERIMENT STATION. 



Cotton Seed Meal and Hulls. 

Pounds 

Average weighi tei rs UA 638 

Daily gain 1 76 

Cotton seed meal . 5 . 

Cotton seed hulls 7.2 

Corn silage 20. 



Corn and Cotton Seed. 

Pounds 

Average weight of steers fed . . . 576 

Daily gain 1.9 

Corn 5.3 

Cotton seed 5.2 

Hay 5.3 



DAIRYING. 




Champion Jersey Bull, 
FLYING FOX. 
Owned by Dreamwold, the farm of 
THOMAS Vf. LAWSON. 
Geo. H. Pollard, Manager, Scituate, Mass. 
Mr. Lawson paid $7,500 for Flying Fox. 



Jersey cattle are, as a whole, 
high strung and of a nervous temper- 
ament, making it imperative that they 
should receive good care. They can- 
not survive the abuse in treatment 
and feed that other breeds will stand 
fairly well. The cows are gentle and 
docile, but the bulls have the reputa- 
tion of often being ugly and dangerous 
after two or three years' service. In 
breeding tests, conducted in various 
parts of the country, the Jerseys have 
always ranked well up but, strange as 
it may seem, have never been fore- 
most, usually following the Shorthorns 
and Guernseys in total yield of butter 
fats during a certain period. They 
came out victoriously, however, in the 
competitive tests conducted at the 
World's Columbian Exposition in 1893. 



Jersey cattle have made the 
Jersey Island of Jersey (situated 

Cattle. off the cost of France) fa- 

mous. The breed has been 
kept pure and developed to the highest possible 
degree for a period dating back several centuries. 
In 1789 a law was passed forbidding the impor- 
tation of foreign cattle to this island. Conse- 
quently all the resources of the island were drawn 
upon to develop the Jersey cattle to the highest 
possible degree. 

Jersey cattle are preeminently milk and 
butter producers. Their milk, taken as a whole, 
is richer in butter fats than that of any other 
breed, although the quantity is somewhat less than 
several of the other dairy breeds, and it has been 
the sole purpose of the breeders of Jersey cattle 
to develop their butter fat producing qualities to 
the highest degree, all other points in their breed- 
ing being merely incidental. 




Prize Winning Jersey Cow, FIGGIS, No. 76106 



SO pounds 7 ounces milk in one day. 329 pounds 4 ounces milk and 19 pounds 15 ounces 
butter in 7 days. 649 pounds 6 ounces milk and 38 pounds 10 ounces butter in 14 days. 1,421 
pounds TA ounces milk and 82 pounds f)'/ 2 ounces butter in 31 days. 7,444 pounds 1 ounce milk 
and 472.95 pounds butter in 1 year. 13,465 pounds 3 ounces milk and 862.16 pounds butter in 2 
years. 19,451 pounds 11 ounces milk and 1,235.55 pounds butter in 3 years. 25,172 pounds 3 

:es milk and 1.593.30 pounds butter in 4 years. 

In six months after dropping calf she gave 7,442 pounds 4 ounces milk, testing 448 pounds 
Winner at numerous State Fairs, and winner of following at World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904: 



™, , .. .,, , years. iy,45l pounds 

1 hey produced more milk, more butter ounces milk and 1.593.30 pounds butter in 4 years 

J l ' In six months af 

fat tnnTP Kiit+pr onA Ktippcp -maVinrr o butter. Winner at nu 

wl i muie uui/ici ciiiu. tuccsc, ui<Aii.mg d, cow, 3 years old and over, 1st prize. Cow, 2 years old and over, championship. Jersey cow or 

i • , , , r , , , , heifer, any age. grand championshio. In aged herd, headed by Flying Fox's Foxhatl, with Blue 

nigher net gam than any OI the Other Bell's Handsome Bell, Fox's Triple Rose O'Dreamwold and King's Figgis O'D, won fourth. 

breeds competing. Thus in test No. 1 
(fifteen days' cheese test), the cow, Ida 
Marigold, No. 32615, produced 70.92 pounds of cheese, and Merry Maiden, No. 69449, produced 30.73 
pounds of butter. In butter fats, Brown Bessie, No. 74997, produced 178.12 pounds in ninety days. 

— 59 — 



Owned by Dreamwold, the farm of THOMAS W. LAWSON. 
Geo. H. Pollard, Manager, Scituate, Mass. 



f>0 



DAIRYING. 



- This brood, like the Jerseys, 

Guernsey took their name from an 

Cattle. island known as the Island of 

Guernsey. They typify the 

theory of adaptability, for the Island of Guernsey is 
cut off from the mainland by little strips of the sea. 
It is protected on all sides by a rough and rocky 
coast, and the characteristics of the country have 
played an important part in molding the character 
of the Guernsey cattle of today. The people of 
the Island of Guernsey have for years labored 
carefully in order to produce a cow that would ex- 
cel in butter production, and the Guernsey is the 
result. They are known the world over for produ- 
cing butter of the highest natural color at the small- 
est cost. Like those of the Island of Jersey, the 
inhabitants were jealous of their cattle, and in 1789 
took measures to prevent the importation of stock. 
In 1826 they went further and absolutely prohibited 
importation, except for slaughtering. 




»*• 



Guernsey Bull, ROBIANOS STANDARD, No. 7254. 

Grand Champion at Illinois State Fair. 

First and Grand Champion at National Dairy Show, 

Chicago, 1906. . 

Owned by 

M. D. CUNNINGHAM 

Kansas ville, Wis. 




The most striking characteristic of the Guernsey is her rich, mellow skin. In appearance they are 

finely built, with big bodies, a particularly gentle, quiet 

^^^^^^^ __ _ ^,.» temperament, and wholly free from nervousness. 

The prevailing color is a delicate fawn with 
white markings and a cream colored nose. They 
have a rich golden color around the eye, on the udder 
and teats, at the base of the horns and tail. The 
Guernsey has always been preeminently a family cow. 
Around 1870 



the Mas- 
sachusetts 
Society for 
the Promo- 
tion of Ag- 
riculture im- 
p o rt ed a 
number of 

them and distributed them at a public sale to dairymen 

of that state. They very rapidly gained in favor, and in 

1877 the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized 

in New York City. There were at that time about 150 

pure bred Guernseys in this country. From then on up 

to the present time the interest in the Guernseys has steadily 

increased until there are now about 20,000 pure bred 

animals in the registry. The Guernseys have never posed 

to any extent as record breakers, but have quietly main- 
tained their usual high average. Lily of Alexandria, No. 

1050, made a phenomenal showing many years ago in pro- 
ducing 12,8553^ pounds of milk in one year, which, at two 

months before calving time, tested 7.2 per cent butter fats. This will give a fair illustration of 

the capabilities of the Guernseys. 



Guernsey Cow, 

IMP. RED ROSE OF SEAGROVE, 

Champion Aged Cow at Pan-American, 

Buffalo, 1901. 




Prize Winning Guernsey Cow, 

MARY MARSHAL, No. 5604. 

Owned by 

EZRA MICHENER, 

Carversville, Pa. 



DAIRYING. 



61 



Holstein 
Frisian. 

the North Sea. 




These cattle are the American representatives of the natives of the lower ridge- 
lands of Belgium, Holland and northwestern Germany. Their origin is 
ascribed to the Frisians,, a tribe of people mentioned in Roman histories, before 
the opening of the Christian era, as peaceable cattle breeders on the shores of 
The pure bred cattle of the American herd books are black and white, while the European 
herd books will 



allow red and 
white, gray and 
white, or mouse 
color and white. 
These cattle are 
of what is tech- 
nically called 
the milk and 
beef form. The 
average weight 
of the cow is around 1,200 pounds. They grow 
very rapidly and mature early; if conditions are 

favorable, 
in from two 
to two and 
one-h alf 
years. The 
cows take 



A Prize Winning 4 Year Old Son of 

COUNT PAUL DE KOL. 

Owned by F. P. KNOWLES, 

Wor Chester, Mass. 





Holstein Frisian Bull, 

BEKNASDE TULA DE KOL. 

Sweepstake Winner, Pan-American. 



Champion Holstein Frisian Bull, 

PAUL BEETS DE KOL. 

Owned by T. A. MITCHELL, Weedsport, N. Y. 



on flesh very rapidly and make veal of unsurpassed quality. 
Among their most prominent characteristics is their phenomenal 
constitution and vigor, possibly the highest and strongest among 
all the dairy breeds. Their milk and butter fat producing 
qualities are very satisfactory and they will, under proper treat- 
ment, produce an average of 15 pounds of butter fat a week. 
cow is a 



The Ayrshire 

Ayrshire. native of the county of 

Ayr, in Scotland. The 
first importation was made into Canada and New 
England. They were subsequently sent to the 
South, as it is claimed that they endure the heat 
better than any other breeds. The Canadians, how- 
ever, also claim that they endure the cold climate 
of that country better than any other breeds. 

The cows are of medium size, averaging 
perhaps 1,000 pounds. They are of stock)'- build 
with short legs and are usually spotted in color. 
Their constitution is strong and they seem to 
have the faculty of getting along remarkably well 
by "hustling" their own feed, much better than 
any of the other breeds that have so far been con- 
sidered. The average yearly yield in milk is 
approximately 6,000 pounds, under ordinary care, 
although there are individual cows having records 
up to 12,000 pounds a year. There has never been any attempt to develop the butter producing 
quality in the Ayrshire, although she is well adapted for this purpose and it would be a comparatively 
easy matter to develop her along this line. 




Ayrshire Cow, 

VIOLA DBUMMOND. 

First Prize, Pan-American Exposition, 1901. 



DAIRYING. 




Grade Holsteia-Guernsey Cow. 



Soon after the Revolutionary War pure bred Shorthorns were imported into 

Shorthorns as Virginia. They were extremely well thought of at that time. They are in every 

Dairy COWS. sense of the word a cow of dual worth, supplying milk in abundance and 

at the same time maintaining the beef qualities. At the test made at the 

Exposition in 1893 they made a phenomenal showing under extremely unfavorable circum- 

unfavorable because no opportunity was given to select the best cows for this purpose. 

Instead of following this method cows were picked 
haphazard and consequently were rarely as good as 
they might have been, if secured through a more 
careful selection. But in spite of those disadvantages 
the Shorthorns held their own and more. In test 
No. 1, for cheese, there were twenty-five cows of each 
breed. The result follows : 

Jerseys 906.1 lbs. 

Shorthorns 905. 5 lbs. 

Guernseys 871 . 9 lbs. 

In the second test (ninety days) for butter, loss and 
gain in live weight where maintenance was counted 
for or against the cows, the net gain was as follows: 

Jerseys, twenty-five cows $1 ,323 . 21 

Guernseys, twenty-five cows 977. 63 

Shorthorns, twenty-four cows. ... 911.13 
To produce these results cost the Jerseys, twenty- 
five cows, $587. 87; the Shorthorns, twenty-four cows, 
$506.50; and the Guernseys, twenty -five cows, 
$487.25. The champion Shorthorn, Nora, gave 
3,679.8 pounds of milk; the champion Jersey, Brown Bessie, 3,634 pounds of milk, and the champion 
Guernsey, Materna, 3,548. 8 pounds of 
milk. In test No. 3, for butter, the 
champion Jersey cow, at a cost of 
$8.57, produced, net, $24.69 worth 
of butter; the champion Shorthorn 
cow, at a cost of $8. 18, produced, net, 
$19.57 worth of butter, and the cham- 
pion Guernsey, at a cost of $5 . 57, pro- 
duced, net, $19.37 worth of butter. 
In test No. 4, for heifers, seven Jerseys 
cost $34.43 for feeding, and netted 
$57.27; six Shorthorns cost $23.52 
for feeding, and netted $47.42. There- 
fore, taken all in all,, it will be seen 
that the Shorthorns compare favor- 
ably with their competitors, even in 
the capacity of dairy cows, while, if we 
credit the Shorthorns with their value 
as beef producing animals, they are 
far ahead. 

The modern 
R e d Polled 

cattle originate from the hornless or polled cattle of England. The modern 
breeder has endeavored to produce a cow of medium size, blood red in color, 
of fine bone and compact form, hardy, docile, easily fattened and with a good flow of fairly rich milk 




Red Polled 
Cattle . 



CZAR OF MVEBMEADOW. 

Champion Jersey Bull heading the Dotshome Dairy Herd. 

Owned by F. E. DOWLEY, Fayetteville, N. Y. 



DAIRYING. 



63 




the vear around; in other words, to produce a cow generally suited to the wants of the farmer. It is 
admitted that the Red Polled will not compare with the best Jerseys and Holsteins, etc., in the 
flow of milk or yield of butter, nor does the steer take the front rank as a beef animal; however, 

looked at from every side, they 
adapt themselves well to the pur- 
pose of the farmer and have much 
to commend them. Forty to 50 
pounds of milk a day is a fair 
average for a good Red Polled cow, 
and she will easily give 6,000 or 
even 9,000 pounds a year if 
properly fed and cared for, with 
butter fat running at an average 
of 4 per cent. Mature Red Polled 
cows in breeding condition will 
average 1,200 to 1,400 pounds 
in weight, and bulls 1,800 to 
2,000 pounds. 

The Dev- 
Devon o n s are 

Cattle. • the oldest 

of the 
English breeds, being natives of 
Devonshire, in the southwestern 
part of England. In England they 
are extremely well thought of for 
their beef qualities, while thev 
produce from 15 to 25 pounds of 
butter a week under proper man- 
agement. The ordinary farmer should have no difficulty in averaging a pound of butter 
a day from them, while they will yield on an average two gallons of milk a day. The cattle 
are very active and hardy; they adapt them- 
selves readily to a dry, mountainous country; 
the bulls are intelligent and quiet, obtaining 
a weight of from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds in 
four years. The digestive and assimilative 
powers of the cows are better than the ordinary. 

These cattle are natives 
of Holland, dating back 
to the 17th century. 
They are peculiar, inas- 
much as they invariably have a broad, white 
band running entirely around the center of. the 
body; they are white headed and usually have 
a black ring around each eye and a full white 
tail. These ' cattle are strictly a dairy breed 
being large in the production oir milk. The 
cows range from 800 to 1,200 pounds in 
weight, while' the bulls range from 1,800 to 
2,200 pounds. There are a great many of 
these cattle in the New England States. They 
are splendid milk producers, and their adherents are enthusiastic in their praise. 



PEIMEOSE'S TBICKSEY 

A Prize Winning Guernsey. 

Owned by EOSENDALE GUEBNSEY HEED, 

Chas. L. Hill, Proprietor, 

Eosendale, Wis. 



Dutch Belted 
Cattle. 




PSIMEOSEDALE. 

A Prize Winning Guernsey Cow who has a Eecord of 

576.75 pounds of Butter Fat a Year. 

Owned by EOSENDALE GOEENSEY HEED, 

Chas. L. Hill, Proprietor, 

Eosendale, Wis. 



64 



DAIRYING. 




Brown Swiss 
Cattle. 



Undefeated 1903 Champion Foiled Durham Bull. 

GOLDEN HERO, No. 150363. 

Owned by WOODSIDE FARM, 

Pendleton, Ind. 



Fat Stock Show; in 1891, gave 245 
days, yielding during one day of 
the" test, 'i}i pounds of butter fat, 
the largest daily production of but- 
ter fat ever recorded by any one 
breed up to that time. The milk 
very desirable for family use, 
and with ordinary care each cow 
will produce from 20 to 30 quarts 
of milk a day. They make fine 
beef and veal. The cows are 
persistent milkers. 

From the 
Selection. brief d e - 

s criptions 
in the foregoing pages the farmer 
will gain some idea of the various 
important points which go to 



pounds 



Brown Swiss cattle were first 
brought to ■ this country in 
1869. Their characteristics are 
as follows: Large size, firm 
form, color ranging from dark brown to a chestnut 
brown, a tuft of hair between the horns and on the 
inside of the ear, and a narrow line along the back, 
generally light. The horns are short and waxy, with 
black tips, nose black, white thighs and heavy quar- 
ters, switch, hoofs and tongue black; straight hind 
legs. The cow often weighs as much as 1,600 pounds; 
the bulls average 2,000 pounds. The calves are large, 
sometimes weighing 100 pounds when dropped. They 
mature quickly, have hearty constitutions and give 
generous returns with proper care for the time and 
money expended on them. A cow at the Chicago 
of milk, containing 9.32 pounds of butter fat, in three 






LORETTA D. 
1st Prize, Butter Test, 
St. Louis, 1904. 



ANNIE DARLING 3rd. 

A Champion Brown Swiss Cow. 

Owned by 

HULL BROS., 

Painesville, Ohio, R. F. D. No. 1. 

NOTE — This picture taken 814 months after calving. 



makeup the modern dairy cow. On the whole, a 
good dairy cow should give at least 5,000 pounds 
of milk during the period of lactation. This will 
interest the farmer or dairyman if he is going to 
produce milk for the market. If, however, he is 
looking for butter fat,s, he should gauge his cows 
by this standard, and a cow producing 250 pounds 
of butter fata during the lactation period would be 
a very fair average. When it is taken into con- 
sideration that a cow, whose milk tests 4 per cent, 
must give on an average 25 pounds or 3 gallons 
almost every day in the year, the profitable dairy 
cow should maintain her flow of milk practically 



DAIRYING. 



65 





BELLE BRANDON. 

A 16-Year Old Guernsey that is Making 

a Record for Herself. 

Owned by Rosendale Guernsey Herd. 

CHAS. L.HILL, Proprietor, 

Rosendale, Wis. 



Prise Winning Jersey Cow. 

IDA OF ST. LAMBERT, No. 24990. 

Owned by 

MILLER & SIBLEY, 

Franklin, Pa. 



the entire year. It therefore behooves the dairy - 

man to see that his cows are kept in the best 

possible physical condition, that their diges- 
tive organs are working properly, and that their 

blood is kept pure and free from disease. If 

Davis Stock Food is being fed regularly he will 

have but little difficulty in doing this, and will, 

at the same time, obtain surprising results in 

maintaining a continuous flow of milk, rich in 

butter fats. It 
will not only 
amply repay 
him for its use 
in actual dollars 
and cents, but 
insure the con- 
tinued good 
health of the 
herd, something 
that is all im- 
portant. Many cows that are only common or ordinary producers, 
can be made to give a more profitable yield by the judicious and con- 
stant use of Davis Stock Food, because of the fact that they have 
been hampered in many cases by improper digestion and assimilative 

powers ; and it goes without saying that if a cow cannot extract the 

nutritive properties of the feed she eats, she will not be able to pro- 
duce a profitable amount of milk and butter fats. We reproduce 

on the following page a table giving the results of tests conducted 

by the various experiment stations in the United States. It must 

be understood, of course, that the cows used for these tests were 



Another Prize Winning Jersey Cow. 

MATILDA 4th, No. 12816. 

Owned by 

MILLER & SIBLEY, 

Franklin, Pa. 



the best of their respective breeds, 
and a close study of the table 
will enable the breeder to deduct 
some interesting facts relative to 
his own herd. 

Davis Stock Food exerts a 
soscial action en the mammarv 

— • 

glands greatly increasing both the 
quality and Quantity of tha milk 
and v/e want ycu to try it. 



Slg.5 





CROFTJANE DINAH 19th. 

A Champion Ayrshire Cow. 

Owned by 

W. P. SCHANCK, 

Avon, N. Y. 



66 



DAIRYING. 



Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Agricultural Breeding Stations. 



BREED 



New York (Geneva) 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Shorthorn 

Devon 

American. 
Holdemess 

Maine. 

Jersey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New Jersey. 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Shorthorn 

Total 



Number of 

Cows 
Included 



4 

4 
4 
4 
1 
3 



2 

2 
2 

3 
4 
3 

4 
3 



45 



Number of 

Lactation 

Periods 



11 

6 
4 
12 
2 
5 



4 
3 

4 

3 

4 
3 

4 

3 



72 



Average Yield per 
Lactation Period 



Milk, 
Pounds 



5,045 
5,385 
7,918 
6,824 
6,055 
3,984 

5,721 

5,460 
8,369 
6,612 

7,695 
7,446 
8,455 
7,461 
10,457 



Fat, 
Pounds 



282.1 

285.5 

266.1 

244.8 

269 

183.3 

213.1 

297 
285 
233 

376.3 

379 

300.2 

275.3 

396.3 



Average 
Per Cent 

Fat. 



5.60 
5.30 
3.36 
3.60 
4.44 
4.66 

3.73 

5.50 
3.47 
3.67 

4.89 

5.09 
3.55 
3.69 
3.79 



Average Cost of 



Food 

Eaten 

Per Day, 

Cents 



12.4 
12.5 
13.9 
13.5 

12.7 
10.3 

12.2 

61.2 
19.5 
17.1 

16.1 

14.9 

19.3 

15 

15.4 



Producing 

100 pounds 

Milk. 

Cents 



90 
86 
65 

74 
78 
94 

76 

113 
85.2 
94.9 

87.1 

78.1 

79.3 

76 

79.2 



Producing 

1 pound 

Fat, 

Cents 



16.1 
16.1 
19.1 
20.2 
17.2 
20.5 

20.1 

20.4 
25.2 

26.8 

17.9 
15.3 
22.4 
20.6 
20.6 



Averages for all Breeds and Lactation Periods. 



BREED 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Shorthorn 

Devon 

American Holderness 

Total 



Number of 

Cows 
Included 


Number of 

Lactation 

Periods 


Average Yield per 
Lactation Period 


Average 

Per Cent 

Fat 


A 


verage Cost of 


Food 

Eaten 

per Day, 

Cents 


Producing 
100 pounds 

Milk. 

Cents 




Milk, 
Pounds 


Jat, 
Pounds 


Producing 

1 pound 

Fat, 

Cents 


9 


18 


5,579 


301.1 


5.40 


13.9 


94.7 


17.4 


8 


10 


6,210 


322.9 


5.20 


13.5 


82.8 


15.8 


9 


10 


8,215 


282 


3.43 


17.2 


74.7 


61.5 


10 


20 


6,909 


248.5 


3.60 


14.5 


78.5 


21.5 


4 


5 


8,696 


345.4 


3.97 


14.3 


78.7 


19.4 


3 


5 


3,984 


183.3 


4.60 


10.3 


94 


20.5 


2 . 


4 


5,721 


213.1 


3.73 


11.2 


76 


20.1 


45 


72 
















FIFTY DAIRY RULES. 



United States Department of Agriculture. 



1. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle, their attendants, the stable, 
the dairy and all utensils. 

2. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed to a contagious disease, must 
remain away from the cows and the milk. 

3. The Stable. Keep dairy 
cattle in a room or building by 
themselves. It is preferable to 
have no cellar below and no stor- 
age loft above. 

4. Stables should be well ven- 
tilated, lighted and drained ; should 
have tight floors and walls and be 
plainly constructed. 

5. Never use musty or dirty 
litter. 

6. Allow no strong smelling 
material in the stable for any length 
of time. Store the manure under 
cover outside the cow stable, and 
remove it to a distance as often as 
practicable. 

7. Whitewash the stable once 
or twice a year; use land plaster 
in the manure gutters daily. 




Holstein Friesian Cow. 
CYBELE, No. 5291 H. H. B. 

(10014 pounds Milk in One Day. 
Record < 13,031 pounds 14 ounces Milk in One Year. 
1 15 pounds 8 ounces Butter in Seven Days. 

Imported by EDGAR HTJIDEKOPER, Meadville, Fa. 



8. Use no dusty, dry feed just previous to milking; if fodder is dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed. 

9. Clean and thoroughly air the stable before milking ; in hot weather sprinkle the floor with 
Davis Stable Disinfectant. 

10. Keep the stable and dairy room in good condition, and then insist that the dairy factory, 
or place where the milk goes, be kept equally well. 

1 1. The Cows. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled veterinarian. 

12. Promptly remove from the herd any animals suspected of being in bad health, and reject 
her milk. Never add an animal to the herd until certain it is free from disease, especially tuberculosis. 

1 3. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the way to the place of milking 
or feeding. 

14. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud talking or unnecessary 
disturbance; do not expose them to cold or storms. 

—67— 






FIFTY DAIRY RULES. 



15. Do not change the feed suddenly. 

16. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feedstuffs; in no case should decomposed or 
moldy material be used. 

17. Provide water in abundance, easy of access and always pure; fresh, but not too cold. 

18. Salt should always be accessible. 

19. Do not allow any strong flavored food, like garlic, cabbage or turnips to be eaten, except 
immediately after milking. 

20. Clean the entire body of the cow daily. If hair in the region of the udder is not easily 
kept clean, it should be clipped. 

21. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calving, nor for three to five, days afterward. 

22. Milking. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use tobacco; he should 
wash and dry his hands 
just before milking. 

23. The milker 
should wear a clean outer 
garment, used only when 
milking, and kept in a clean 
place at other times. 

24. Brush the 
udder and surrounding 
parts just before milking, 
and wipe them with a clean, 
damp cloth or sponge. 

25. Milk quietly, 
quickly, cleanly and 
thoroughly. Cows do not 
like unnecessary noise or 
delay. Commence milking 
at exactly the same hour 
in the morning and evening, 
and milk the cows in the 
same order. 




Holstein Friesian Bull. 
JEWEL OF HOME FARM. 
"A Champion in his Class." 
Owned toy W. B. BARNEY & CO., Hampton, la. 



26. Throw away 

(but not on the floor, better in the gutter) the first few streams from each teat; this milk is very 
watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest. 

27. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody, stringy or unnatural in appearance, the 
whole mass should be rejected. 

28. Milk with dry hands ; never allow the hands to come in contact with the milk. 

29. Do not allow dogs, cats or loafers to be around at milking time. 

30. If any accidents occur by which a pail full or partly full of milk becomes dirty, do 
not try to remedy this by straining, but reject all this milk and rinse the pail. 

31. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow and take a sample morning and night, at 
least once a week, for testing by the fat test. 

32. Care of Milk. Remove the milk of every cow at once from the stable to a clean, dry room 
where the air is pure and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain in stables while they are being filled. 



FIFTY DAIRY RULES. • 69 



33. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or layer of cotton as soon as 
it is drawn. 

34. Aerate and cool the milk as soon as strained. If an apparatus for airing and cooling at 
the same time is not at hand, the milk should be aired first. This must be done in pure air, and it 
should then be cooled to 45 degrees, if the milk is for shipment, or to 60 degrees if for home use or delivery to 
a factory. 

35. Never close a can containing warm milk which has not been aerated. 

36. If cover is left off the "can, a piece of cloth or mosquito netting should be used to keep out 
insects. 

37. If milk is stored it should be held in tanks of fresh, cool water, renewed daily, in a clean, 
dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to remove cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often enough 
to prevent forming a thick cream layer. 

38. Keep the night milk under shelter so rains cannot get into the cans. In warm weather hold 
it in a tank of fresh cold water. 

39. Never mix fresh, warm milk with that which has been cooled. 

40. Do not. allow the milk to freeze. 

41. Under no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent its souring. Clean- 
liness and cold are the only preventives needed. 

42. All milk should be in good condition when delivered. This may make it necessary to deliver 
twice a day during the hottest weather. 

43. When cans are hauled far they should be full and carried in a spring wagon. 

44. In hot weather, cover the cans when moved in a wagon, with a clean, wet blanket or canvas. 

45. The Utensils. Milk utensils for farm use should be made of metal and have all joints smoothly 
soldered. Never allow them to become rusty or rough inside. 

46. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the same cans used for delivering milk. When 
this is unavoidable, insist that the skim milk or whey tank be kept clean. 

47. Cans used for the return of skim milk or whey should be emptied and cleaned as soon as 
they arrive at the farm. 

48. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in warm water; then clean inside 
and out with a brush and hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; then rinse, and lastly 
sterilize by boiling water or steam. Use pure water only. 

49. After cleaning, keep utensils inverted in pure air and sun if possible, until wanted for use. 

50. Feed Davis Stock Food every day. 




BUTTER GRADING. 



The following information will prove interesting to the dairyman and farmer's wife alike, as it 
will inform them regarding the market records of their product and how they are classed: 

Analyses of Foreign Samples of Butter. 

(In Per Cent). 

A. Salted Butter. 



Country 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Finland 

Netherlands 

France 

Great Britain ._...-. 

German)' 

Italy " . ' 

Australia 

Canada 

United States 

B. Unsalted Butter 

France . 

Germany ■ „ 

Great Britain 

Austria 

Italy 

Switzerland 

Australia 

Average for salted butter 

Average for unsalted butter 



No. of 

Analyses 


Water 


Fat 


Cord 


55 


12.86 


83.78 


1.21 


139 


14.13 


82.57 


.98 


2 


13.05 


84.11 


1.58 


4 


12.97 


84.13 


1.39 


235 


13.32 


84.48 


1.43 


322 


12.09 


84.66 


1.14 


162 


13.38 


83.70 


1.22 


6 


11.52 


85.56 


1.07 


59 


11.16 


85.32 


.96 


207 


8.97 


84.29 


1.44 


473 


11.44 


84.64 


1.02 



Ash 
(Salt) 



2.15 
2.32 
1.26 
1.51 
.77 
2.11 
1.67 
1.86 
2.56 
5.17 
2.90 



58 


13.73 


85.80 


1.39 


86 


12.03 


85.70 


2.15 


24 


13.43 


85.64 


.80 


5 


14.15 


84.14 


1.54 


53 


13.67 


85.08 


1.11 


14 


13.76 


84.65 


1.55 


2 


10.63 


87.71 


1.39 


1,676 


11.95 


84.27' 


1.26 


242 


13.07 


85.24 


1.57 



.08 
.12 
.13 
.17 

.15 
.04 

.28 



2.58 
.13 



TWELVE CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK. 

1. Poor, decayed fodders or irrational methods of feeding. 

2. Poor, dirty water used for drinking water or for the washing of utensils; 

3. Foul air in cow stables, or the cows lying in their own dung. 

4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on udder. 

5. Keeping the milk too long in warm, poorly ventilated and dirty places. 

6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after milking. 

7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which cause the greater number of milk 
taints arise. 

8. Poor transportation facilities. 

9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 

10. Cows being in heat. 

1 1. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can. 

12. Rusty tin pails and tin pans. (Boggild). 

—70— ' 



MILK— ITS PRODUCTION. 

' The production of milk has been reduced to a science. Its secretion in the cow is unparalleled 
as an example of the rapid, and extensive transformation of the raw feed products into animal com- 
pounds. It is certain that the successful feeding of milch 
cows requires perhaps a greater understanding and wider 
knowledge of the facts pertaining to it than any- 
other department of animal husbandry. It is essen- 
tial, therefore, that the dairyman and farmer should 
become familiar with the pertinent points of the art. 

Milk- is extracted from the system by the 
mammary glands, which in the cow are known as the 




Holstein Friesian Cow. 

DAISY FISCHER, No. 49379, H. F. 

341.3 lbs. Milk I in 7 Days as 

13.60 lbs. Butter I a 3-Year-Old. 

Owned by W. B. SMITH & SONS, Columbus, Ohio. 

udder. - It is made up of water and solids, the 
solids composed of mineral compounds, pro- 
teids, fats and sugar. The average composi- 
tion of a normal cow's milk is as follows: 

Total Solids, Ash, Proteids, Fats, Sugar, Water, 

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 




12.9 



3.2 



3.9 



5.1 



87.1 



It goes without saying that there is a 
large variation in the composition of cows' 
milk, taken from different animals, or from 



Vfe' 



Holstein Friesian Cow. 
VELOX, No. 66733, H. F. . . 

409 lbs. Milk I In 7 Days at 

18.90 lbs. Butter f 4 Years Old. 

Owned by W. B. SMITH & SONS, Columbus, Ohio. 



different herds, or under different conditions. 

The constituents which go to 
Secretion. make up milk, as they appear 

in milk, will not appear in 
that form in the raw material or feeds. These feeds, 
however, do contain certain nutrients which, sub- 
jected to the vital processes in the animal's body, 
are transferred into the constituents of milk. The 
mammary glands are not simply a sieve or filter 
whose function it is to strain the blood, as it were, 
but constitute a special tissue in Which wondrous ' 
and extensive chemical changes take place. Here in 
the animal body, for instance, we first find casein 
and the mixture of compounds known as butter 
fats ; we also find the sugar, unlike any that is found' 
in plants or any other part of the animal organism. 
The actual secretion of milk and the manner in which it is brought about is something that we 
are more or less in the dark about, and it after all makes comparatively little difference so long as 
we obtain results. On the other hand the source of the constituents in the various feeds is some- 
thing of immense importance, and fortunately we have more or less definite information on it. 

— 71 — 




Holstein Friesian Cow. 

ADVENTURESS 3d's BEAUTY, No. 42283, H. F. 

411.9 lbs. Milk I In 7 Days as 
14.11 lbs. Butter ("a 3-Year-Old. 

Owned by W. B. SMITH & SONS, Columbus, Ohio. 



72 



MILK— ITS PRODUCTION. 



From the information we have on the various feedstuffs and their 
Source. composition, compared with that of milk, it is clear that the proteids of the milk 

can have but one source, namely, 
the proteids of the feed, and it seems quite certain 
that the proteids of the milk are the only components 
of the milk which have their origin exclusively in the 
feed proteids. And we have every reason for believing 
that milk, sugar and butter fats are constructed, in a 
part at least, from the carbohydrates of the feed. The 
New York Agricultural Experiment Station conducted 
an investigation with two cows to ascertain, if possible, 
the source of butter fats. Under the experiments, which 
lasted considerably over two months, both the cows 
gained in weight and produced respectively 19 pounds 
and 14 pounds more of butter fats than can be accounted 
for from the available fat and proteids of the feed. 

The conclusion was drawn, therefore, that these con- Hoistein Friesian cow, No. 31894, h. f. 

, jjj- ii v -u j t„ t^. Member of Grand Sweepstakes Herd Winning Silver 

stituents were derived from the carbohydrates. It can- Cup at OWo state Falr> 1902 

Owned by 

W. B. SMITH & SONS, 

Columbus, Ohio. 





Hoistein Friesian Cow. 
PAYNES LADY DEVRIES, of Rochester 2d, No. 32883, H. F. 

669.6 lbs. Milk I T _ 7 Dav - 

21.37 lbs. Butter f m 7 Bays ' 

Winner of Two Silver Cups at Ohio State Fair, 1902. 

Owned by 

W. B. SMITH & SONS. 

Columbus, Ohio. 



not, however, be asserted positively that the 
ingested fats did not pass directly into the milk. 

We do not look with any great wonder upon 
a cow yielding a total of 6,000 pounds of milk 
per year. Stop a minute,' however, and reflect 
upon what this means. Nothing more or less 
than that the animal's production of milk solution 
is approximately 800 pounds of milk solids, an 
amount at least double the dry matter in the 
body of a cow weighing 900 pounds. When we 
stop and consider that the mixture of this new 
material is carried on, not only for a single day, 
month or year, but throughout the entire life of 
the animal, we can gain some realization of how 
extensive are the demands of the body upon the feed 
supply. Certainly no better illustration can be had 
of what a marvelous machine the animal body is. 




THE AMOUNT AND CHARACTER OF THE FEED 
NECESSARY FOR A DAIRY COW. 

The feed of a dairy cow must perform various functions. First of all it must supply the necessary 
fuel, as it were, to maintain the system. Then in addition to this it must provide the raw materials 
for the milk formation and the material for the growth of the feeders. The nature and uses of these 
various duties are distinctly understood. Take, for instance, milk in a daily production of 30 pounds 
(the average milk production which we should reasonably expect from the average dairy cow) , it requires 
3.87 pounds of milk solids ; the maintenance will require approximately 7.38. In addition to this the dairy 
cow will consume a large expenditure of feed or energy to sustain nerve force, bodily activity and the 
production of fuel, as it were, for the warming of her water and feed, all of which may properly be charged. 
to the work of milk formation and which will, in the average cow, approximate 5 pounds per day. It 
will therefore be necessary to feed such a cow approximately 16 pounds of digestible nutrients daily, 
if we would expect her to give 30 pounds of milk. In the case of the dairy cow a ration of one part 
protein to six parts carbohydrates has proved faifly satisfactory. Therefore, a cow such afe the fore- 
going should have approximately 2}/± to 2y 2 pounds of protein daily. Following we give several rations, 
figured out in the proper proportions, which will be found very effective: 

Ration No. I. Ten pounds of clover hay, 30 pounds of corn silage, 2% pounds of hominy chops, 
5 pounds of wheat bran, 2 x / 2 pounds of linseed meal (old process) and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis 
Stock Food. 

Ration No. 2. Fifteen pounds of clover or alfalfa hay, 25 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of ground 
oats, 5 pounds of ground peas, and 3 heaping tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 

Ration No. 3. Ten pounds of corn fodder, 5 pounds of alfalfa hay, 25 pounds of sugar beets, 
3J/£ pounds of corn and cob meal, 3 pounds of buckwheat middlings, \y 2 pounds of cotton seed meal, 
and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 

Ration No. 4. Ten pounds of mixed hay, 40 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of buckwheat mid- 
dlings, 1 pound of gluten meal, 2]/^ pounds of linseed meal, and 3 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food. 

The grain of the above rations should be mixed thoroughly and fed morning and evening, the 
roughage being fed during the day. The rations are also figured on a basis of a cow weighing 1,000 pounds 
or less, and giving approximately 30 pounds of milk a day. Should the cow weigh more, or should her 
milk production be greater, increase the ration accordingly. Under present conditions, comparatively 
few dairymen raise enough protein containing feeds for their consumption on the farm, and they are there- 
fore obliged to buy quite a lot of commercial feedstuffs in order to obtain this much needed protein. There 
is no question whatever but that with a little care the average farmer or dairyman could raise on his 
own farm all the proteins consumed. The time will come when such will be the case, but under the 
present circumstances, when so large a quantity is being purchased, it is necessary for the farmer or 
dairyman to feed with as great economy as possible. And it goes without saying that he should exert 
every effort to obtain the maximum digestibility, not only from a grain economy standpoint but for 
the general health of his herd. As the cow is called upon to do an enormous amount of work, her diges- 
tive ability is taxed to the utmost. Every organ in her body should therefore be working properly; 
the gastric juice should be secreted in abundance; the liver should perform its functions, and the peri- 
stalsis should ever keep the bowels moving while feedstuffs are contained therein. And it requires no 
great argument on our part to demonstrate to the' live and up to date dairyman that it is not a question 
with him whether or not he can afford to use Davis Stock Food, but whether he can afford to be without 
it. His knowledge of feeds and the digestive organs, coupled with his knowledge of the ingredients of 
the Davis Stock Food, answer that question emphatically. 

—73— 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



Selection, 
Feeding and 
Management. 



The hog has always occupied an important place in the animal husbandry of 
the United States. Unlike the supply of breeds of other kinds of live stock, 
the main dependence of American farmers for hogs has been placed upon breeds 
developed right here at home and, unlike other collections of live stock, 

America is entitled to all the 
credit for the modern and 
highly developed pork ma- 
chines that we have today. 
Five distinct breeds have 
originated within that section 
of the country where corn is 
notably a feature in farming, 
viz. , the Chester White in 
Pennsylvania; the Duroc Jer- 
sey in New Jersey and New 
York ; t h e Poland China in 
Ohio and Illinois; the Victoria 
in New York and Indiana and 
the Cheshire in New York. 
From these localities the 
breeds have been gradually 
disseminated over the entire 

springbrook nellie, No. 2102. country and a great number 

A Prize Winning Tamworth Sow. Weight, 800 Pounds, have been exported to foreign 

Owned Dy W. WARREN MORTON, Russellville, Ky. ^ & 

. countries. 
Coincident with the development of native breeds, the leading English breeds, par- 
ticularly the Berkshire, have come into more or less 
popularity, while the Essex, the Yorkshire and the Tam- 
worth are bred and raised more or less. 




Conditions 
Suitable 
for Hog 
Raising. 



It is a foregone conclusion that 

climate, soil and the environment in 

which the same kind of stock was 

placed by the Creator, and ran in a 

wild state, are the conditions which 

will be found most suitable for the 
industry in that particular stock, although American ingenu- 
ity and perseverance in breeding have developed distinct 
types that not only thrive but prove distinctly profitable in 
climates and under conditions entirely new and strange to 
the primitive wild hog. If extremes, either of heat or cold, 
are common, the environment provides shelter in the dense 
thickets in winter and shade and an abundance of water in 
summer. The hog is naturally a promiscuous feeder and in 
his domestic state thrives best where pastures are most luxu- 
riant and grain crops, nuts and roots are in abundance. The hog is not a ranger, nor does he thrive 
on grass alone, although it is a deplorable fact that a large number of American farmers deprive him 
hat range and grass he should actually have. 

— 74 — 




C ALSTON ECLIPSE 1st, No. 4722. 

Yorkshire Boar. 

Owned by W. E. RQCKHTLT., Warsaw, Ind. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



75 



The corn growing sections of the United States will easily take first place in pork pro- 
duction. It is, however, an absurd fallacy to argue that hog feeding will not give profitable 
returns outside of the corn belt. True, the corn belt has wonderful advantages for economical 
pork production, but it also has its disadvantages, and not the least of them is the effect on 
fecundity of feeding too much corn to breeding stock, a common fault among farmers. Any 
locality that will grow clover of any species, that is favorable to the production of alfalfa, peas, 
beans and other legumes, and where grain can be readily grown, not only corn, but barley, wheat, 
oats, or rye — in such localities the wonderful American hog will demonstrate his worth. Variety of 
feeds alone is an item that too much importance cannot be attached to. An animal tires of a 
constant ration of one kind and is easily thrown off his feed, when if he were supplied with a 
change or variety to keep his appetite keen, it not only enables the farmer to raise better pork, 
with a finer flavor, but enables him to raise it in less time, get a gain of more pounds per day 
and thus market his hogs at a greater profit. It must be remembered that the hog of- today is 
far removed from his distant ancestor, the razorback, or wild hog, who was privileged to roam the 

forests and hills, gathering for 
himself such roots, herbs, etc., 
that his instinct told him 
would assist digestion, keep 
his bowels in good condition 
and give the system a general 
tonic. Thus before man ever 
thought of domesticating the 
hog and placing him in an 
unnatural environment, 
nature found it necessary to 
place the hog within reach of 
these condiments and correct- 
ors. In other words, nature 
supplied the stock food. If 
the hog needed tonic, digest- 
ives, cathartics, cholagogues, 
alteratives and blood purifiers 
in his natural state, he cer- 
tainly needs them much more 
under present conditions. 
The modern hog is living 
under abnormal conditions ; 
he is given no choice in his 
feed, but must eat that placed 
before him. Naturally endowed with the appetite of a glutton, he overfeeds, oftentimes eating things which 
his system and digestive apparatus is not able to grapple, and under such conditions it will be found 
immensely profitable to the stockman to supply him with that which nature in her wisdom found neces- 
sary and of which domestic conditions have robbed him. Nux vomica, one of the ingredients of Davis Stock 
Food, is a small seed that acts as a bitter tonic, stimulates respiration, secretion of digestive fluids, increases 
the appetite and digestion and assists peristalsis. Gentian, another one of the ingredients used in Davis 
Stock Food, is also a bitter tonic, which improves the appetite and general tone and materially aids 
digestion. Another ingredient in Davis Stock Food, ferri sulphas, is a salt of iron and is among the first 
mineral substances to be used in medicine, which was about 3,000 years ago ; its chief function in ani- 
mal economy as well as in nature being that of an oxygen carrier. Iron is a normal constituent of the 
blood, there being one part in two hundred and thirty parts of red corpuscles and tissues, where it exists 
as an oxide in combination with the hematin of the blood. It also is present in the bile, lymph, chyle 
and in the gastric juices. Sulphur, another constituent of Davis Stock Food, when taken internally 




ENGLEWOOD'S FIREMAN, No. 1864. 

Weight, 1,000 Founds. 

Grand Champion Tamworth Boar at World's Fair, St. Louis. 

Sweepstake Winner Canadian National, Toronto. 

Owned and Shown by 

W. WARREN MORTON, Proprietor, Mountain Home Stock Farm, 

Russellville, Ky. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY 



undergoes no change in the stomach and possesses no appreciable action on that organ. It is carried 
into the intestines and is in part converted into sulphides by the action of the bile, where it stimulates the 
glandular structures and increases peristalsis. Upon being absorbed in the smaller intestines it enters the 
A and acts as an alterative and has a very beneficial effect upon the skin and coat of an animal. San- 
tonica, another ingredient, possesses an action known as anthelminthic, which means to expel worms, 
thus keeping the alimentary canal of the animal free from these annoying parasites. Carbo ligni, 
or wood charcoal, is not absorbed into the system. It acts as an intestinal antiseptic, 
checking fermentative changes of feed passing through the alimentary canal, and by virtue 
of this action will prevent the occurrence of flatulence. It thus keeps the bowels pure and absorbs 
the foul gases. 

We will leave it to the judgment of the American stock raiser of today if the proper combination 
of the foregoing roots, herbs, etc., will not prove of immense benefit in the proper feeding and raising of 
live stock. They are gathered together in just the correct proportions in Davis Stock Food. "We have 
special machinery for properly grinding the drugs, which we buy in carloads in the crude state, and grind 
them ourselves, thus insuring their purity and freedom from adulteration. 

The public at large does not half appreciate the importance of the pork production 
industry to the United States. It is indeed doubtful if the animal industry of America Avould ever 
have attained the present position in the world of commerce had it not been for the American hog. 
Though it has made wondrous strides in the past, the present up to date feeding methods and the 
improvements that are bound to- come in the next decade, will make the future even greater than the 
past has been. The American farmer is rapidly becoming educated to the fine art of feeding, and today 
instead of throwing his feed into the swine haphazard, thus wasting a large quantity of it, he is feeding 
by the scale, knows the analysis of his grain, and there is little reason to suspect that over production 
of pork will ever become a menace to the American farmer. 

If for no other feature alone, the hog appeals to the American farmer because 
Fecundity. of the fecundity of the sows. No other meat producing domestic animal, out- 

side of poultry, is capable of producing so large a number of young in a year, 
thus enabling a farmer to turn his money over several times in pork while he is getting it once out of 
cattle. This fecundity is something that the American farmer should pay close attention to. It can 
be developed and maintained to a high degree by the judicious use of proper feeds and exercise, or 
it can be almost ruined by the feeding of too much corn or other foods high in carbohydrates. Free 
access to pastures, with plenty of exercise and green stuffs, is highly important if you would have your 
sows raise you a goodly number of healthy, strong pigs. 

i Extensive experiments conducted by various investigators in the United States 

Returns from have developed the following statistics: Fattening steers liberally fed upon 

Feed Eaten. good feed consume on an average of some 12 to 13 pounds of dry feed per 100 

pounds live weight per week, and will show 1 pound increase in weight for 

each 12 pounds of dry feed consumed. Sheep under similar circumstances, will consume about 

15 pounds of dry substance per 100 pounds live weight per week, and should yield 1 pound 

increase weight for every 9 pounds of dry substance in their feed, while pigs liberally fed upon 

feeds composed chiefly of corn, consume 26 to 30 pounds per 100 pounds live weight per week, and will 

show 1 pound gain in weight to every 4 or 5 pounds of dry feed eaten. Also in their dressed weight 

hogs show less variation than cattle, hogs dressing from 72 to 84 per cent of the live weight, 

while cattle will dress as low as 55 per cent, and 70 per cent is considered high. Sheep will 

dress from 48 to 60 per cent. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 77 



It is a well known fact that hogs are especially sensitive to extremes of heat 
Hog Houses, Pas- and cold. The character of their shelter should therefore depend largely upon 
tureS and Fences, the locality in which they are. If in the North, where there are severe winters, 

good, warm quarters are a necessity for profitable hog raising. In building 
their quarters, light, ventilation, warmth and cleanliness are the four main points to be considered. 
A well drained location with a house built directly on a north and south line, facing east, thus giving both 
sides of the building an opportunity to receive direct sunlight at some part of the day, is advised. 

It will be found economy and desirable to provide windows of fair size, and if in cold climates, 
they should be so arranged that when opened there will be no direct draft upon the hogs. The size 
of the house, etc., will of course depend upon -the number of hogs it must accommodate, but as a general 
safe proposition no more than fifty breeding animals should be confined in any one building, for sanitary 
reasons. If the expense can be incurred, and after all it is a comparatively small matter, cement floors 
leading to a common drain or sewer from each pen are advised, while on top of this cement floor each 
pen should have a wooden platform made out of two by fours, covered with matched flooring, thus raising 
it about 4 inches from the cement. This gives a much warmer bed, as it has been found that hogs com- 
pelled to lie on cement floors contract colds and rheumatism. A common clay or earthen floor is one of 
the warmest that could be provided, but it has the disadvantage of being extremely hard to keep clean 
and sanitary. 

For individual lots, the portable house is coming largely into favor. It has a 
Portable great many advantages, inasmuch as it can be moved from time to time and from 

Houses. pasture to pasture. It' also' can be turned upside down, allowing sunlight 

to get inside of it during the day. These houses should, however, be made com- 
paratively small and no more than two or three hogs should be accommodated in each one. In mild 
climates these portable houses are especially to be recommended, for green food is there available the 
greater part of the year, and the'house can be moved from lot to lot and from spot to spot as the animals 
consume the surrounding forage. The one thing that must ever be borne in mind is that the house, 
no matter how or where it is built, should provide good, clean, dry sleeping quarters and above every- 
thing else, be sanitary. „ 

There is a wide difference of opinion and practice regarding hog lots and pas- 
Pens and tures. It is a deplorable fact that the hog on the average farm is given a barn 

Pastures. lot or a convenient mud hole, and more often than not deprived of the proper 

run and green feed so abundant around him and so necessary for profitable 
production. It has been found good practice to construct a number of half-acre lots, placing a portable 
house in every other one and give a sow and her pigs an individual house. By the time they will have 
eaten or stamped down all the green stuff on this half acre, the house can easily be lifted over the fence 
to the next lot and the hogs moved where they will have plenty of fresh, green pasture. The lot they 
have been taken off of can then be plowed up and sowed in rye or forage crops that grow comparatively 
fast, so that by the time they have exhausted the second lot they can be returned to the original one. 
Thus the two lots will support the sow and pigs until the pigs are old enough to wean, and will, if properly 
cared for, support the sow the year round. It will also be found good practice, if possible, to have a larger 
lot, of from five to ten acres, to turn all the pigs into after weaning time, and here they can be left until 
four or five months old, feeding them in the meantime, but allowing them plenty of ground and 
exercise so that they may develop bone and muscle and be in a good, healthy condition to go into the 
feed lot. Where boars are kept they should have a pen distant and out of sight of the sows and other pigs. 

Jn determining what breed or class of hogs you are going to raise, several things 

' Selection Of must be taken into consideration; first, the climate and environments; second, 

Breeding Stock. the facilities you have at your disposal, and third, but not least, the market to 

which you must cater. Any or all of the standard breeds of today are good and 
the advocates of each and every breed can give you innumerable reasons why their special favorite has 
many points of excellence over all others. We will, therefore, not attempt, and could not think of 
advocating any special breed. We will, however, give a correct and concise description of each and every 
one of the principal breeds, telling you why, in our estimation, a certain breed is better than another 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



for certain purposes; beyond this you will have to make a selection yourself and, after all is said and 
done, the man who is breeding and raising hogs for market must breed the type rather than the breed. 
He is interested in filling the pork barrel, and not in producing a pedigree, or in gaining blue ribbons. 
Riiiht here is the greatest trouble and the one great fault, if there is such a thing, that American 
swine breeders have fallen into. In the mad rush to take gold medals and blue ribbons and earn 
fancy prizes tor high bred stock, we regret to say that many of them have entirely lost sight of the funda- 
mental principles of the pork business, which after all is the production of meat. What cares the farmer 
if a prize boar will produce a pig conforming, even to the minutest detail, with the requirements of the 
score cards of the various live stock record associations, if this same pig cannot produce pork econom- 
ically? While there is a necessarily wide standard of requirements by the various breeders, the men 
who raise pork and are looking for meat yielding and profit producing animals, all agree upon a standard, 
and this standard is one that has been developed by experience, They want quality, depth, length, 
width of form, constitutions of flesh producing capacity, and general good health, regardless of color or 
fine points. It was not many 3 r ears ago that the distinct large type of a hog was the favorite on the 
market. He was the favorite because the public demanded such a class of meat, but the public is very 
fickle, and today the bacon hog, or the hog that produces leaner meat, is rapidly coming to the front. 
This does not necessarily mean that new breeds will be inaugurated, but that the existing breeds will, 
by elimination, by mating and special feeding, be made to conform to the demand. On the following 
pages we present a score card of five different breeds of hogs of the larger type. This score card is com- 
piled from the score cards of the National Association of Expert Judges on Swine; and is copied from 
the Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin No. 47, issued by the United States Government. 



DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 

HEAD. 

Poland China. — Head broad, even" and smooth between and above the eyes; slightly dished, 
tapering evenly and gradually to- near the end of the nose; inclined to shortness, but not enough to give 
the appearance of stubby nose; in male a masculine expression and appearance; broad lower jaw. 

Berkshire. — Head short, broad, coming well forward at poll ; face short and fine and well dished, 
broad between the eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose; surface even and regular. 

Duroc Jersey. — Head small in proportion to size of body, wide between the eyes ; face finely dished 
(about half way between a Poland China and a Berkshire), and tapering well down to the nose; surface 
smooth and even. 

Chester White. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat, but not too full; jaws broad and strong; 
forehead medium, high and wide; face short and smooth, wide between the eyes; nose neat and tapering 
and slightly dished. 

Victoria. — Head rather small and neat; face medium, dished and smooth, wide between eyes, 
and tapering from eyes to nose. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Head long and narrow between the eyes; nose uneven and coarse; too large at 
the muzzle or head too short ; not full or high above the eyes or too much wrinkled around or above the 
eye 

Berkshire. — Head long, narrow and coarse; forehead low and narrow; jaws narrow or contracted; 
lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long and straight between eyes; nose coarse, thick, or crooked, 
or ridgy. 

Duroc Jersey. — Head large and coarse; narrow between the eyes; face straight; nose crooked or 
much dished. 

Chester White. — Head long, narrow and coarse; forehead low and narrow; jaws contracted and 
weak; face long,, narrow and straight; nose coarse, clumsy, or dished like a Berkshire. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 79 



EYES. 

Poland China; — Full, clear, prominent and expressive. 
„ Berkshire. — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray. > 

Duroc Jersey. — Lively, bright and prominent. 

Chester White. — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles of surrounding fat. 

Victoria. — Medium size, prominent, bright, clear and lively in young, and of quiet expression 
in aged animals. 

OBJECTIONS, 

Poland China. — Dull of expression, deep set, or obscure; sight impaired by wrinkles, fat or other 
causes. 

Berkshire. — Small, dull, bloodshot, deep set, or obscure; sight impaired by wrinkles, fat or other 
causes. 

Duroc Jersey. — Dull, weak and obscure. 

Chester White. — Small, deep, or obscure; sight impaired in any way. 

EARS. 

Poland China. — Ears attached to the head by a firm short knuckle, giving free and easy action; 
standing up slightly from the base to within two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop should 
occur; in size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape; slightly inclined outward. 

Berkshire. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward with advancing age; medium 
, size, thin and soft. 

Duroc Jersey. — Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward, downward and slightly outward, 
carrying a slight curve; attached to the head very neatly. 

Chester White. — Medium size, not too thick, soft; attached to the head so as not to look clumsy; 
pointing forward and slightly outward; fully under control of the animal; drooping so as to give a grace- 
ful appearance. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Large, floppy, straight, upright, or coarse; knuckle long, letting the ear drop 
too close to the head and face, hindering the .animal in their free use. 

Berkshire. — Large, coarse, thick, round, or drooping; long or large knuckle; difference in form 
or position from each other; animal unable to control their position. 

Duroc Jersey. — Very large, nearly round, very thick, swinging or flabby ; not of same size ; dif- 
fering in position, and not under control of animal. 

Chester White. — Large, upright, coarse, thick, round, too small, dropping too close to the face, 
animal unable to control them. 

NECK. 

Poland China. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched; rounding and full from poll to shoulder, 
with due regard to the characteristics of the sex. 

Berkshire. — Full, deep, short, and slightly arched, broad on top, well connected with shoulders. 

Duroc Jersey. — Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching. 

Chester White. — Wide, deep, short and nicely arched. 

Victoria. — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched, and full at top. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoulder to the poll, with unevenness 
caused by wrinkles or creases. 

Berkshire. — Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth. 

Duroc Jersey. — Long, shallow and thin. 

Chester White. — Long, narrow, thin, flat on top, tucked up, not extending down to the breast 
bone. 



SO THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



JOWL. 

Poland China. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fullness back near to point of 
shoulders and below line of lower jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is 
carried up level. 

Berkshire. — Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 

Duroc Jersey. — Broad, full and neat, carrying fullness back to point of shoulder, and on a line 
with breast bone. 

Chester White. — Full, smooth, neat and firm, carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket 
when the head is carried up level. 

Victoria. — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from loose, flabby fat. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Light, flabby, thin and wedged shaped; deep wrinkled, not drooping below 
the line of lower jaw, and not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 

Berkshire. — Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled. 

Duroc Jersey. — Too large, loose and flabby; small, thin and wedging. 

Chester White. — Light, too large and flabby, rough and deep wrinkled; not carrying fullness 
back to shoulder and brisket. 

SHOULDERS. 

Poland China. — Broad, and oval at the top, showing evenness with the back and neck, with 
good width from the top to the bottom, and even, smoothness extending well forward. 

Berkshire. — Broad, deep and full; not extending above line of back; and as wide on top as on 
back, carrying side down to line of belly, and having lateral width. 

Duroc Jersey. — Moderately broad, very deep and full, carrying thickness well down and extending 
above line of back. ^ 

Chester White. — Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line with the side, and carrying size 
down to line of belly. 

Victoria. — Broad, deep and full; not higher than the line of back, and as wide on top as on back. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Narrow at the top or bottom, not so deep as the body, uneven width; shields - on 
pigs under eight months of age, or showing too much shield at any age. 

Berkshire. — Lacking in depth or width; thick beyond the line" of sides and hams or extending above 
line of back; heavy shields on hogs under eighteeji months of age. 

Duroc Jersey. — Small, thin, shallow, extending above line of back; boars under one year old 
heavily shielded. 

Chester White. — Narrow at top or bottom; not full nor same depth as body, extending above 
line of back shields on boars too coarse and prominent. 



CHEST. 

Poland China. — Large, wide, deep and full; even underlined to the shoulder and sides, with no 
creases; giving plenty of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth, indicating much vitality. 
Brisket smooth, even and broad; wide between the legs, and extending well forward, showing in front. 

Berkshire. — Large, wide, deep and roomy; full girth; breast bone curving well forward, extend- 
ing back on level ; not tucked up ; broad between fore legs. 

Duroc Jersey. — Large, very deep, filled full behind shoulders; breast bone extending well for- 
ward so as to be readily seen. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 81 



Chester White. — Large, deep and roomy, so as not to cramp vital organs ; full in girth around the 
heart; the breast bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front of legs, and let down so as to be 
even with the line of belly ; showing a width of not less than 7 inches between the fore legs of a full grown 
hog. 

Victoria. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with a large girth back of shoulders. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in back of the fore legs; 
showing too narrow between the legs; not depth enough back of the shoulders; brisket uneven, narrow, 
not prominent. 

Berkshire. — Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, lacking depth of fullness; breast bone 
crooked or tucked up. 

Duroc Jersey. — Flat, shallow, or not extending well down between fore legs. 

Chester White. — Narrow, pinched, heart girth less than flank girth, too far let down between 
fore legs, breast bone crooked or too short. 

BACK AND LOIN. 

Poland China. — Broad, straight, or slightly arched, carrying same width from shoulder to ham; 
surface even, smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, but broad on top, indicating 
well strung ribs; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction with side, 
so that a straight edge placed along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point 
of ham; should be shorter than lower belly line. - . 

Berkshire. — Broad and straight, carrying same width from shoulder to ham; surface even and 
smooth, without creases or projections, and not too long. 

Duroc Jersey. — Back medium in breadth, straight or slightly arching, carrying even width from 
shoulder to ham ; surface even and smooth. 

Chester White. — Back broad on top, straight or slightly arched, uniform width, smooth, free 
from lumps or rolls, shorter than lower belly line, same height and width at shoulders as at ham; loin 
wide and full. 

Victoria. — -Broad, straight, are slightly arched, carrying same width from shoulders to ham; 
level and full at loin; sometimes higher at hip than at shoulder. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight 
line; humped or wrinkled; too long or sunfish shape; loin high, narrow, depressed, or humped up; 
surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at sides not so great as shoulder and ham. 

Berkshire. — Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line. 

Duroc Jersey. — Narrow, creased behind the shoulders, swayed or humped back. 

Chester White. — Back narrow, creased back of shoulders, sunfish" shape, humped, swayed, too 
long or lumpy rolls, uneven in width; loin narrow, depressed or humped. 

SIDES AND RIBS. 

Poland China.— Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles, carrying size down to belly; even 
from ham to shoulders, ribs of good length, well sprung at top and bottom. 

Berkshire. — Sides, full, ^smooth, firm, and deep, carrying size down to belly; even from ham to 
shoulder; ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. 

Duroc Jersey. — Sides very deep, medium in length, level between shoulders and hams and carry- 
ing out full down to line of belly; ribs long, strong and sprung in proportions to width of shoulders and 
hams. 

Chester White. — Sides full, smooth, deep, carrying size down to belly; even with lines of ham and 
shoulder ; ribs long, well sprung at top and bottom, giving the hog a square form. 

Victoria. — Ribs well sprung at top, strong and firm; sides deep, full, smooth and firm, free from 
creases. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



OBJECTIONS. 
Poland China. — Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as at top; drawn in at shoulder, 
- produce a crease, or pinched and tucked up and in, as it approaches the ham; uneven surface; 
ribs flat or too short. 

Berkshire. — Flat, thin, flabby, not so full at bottom as at top; ribs weak; not well sprung at top 
or bottom. 

Duroc Jersey. — Flabby, creased, shallow and not carrying proper width from top to bottom. 
Chester White. — Flat, thin, flabby, compressed at top, shrunken at shoulder and ham; uneven 
surface; ribs flat and too short. 

BELLY AND FLANK. 

Poland China. — Belly broad, straight and full, indicating capacity and room, being about the 
same or on a level at the flank with the under line of the chest. Under line straight, or nearly so, and 
free from flabby appearance. 

Berkshire. — Wide, full and straight on bottom line. 

Duroc Jersey.— Straight and full and carrying well 'out to line of sides ; flank well down to lower 
line of sides. 

Chester White. — Same width as back, full, making a straight line and dropping as low at flank 
as at bottom of chest ; line of lower edge running parallel with sides ; flank full and even with body. 

Victoria. — Wide, straight and full; as low or slightly lower at flank than at chest; flank full and' 
nearly even with the sides. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in the make up. Pinched up in 
the flank or flanked too high. 

Berkshire. — Belly narrow and saggy; flank thin and tucked up. 

Duroc Jersey.— Narrow, tucked up or drawn in, sagging or flabby. 

Chester White. — Belly narrow, pinched, sagging, or flabby; flank thin, tucked up or drawn in. 

HAMS AND RUMP. 

Poland China. — Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to hock; fully developed above 
and below, being wide at the point of the hips, carrying width well down to the lower part of the hams; 
fleshy, plump, rounding fullness perceptible everywhere; rump rounding and gradually sloping from 
the loin to the root of the tail; broad and well developed all along from loin and gradually rounding to 
the buttock; lower front part of ham should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh; even width of ham 
and rump with the back, loin and body; even a greater width as to females not objectionable. 

Berkshire. — Hams broad, full and long; the lower front part of ham should be full and stifle well 
covered with flesh, coming well down on hock; rump should have a rounding slope from loin to root of 
tail, same width as back, and filling out' on each side and above the tail. 

Duroc Jersey. — Broad, full and well let down to the hock; buttock full and coming nearly down 
and filling full between hocks; rump should have a round slope from loin to root of tail, same width as 
back and well filled out around tail. 

Chester White. — Ham broad, full, wide, long and deep, admitting of no swells; buttock full, neat 
and clean, thus avoiding flabbiness; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely tapering toward the hock; 
rump should have a slightly rounding shape from loin to root of tail, same width as back, making an even 
line with sides. 

Victoria. — Hams long, full, wide, nicely rounded, trim and free from fat; buttocks large and full, 
reaching well down toward hocks; rump slightly sloped from end of loin to root of tail." 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 83 



OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Hams short, narrow, too round, or too slim, not filled out above or below, or 
unshapely for deep meat; not so wide as the body; back or loin too tapering or small; rump narrow or 
pointed, not plump or well filled, or too steep from loin to taih 

Berkshire. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and coming down on hock; cut up 
too high in crotch; rump flat, narrow or too steep. 

Duroc Jersey. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting well down to hock; cut up too high in 
crotch; rump narrow, flat, or peaked at root of tail, or too steep. 

Chester White. — Ham narrow, short, not filled out to stifle, too much cut up in crotch or twist, 
not coming down to hock; buttock flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long,- too steep, sharp or peaked at 
root of tail. 

LEGS AND FEET. 

Poland China. — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart and squarely under body, tapering, 
well muscled and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee, round and tapering, capable of sus- 
taining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pastern short 
and nearly upright; feet firm, short, tough and free from defects. 

Berkshire. — Legs short, straight, and strong, set wide apart with hoofs erect and capable of hold- 
ing good weight. 

Duroc Jersey. — Medium size and length, straight, nicely tapered, wide apart and well set under 
the body; pastern short and strong; feet short, firm and tough. 

Chester White. — Legs short, straight, set well apart and squarely under body; bone of good 
size; firm, well muscled, wide above knee and below knee and hock round and tapering, enabling the 
animal to carry its weight with ease; pastern short and nearly upright: feet short, firm, tough and free 
from defects. 

Victoria. — Legs short, set well apart and firm, wide above knee and hock, tapering below; feet 
firm and standing well up on toes. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small above hock and knee; bone large, 
coarse, as large at foot as above knee; pastern long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out 
of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable 
to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 

Berkshire.— Legs long, slim, ^coarse, crooked; muscles light, pastern long, slim or flat; feet long 
or sprawling. 

Duroc Jersey. — Legs extremely long or very short, slim, coarse, crooked ; as large below knee and 
hock as above, set too close together; hocks turned in or out of straight line; feet, hoofs long, slim, and 
weak toes, spreading or crooked. 

Chester White. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too coarse, too close together; weak muscles 
above hock and knee; bond large and coarse, without taper; pastern long, crooked, slim like a deer's; 
hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked or turned up. 

TAIL. 

Poland China. — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and tapering well and carried in a curl. 

Berkshire. — Set well up, fine, tapering and neatly curled. 

Duroc Jersey.- — Medium, large at base and nicely tapered and rather bushy at end. 

Chester White. — Small, smooth, tapering, well set on, root slightly covered with flesh, carried 
in a curl. 

Victoria. — Small, fine and tapering, nicely curled. 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Coarse and long withotit a curl ; or short crooked or stubby ; or too small, fine, even, 
not tapering. 

Berkshire. — Coarse and straight, too low. 

Duroc Jersey. — Extremely heavy, too long, ropy. 

Chester White. — Coarse, long, clumsy, set too high or too low, hanging like a rope. 

COAT. 

Poland China. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body well; not clipped; 
evenly distributed over the body. 

Berkshire. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body well; not clipped; evenly 
distributed over the body. 

Duroc Jersey. — Moderately thick and fine, straight, smooth, and covering the body well. 

Chester White. — Fine straight, or wavy, evenly distributed and covering the bod)- well; nicely 
clipped coat no objection. 

Victoria. — Fine and silky, evenly covering the body. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Bristles and hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly; swirls, standing up, ends of 
hairs split and brown, not evenly distributed over all of the body except belly; clipped coat should ba 
cut 1 . 5 points. 

Berkshire. — Hair coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly distributed over body; swirls or clipped. 

Duroc Jersey.— Too many bristles, hair coarse, harsh and rough, wavy or curly; swirls or not 
evenly laid over the body. - 

Chester White. — Bristles and hair coarse, thin, standing up, not evenly distributed over the 
body except the belly. , 

COLOR. 

Poland China. — Black, with six white points — tip of tail, four white feet and white in face, on 
the nose or on the point of lower jaw — all to be perceptible without close examination; splashes of white 
on the jaw, legs or flank, or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable. 

Berkshire. — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail, and an occasional splash on arm. 

Duroc Jersey. — Cherry red, without other admixtures. 

Chester White. — White (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not indicate impurity of blood). 

Victoria. — White, with occasional dark spots on skin. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spo^s; speckled* with white hairs over the body; 
mottled face of white and black; hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance. 

Berkshire.— Solid black or black points, or white spots on body. 

Duroc Jersey. — Very dark red, or shading brown, very pale or light red, black spots over the body, 
black flecks on belly and legs not desired, but admissable. 

Chester White. — Color any other than white. 

SIZE. 

Poland China. — Large for age; condition, vigor and vitality to be considered. There should 
be a difference between breeding animals and those kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per cent 
in size. In show condition, or when fat, a two year old boar should weigh not less than 600 pounds; 



THE HOG INDUSTRY. 85 



and a sow not less than 500 pounds; boar one year old and over, 400 pounds; sow, 350 pounds; boar 
eighteen months old, 500 pounds; sow, 450 pounds; boars and sows six months old, not less than 160 
pounds; all hogs in just fair breeding condition one-fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a 
young hog has cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other points being equal. Fine 
quality and size combined are the desirable points. 

Berkshire. — Large for age; boar two years and over, not less than 450 pounds; sow same age, 
400 pounds ; boar eighteen months old, 350 pounds ; sow same age, 325 pounds ; boar twelve months old, 
300 pounds; sow same age, 275 pounds; boar and sow six months old, 150 pounds. 

Duroc Jersey. — Large for age and condition ; boar two years old and ever should weigh 600 
pounds ; sow same age and condition, 500 pounds ; boar eighteen months old, 475 pounds ; sow, 400 pounds ; 
boar twelve months old, 350 pounds ; sow, 300 pounds ; boar and sow pigs six months old, 150 pounds. 
These figures are for animals in a fair show condition. 

Chester White. — Large for age and condition; boar two years old and over, if in good flesh, 
should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sow same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds; boar 
eighteen months old, in good flesh, should weigh not less than 400 pounds; sow, 350 pounds; boar 
twelve months old, not less than 300 pounds; sow, 300 pounds; boars and sows six months old, not 
less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in proportion. 

Victoria. — Boar two years old and over, when in good condition, should weigh not less than 500 
pounds ; sow, same age and conditions, 450 pounds ; boar twelve months old, not less than 300 pounds ; 
sow in good flesh, 300 pounds; pigs five to six months old, 140 to 160 pounds. 



\ 



OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China.— Overgrown, coarse, flabby, loose appearance; gangling, hard to fatten; too fine; 
.undersized; short, stubby, inclined to chubby fatness; not a hardy, robust animal. 
Berkshire. — Underweight, coarse, not in good form tp„fatten. 
Duroc Jersey. — Rough and coarse and lacking in feeding qualities. 
Chester White. — Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to fatten. 

ACTION AND STYLE. 

Poland China. — Action vigorous, easy and graceful; style attractive; high carriage; in males 
testicles should be prominent and of about the same size, yet not too large and pouchy. 

Berkshire.- — Action vigorous; style graceful and attractive. ^_ 

Duroc Jersey. — Action vigorous and animated; style free and easy. 

Chester White. — Action easy and graceful ; style attractive ; high carriage ; in males testicles should 
be readily seem same size and carriage. 

Victoria. — Action easy and graceful but quiet. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low carriage; wabbling or twisted walk; 
a seemingly tired or lazy appearance; not standing erect or firm. 

Berkshire. — Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 

Duroc Jersey. — Dull or stupid, awkward and wabbling; boar's testicles not easily seen, nor of same 
size or carriage, too large or only one showing. 

Chester White. — Sluggish, awkward, low carriage, wabbling walk; in males testicles not evenly 
seen, not of the same size or carriage, or only one showing. 

CONDITION. 

Poland China. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh 
fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps and wrinkles; hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding 
qualities. 

Berkshire. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores ; soft and mellow to the touch ; flesh fine, 
evenly laid on and free from lumps; hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding qualities. 



So THE HOG INDUSTRY. 



Duroc Jersey. — Healthy, skin free from any scurf, scales, sores or mange; flesh evenly laid over 
entire body and free from any lumps. 

Chester White. — Healthy, skin clear and bright, free from scurf or sores; flesh fine and mellow 
to the touch, evenly laid on and free from lumps; good feeding qualities.- 

Victoria. — Healthy, skim clear and white or pink in color; free from scurf; firm flesh and evenly 
laid on. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh; flabbiness or lumpy flesh; 
too much fat for breeding; hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or 
total. 

Berkshire. — Unhealth}' - , skin scaly, scabby or harsh; flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too much fat for 
breeding; hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or total. 

Duroc Jersey. — Unhealthy, scurfy, scaly, sores, mange, too fat for breeding purposes; hair harsh 
and standing up; poor feeders. 

Chester White. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, scabby or harsh;" flesh lumpy or flabby; hair harsh, 
dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; total deafness. 

DISPOSITION. 

Poland China. — Lively, easily handled, and seeming kind and responsive to good treatment 
Berkshire. — Quiet, gentle and easy to handle. 
Duroc Jersey. — Very quiet and gentle ; easily handled or driven. 

Chester White. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled, with ambition enough to look out for them- 
selves if neglected. 

Victoria.— Quiet and gentle. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Poland China. — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild, or of vicious turn. 

Berkshire. — Cross, restless, vicious and wild. 

Duroc Jersey. — Wild, vicious or stubborn. 

Chester White. — Cross, restless, vicious or wild ; no ambition. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS-FORM. 

Berkshire. — Very large and heavy or drooping ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of shoul- 
ders and over the back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed; deformed or crooked legs; 
feet broken down so that the animal walks on pastern joints. 

Duroc Jersey. — Ears standing erect; small, cramped chest; crease back of shoulders and over back 
so as to cause a depression in the back easily noticed ; seriously deformed legs ; badly broken down feet. 

Chester White. — Upright ears, small, cramped chest; creased around back of shoulders and over 
the back, causing depression easily noticed; feet broken down, causing the animal to walk on joints; 
deformed or badly crooked legs. 

Victoria. — Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or deformed legs; large, coarse, drooping ears. 

SIZE. 

Berkshire. — Overgrown, gangling, narrow, contracted, or not two thirds large enough for age. 
Duroc Jersey. — Very small or not two-thirds large enough, as given by the standard. 
Chester White. — Chuff y, or not two-thirds large enough for age. 

CONDITION. 

Berkshire. — Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total blindness from any cause. 
Chester White. — Squabby fat, deformed, seriously diseased, barrenness, total blindness. 
Victoria. — Excessive fatness, barrenness, deformity in any part of the body. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 87 

SCORE. 

Berkshire. — Less than 60 points. 
Duroc Jersey. — Less than 50 points. 
Chester White. — Less than 60 points, 

PEDIGREE. 

Berkshire. — Not eligible to record. 
Duroc Jersey. — Not eligible to record. 
Chester White. — Not eligible to record. 
Victoria. — Not eligible to record. 

COLOR. 

Chester White. — Black or sandy spots in hair. 

Victoria. — Other than white or creamy white, with occasional dark spots in skin. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

The foregoing remarks will apply to the individual characteristics of the animals of the different 
breeds, regarding them simply from a pork producing standpoint. Considering each breed as a unit 
it will be noticed that there are varying degrees of adaptability to environment. One breed succeeds 
well in a certain locality, and under certain conditions, while others do not. Some breeds are adapted 
to grazing and rustling better than others ; and these same requirements will enable the prospective hog 
breeder to determine to a large degree what he is going to raise. 

After the locality and breed have been decided upon, and the various details 
Breeders. that are incident to a beginning are settled, it may be well for the beginner to 

examine into his own qualifications. To make stock raising of any kind a suc- 
cess, a man must be, first of all, a lover of animals, taking a delight in their growth and development, 
and quick to understand their needs. He must enjoy the labor of caring for them, and must be willing 
to give that labor without grudging and often without stint. He should be cleanly and neat in habits, 
and then his barnyard should be likewise. A knowledge of some of the laws of sanitation and veterinary 
science will be a great help, and an acquaintance with the principles of selection- and breeding of stock 
is of course a necessity. The apparent ease with which many men succeed with live stock is due in large 
measure to the possession of this intimate knowledge of the habits and requirements of their animals. 
They do not pamper their stock, but they never neglect it. The personality of the breeder, including 
good health, natural intelligence, etc., has more to do with success or failure than any other factor, 
after a suitable location, and will do wonders toward overcoming a harsh climate and an unproductive soil. 

The first selection of breeding stock is of prime importance. The effects of mis- 

The Founda- mating are always difficult to breed out of a herd, and the effects on a beginner 

tion Herd. is such that a mistake may completely discourage him. It is good economy 

to make haste slowly at this time. The start should be made with a few 

animals; five sows will make a large enough herd for the first year. They should be good individuals, 

and it will even be much better to buy one high class sow than five poor ones. This will be real 

economy and the development of the herd will prove its value. It will be well if a beginner can ODtain 

the assistance of an old and successful breeder in making his start. 

_ The- expression, "The male is half the herd," is repeatedly quoted. So far as 
Selecting our knowledge of heredity has developed, other conditions being equal, there 

the SOWS. is uniform prepotency in both sexes; the influence of the two parents on the 

offspring is theoretically equal. Therefore, if the boar is half the herd, the sows 
certainly make up the other half, and their selection is a highly important matter. They may be pur- 
chased, already bred, some time before the boar, and quite an item of expense will thus be saved. Then, 



B8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

by the time the sows have been watched and studied for a season and have each raised a litter of pigs, 
the owner will be much better prepared to select a suitable male, and he can then get one to use on both 
dams and offsprings. The sows selected should be nearly the same age, which should be about twelve 
months, and all should be safe in pig, preferably to the sfeme boar. Their individual characteristics 
should, perhaps, be first looked to. While hogs do not show the strong difference of sex that we look for 
in a cow or mare, these always constitute a marked feature of a good brood sow. The smoother fore- 
head and lighter, finer neck are points of decision from the signs of masculinity in a boar. The forehead 
should be broad between the eyes, the throat clean and trim, the neck moderately thin, and the shoul- 
ders smooth and deep; the back should be fairly wide and straight, and ample room for the vital organs 
should be provided by a good width and depth of chest, well sprung ribs and straight, deep sides — a 
deep, capacious body from end to end. Depth of chest and abdomen are especially important in a brood 
sow. Pinched chests and waists must be avoided. It is generally advised that sows with much length 
of body should be selected for breeding purposes, length of body being regarded as an indication of 
fecundity. It will certainly do no harm to select sows that are especially long, but care should be taken 
that quality go with the increase in length. The loose jointed, long coupled, slow maturing and slow 
fattening type should not be allowed to get a foothold in the herd. The influence of length of body on 
a sow's fecundity is by no means positively known. Many short bodied sows have proved to be won- 
derfully prolific breeders. The surest means by which to select prolific sows is to keep an accurate record 
of the herd and cull all sows that do not yield a certain percentage annually. Each sow should have at 
least twelve well developed teats, thus providing for the proper nourishment of large litters. 

The important qualifications of the market hog should be looked for; viz., smoothly covered shoul- 
ders, a wide, straight, deeply fleshed back, well sprung ribs, straight, deep sides, broad rumps, and deep, 
well rounded hams. A broad, well developed pelvic cavity will generally insure a sow easy in 
parturition. The body should stand on moderately short, straight legs, with a moderate amount of bone. 
All hogs, particularly breeding animals, should stand well up on the toes. There is a tendency, more 
marked in some breeds than in others, for the pasterns to break down so that the animal walks on the 
pastern bone instead of on the toes. This is particularly the case with the hind pasterns and is more 
often noticed in boars than in sows. It is a weakness that seriously impairs the usefulness of the animal. 

Brood sows should, of course, show quality, but this should not become overrefined and delicate. 
Extremes of refinement usually lead to delicacy of constitution and often accompany sterility. As a 
last but very important point, these first sows should be uniform in type. Uniformity of type goes far 
beneath the surface. It includes every part of the internal organization. The reproductive system, 
the digestive system, the circulatory system, and even the nervous system influence uniformity. The 
breeder may often be disappointed in his results from sows that he thought were of a uniform type. 
His pigs are a heterogeneous lot, unpleasing to the eye, unsatisfactory in the feed lots, and profitless to 
the pocket. In such a case a lack of uniformity in the powers of heredity may, no doubt, be assigned as 
the cause of these unfortunate results. It must be borne in mind that it is comparatively easy to select 
sows that are uniform in quality, constitution and conformation. This may be done by any skillful judge 
of hogs. But our only basis for the selection of animals uniform in reproductive powers and heredity 
of type is the breeding records of their sires and dams and the standard of the herd from which they 
come. For this reason it is readily apparent why it is an advantage for tfie beginner to select his 
sows from one well established herd. Whether the sows will be uniform in breeding powers can only be 
determined definitely by testing them in the herd, but to select them from the same herd or from herds 
of similar breeding will be a reasonable guarantee of good results. When a sow has shown herself to be 
a prolific breeder. she should be retained as long as her reproductive powers are maintained. Uniformity 
in a herd is the surest mdex to the worth of the stock and the skill of the breeder, and its advantages are 
obvious. A uniform '-jx, of pigs will feed better, look better when fattened, and command a higher price 
on the market than a mixed lot. With a bunch of sows closely conforming to the same standard, whose . 
reproductive powers are similar, uniform pigs may be expected. The importance of the male in the herd 
should not be asserted at the expense of the females, yet the importance of the male of marked excellence 
must not be minimized. The boar represents 50 per cent of the reproductive powers concentrated in 
one animal; the sows represent an equal amount of reproductive force, divided up among ten or twenty 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 89 



or fifty individuals. If, then, these females do not, in their conformation and fecundity, conform strictly 
to the same type, they are merely convenient machines for the birth and rearing^of young, not what 
they might be, an influential force in furthering the plans of the breeder and raising the standard of the 
herd. It is not proposed to discuss at length in these pages the operation of the forces of prepotency 
as varying factors in breeding operations. The relative influence of one parent over another, the 
swamping of a weakly organized female influenced by a strong prepotent male factor, or vice versa, are 
interesting and important, but belong to the special study of heredity. 

If there is a tendency at times to exhaust unduly the influence of the boar, 
Selecting and neglect that of the sow, the beginner should not permit himself to reverse 

the Boar. things and entirely neglect the boar. It was, indeed, the feeling that any male 

could be used so long as he had sufficient strength for service that brought about 
arguments in'^avor of the value of the boar. A breeder cannot afford to neglect the animals of either 
sex. The male has, perhaps, the greater influence on the herd, for the simple reason that every pig in 
the herd is sired by him, whereas they have not all the same dam. To achieve the best results, a breeder 
should never allow the standard of his sows to be lowered, and should always couple them with a boar 
of a little better grade. One thing must not be forgotten, and it indicates the chief difference 
between the influence of the two sexes in the herd : A superior boar may be used on a herd of inferior sows 
with good results, but the use of an inferior boar on sows of high quality will have a disastrous out- 
come. The one method raises the standard of the herd; the other invariably lowers it. A boar with 
the male characteristics strongly developed should be selected, preferably as a yearling, or else as a pig 
that had been purchased at the same time as the sows and allowed to come to maturity before using. 
He should have a strongly masculine head, and a well crested neck. His shoulders should be developed 
according to age; but strong shoulder development . in pigs under a year or eighteen months is 
objectionable. 

The same indications of a good pork producing carcass that the sows require should be seen in 
the boars — a broad, straight, deeply fleshed back, much depth and length of sides, and well developed hind 
quarters. The boar should be selected to correct any defects that may be common to the sows ; for 
example, if the sows are rather coarse in bone and loosely built, the boar should have high quality — 
fine bones, skin and hair. If the sows tend toward overrefinement and delicacy, the boar should be rather 
rangy and strong boned. There is a common belief that the male parent influences principally the 
extremities and general appearance of the offspring, while the vital organs (the heart, lungs and viscera) 
resemble those of the female parent. This theory is strongly questioned by some modern authorities 
on heredity; but, so long as our knowledge of the subject is so limited and this particular phase is in dis- 
pute, it can do no harm to select breeding animals according to the old ideas. The visible organs of the 
reproductive system should be well developed and clearly defined. A boar should not be bought with 
small, indefinitely placed testicles. Avoid particularly a boar with only one testicle visible. The boar 
should stand up on his toes. There should not be the slightest indication of weakness in the pasterns 
of the young ones ; in a matured boar (two or three years of age) that has seen hard service, it may be 
expected that he will be a little down on his pasterns, but a six or eight months old pig that does not 
carry himself on upright pasterns is not a safe animal to select for a herd boar; the hind pastern will 
be in much danger of breaking down with a little age and service. Look carefully to the set of the hind 
legs. The back should be carefully set, straight and closely coupled to the hind quarters. A crooked or 
long coupled back is as great a drawback as a weak pastern. 

The details of selection, feed and management of live stock are intricately 
Feed and interwoven and interdependent. A man may be an excellent judge of stock, 
Management. able to select those animals from his herd whose use will give the best results 
in breeding, but if his system of feeding and management is not such that the 
animal will thrive and yield a good increase, good selecting is rendered ineffective. On the other hand, 
the herd may be carefully fed and skillfully managed, the feed may be the best and properly combined, 
the shelter warm and dry and the water supply pure, but if the herd is poorly selected the owner is prac- 
tically throwing away the feed he gives them.. 



90 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

Hogs require attention, regardless of condition, age or sex, but the management 
The SOWS. of the brood sows is the surest test of the breeder's skill. If the sows are care- 

lessly fed during pregnancy, trouble of some kind is sure to ensue at farrowing; if 
overfed after farrowing, losses may occur among the pigs from scours and thumps. At no time is the 
development of the pigs so easily influenced as while they are dependent on the sow's milk, the first 
month of life. Excepting the ravages of epidemic, perhaps the greatest death losses in the herd occur 
during this time, including farrowing. The accidents during farrowing, an attack of scours due to the 
milk of the dam, or a chill while following the sow in pasture on a wet day, may stop growth temporarily, 
leaving a permanently stunted pig, or may result fatally. On the other hand, the results of good 
management during pregnancy are as marked as the unfortunate consequences of careless methods^ 

It is assumed that bred sows are purchased as the foundation stock. If these 
Management Dur- sows are not all from the same herd, they should not be placed together until 
ing Pregnancy, they are all known to be free from vermin and contagious disease. They must 

be washed or dipped and quarantined from each other at least thirty days. If 
they come from the same herd, quarantine may not be necessary.. It is always well for the purchaser to 
ascertain from the seller the details of management and feeding to which the animals were accustomed 
before changing owners. This system of feeding should be conformed to, or, if this is not possible, the 
old ration sh6uld be gradually replaced by the more convenient one, the time of transition being from 
ten days to two weeks. For the first few days newcomers should be fed lightly. 

During pregnancy two facts must be borne in mind. The first is that the sow is doing double duty. 
Not only is she keeping up her own bodily functions, but the development of the fetal litter is a con- 
stantly increasing drain on her system. Her feed should consist of grains and tubers rich in protein. 
The ration should never be allowed to become excessive in carbohydrates. By referring to other parts 
of this bQok, in which feedstuff s are fully described, the attendant can easily figure out a well balanced 
ration. To this should be added Davis Stock Food in proportion of 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock 
Food to each 10 pounds of feed, whether it be slop or dry. The addition of Davis Stock Food to the 
ration will materially benefit the sow, not only keeping her digestive organs in perfect condition, but 
improving her appetite; the nux vomica, one of the ingredients, being one of the. best tonics known, will 
keep the system toned up, and consequently keep her in good spirits. The iron and sulphur, both bloocU 
purifiers, will increase the quantity of red corpuscles, thus insuring strong ahd healthy pigs, while the 
charcoal is, as every hog breeder knows, one of the best things on earth to feed hogs. It is an intestinal 
antiseptic and keeps the bowels sweet and clean. One of the greatest dangers to avoid is constipation. 
The podophyllum, together with the stimulating properties of gentian and nux vomica, will take care 
of this, and the santonica will, with the other ingredients, keep the bowels free from worms. We 
think that the swine breeder will agree with us that no more ideal combination could be found. Although 
feeding at this time will not need to be so heavy as after the pigs are farrowed, it should be liberal. The 
sow's condition should be good, neither too fat nor too lean. An error which would allow the sow to 
become fat would perhaps be" least productive of serious consequences. It is hardly too much to say 
that the mistakes in feeding breeding animals are more frequently those that keep such stock in a thin, 
half starved condition, under the idea that the reproductive organs are so peculiarly liable to become 
transformed into masses of fat that the least appearance of fat on the animal's back and ribs would be 
the first step in bringing about such unfortunate circumstances. The use of the reproductive organs 
in either sex creates demands of an unusual nature on the animal's organism, and these demands must 
be met in the same manner as those of a different character, such as growth, work, etc., and that is by 
providing liberal supplies of. the proper kinds of feed. It is beyond reason that a sow can give birth to 
a strong litter of pigs after having gone through a four months' fast. 

The importance of ample feeding of pregnant females, in the case of sheep, has been shown 
recently by Mumford, in Missouri. He found that during the first six to nine weeks of life those lambs 
having the heaviest girth weight made the greatest gains , the records of the gains of the lambs after wean- 
ing were not tabulated. As the development of the fetus is intimately associated with the nutrition 
of the dam, it is urged that "we can profitably pay more attention to the development of the unborn 
lamb." Whether a similar fact may be true in the case of hogs is yet to be shown. It may not be unwise 



, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 91 

to assume that it may be so. Bad results undoubtedly may be brought about by overfeeding, especially 
as sows are naturally indolent and loath to exercise; but a counteracting influence will be found in ample 
exercise that may be provided by a large pasture, or even by driving slowly a mile or two each day. 
The necessity of exercise must not under any circumstances be overlooked. It must be remembered, 
in the second place, that the main demands upon the sow are those for the building of new tissue. Hence 
the kind of feed is important. What are known as the nitrogenous or protein bearing feeds are needed 
at this time. These" are bran, oil meal, peas, beans, oats and barley, and, to a moderate extent, wheat. 
The forage plants that are especially suitable to pregnant brood sows are the clovers and their relatives, 
alfalfa, peas, beans, vetches, etc. The ordinary pasture grasses are also of much value. Feed should 
be given in such form that the system of the sow will be at its best. All breeders lay special emphasis 
on the condition of the bowels during pregnancy, and particularly at farrowing, the special danger to 
be avoided being constipation. To this end, the greater part, if not all, of the grain ration is given 
as slop, and, toward the close of the period of gestation, oil meal or a small amount of flaxseed meal 
is introduced into the ration. Corn should not be fed in large amounts'" to breeding stock. If possible, 
it should not be fed at all to any but fattening animals. In the corn belt many farmers are often so 
situated that they have no other grain feed at hand. If corn must make up the greater part of the ration 
of the brood sow, the injurious effects may be counteracted in a measure by compelling the sows to 
exercise. Various schemes may be necessary to bring about this result, such as having the house 
and feeding floor or the feeding floor and watering place at opposite ends of the hog lot, so that a good 
walk is a necessity several times each day. If the lot is located on the hillside, the walk is made a 
climb. Some men scatter grain among straw and corn fodder with this idea of exercise in mind, and 
others resort to the whip and drive the sows gently a mile or two each day. 

During the winter more care will be needed to keep the sow in good health on account of the 
absence of pasture. Not only does the hog's system crave green feed, but more or less bulk is demanded. 
This is especially needed when a considerable amount of confinement is necessary. To offset the lack 
of green feed, nothing surpasses roots. These may be sliced or pulped and mixed with the grain, or may 
be given whole as a noon feed. Some care must be used in feeding roots, as they are laxative in effect, 
and, if fed in excessive amounts, may bring about profuse action of the bowls. Some Eastern farmers 
recommend the use of silage. If neither is available, clover or alfalfa hay, sheaf oats, or corn fodder 
may supply the bulk}'' requirements of the ration with good results. Charcoal, ashes and salt should be 
accessible at all times. These act as a vermifuge and preventive of disease, and meet the hog's craving 
for mineral matter in the feed. The constant use of such a preparation with a varied ration will, in a large 
measure, prevent sows from eating their pigs at farrowing time. During the entire period care should be 
taken to keep the system well .toned. The condition of the bowels is highly important ; for pregnant 
and "down" pigging sows are subject to constipation, which may have serious results during farrowing. 
The sow should become accustomed to being handled and should look upon her attendant as a friend. 

All the brood sows may run together up to within two weeks of farrowing time; then it is well 
to separate them, placing each sow by herself in a yard with a small house such as has been described, 
which should be dry, airy and clean. A great deal of exercise will not now be necessary. The feed 
should be reduced somewhat, and, if there is any tendency to constipation, a slight change of feed may be 
necessary. If individual houses are not available, sows cannot be separated until near farrowing time. 

The farrowing pen should be provided with fenders around at least three sides, about 6 or 8 inches 
from the floor and 6 or 8 inches from the wall. These should be strong enough to support the weight of the 
sow should she lie on them. They will, in a large measure, protect the pigs from being lain upon during 
the first few days of their lives. This will go far to prevent a very fruitful cause of loss among young 
pigs. The little fellows will soon learn to creep under these fenders when the sow lies down. Many 
breeders now use a specially arranged farrowing pen for sows, the object being to allow the sow room 
enough to farrow with reasonable comfort, but not enough to turn around. The safety of the pigs under 
such circumstances is said to be much greater than when the sow is given all the space she cares to take. 
Provision is made by raising the walls of the pen 6 or 8 inches from the floor. Such a pen may be ar- 
ranged by placing the sow at one end of her pen and nailing boards across so that she cannot turn, leaving 
space for the pigs to slip under the barrier. A number of patented farrowing pens are on the market. 



92 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

Sows vary little in the period of gestation. This period is about 112 days 
Farrowing Time, from the date of breeding. This date should be known to avoid mistakes that 

may result in loss of pigs. As the time for farrowing approaches the sow 
should be watched carefully in order that assistance may be given if necessary. If she has already 
farrowed a litter, and has been properly fed and cared for during pregnancy, little difficulty may be 
expected. With young sows, particularly those bred at an immature age, there is a considerable element 
of risk at this time, not only to the pigs but to the sow herself. The bedding of the sow at farrowing 
time should be sufficient only for cleanliness and dryness. If furnished in large amounts the pigs will 
burrow into it and get lost or be crushed. The best bedding is rye straw and wheat straw, and if the 
straw is cut it makes an almost ideal bed ; chaff is excellent if it can be obtained ; oat straw is not so 
valuable. 

The management of sows during farrowing will depend largely on the animal and on weather 
conditions. Assistance should be at hand if needed, but the sow should not be helped if she is getting 
along nicely alone. Many pigs are lost annually by lack of attention during farrowing; but, on the other 
hand, there is no doubt that in many -cases over anxiety and too much attention may do more harm than 
good, and often result seriously. The assistance that is imperative at this time is to help in cases of 
difficult labor, and to protect pigs from chilling in cold weather. The temperament of the sow 
should be considered; some are plainly annoyed by the presence of an attendant, and show it by their 
nervous actions ; others may be positively ill natured and resent interference. Such sows are better left 
alone during farrowing, and should be bred to farrow when the warm weather may be expected, so that 
the chances are as much in favor of the pigs as possible. If the sow's nervousness or ill nature leads 
her to eat her pigs, the best remedy is to put her in the pork barrel at the earliest opportunity. 

When farrowing occurs during warm .weather, a minimum amount of attention will be needed. 
The pigs are less likely to become chilled at this season and will generally find their way to the teats 
unaided. Proper preliminary feeding of the sow and good quarters will make the chance of trouble sjnall. 
On the other hand, if a sow farrows during extremely cold weather the pigs will be in danger of being 
chilled unless the house is heated. To remedy this some breeders throw a blanket over the sow until 
she is through. Others place a few hot bricks or a soapstone in the bottom of a basket or barrel, cov- 
ering them with straw and put a cloth over the top to prevent too rapid radiation, and, unless the sow 
objects too seriously, the pigs are placed in this receptacle as fast as they arrive. They will not suffer 
if they do not suck for a few minutes and they will be dry and warm when placed to the teats. This 
treatment will be necessary even in warm weather with sows that are nervous and move about during 
farrowing. When farrowing is over the pigs should all be placed to the teats, care being taken that 
each one gets his share. When the afterbirth is passed, it should be removed at once and burned or 
buried. The hind quarters of the sow should then be washed thoroughly with a good antiseptic solution. 
For this there is nothing better than Phenalin, manufactured by the Davis Stock Food Co. It is eco- 
nomical and effective, and should always be kept on hand for emergencies. There is good reason to 
believe that the eating of the afterbirth is often the beginning of the habit of eating the pigs that is so 
troublesome with some sows. 

In very cold weather it may be necessary for a few days to remove the pigs to a warm place after 
they have sucked, to prevent chilling. As new born pigs suckle as often as every two hours during 
the day this entails considerable inconvenience, but is time well spent and may mean the difference 
between profit and loss to the breeder. The pigs are soon able to fight their battle with the cold 
unaided by any but their own warmth and that of the dam. 

For the first twenty-four hours the sow should, as a rule, have no food and will need none. If, 
however, she shows signs of hunger, a thin slop of bran and shorts or a thin oat meal gruel may be given. 
Tepid water should be given to drink as the sow wants it. Never give cold water. 

The feeding for the first three or four days should be light and carefully given, and the time con- 
sumed in getting the sow on full feed should be from a week to ten days, depending on the size and thrift 
of the litter. The first feed should be very light and in the form of a thin, warm slop, such as is men- 
tioned in the preceding paragraph, working gradually to full feed. Davis Stock Food should be used 
with religious regularity from now on, as the system is, you must remember, working under full pressure 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 93 



to supply not only the bodily needs of the sow, but milk for the young, and the supply of milk must be 
kept up in quality and quantity if good pigs are to be raised. The pen should be cleaned daily if the 
sow is confined to it. 

No time should be lost after farrowing in getting the sow into the open air. 
The Sow Of course, if the pigs were farrowed during the winter months, care will be needed, 

a Mother. and it may be necessary to let the pigs reach the age of two weeks before turn- 

ing them out. They can, however, get considerable exercise in the piggery 
or in the lot with the sow, and there is often a lot adjoining the barn that is sunny and sheltered from 
cold winds where the new family may be turned for exercise. Avoid particularly allowing the pigs to 
run out during a cold rain, ? They are especially tender during the first weeks. 

The appetite for something besides the dam's milk may begin to assert itself by the time the 
pigs reach three weeks of age. This time will vary, of course; some pigs being more precocious than 
others. They will be noticed nibbling at grass, rooting a little, and even investigating the sow's feed. 
A pen should be arranged adjoining that of the dam, and separated from it by a partition, with sufficient 
room at the bottom to allow the pigs to run under. In this enclosure put a low, shallow trough, and 
place in it a little skim milk or a thin gruel similar to that recommended for the sow the first day after 
farrowing. This gruel may be made with any concentrate that is free from woody matter. If ground 
barley or oats is fed, the meal should be first sifted to remove the hulls. There is a great variety of 
feeding stuffs that can be used. The main point to be observed is that the pig's stomach is very easily 
deranged at this age and feeds must be given that will digest readily. Davis Stock Food in the proportion 
of 1 teaspoonful to each 2 pounds of feed, should be thoroughly mixed with the feed in the trough 
so as to obviate the scouring that kills so many pigs, and assist the tender digestive apparatus to take 
care of the feed, thus insuring the rapid growth and health of the young animal. The trough in which 
the pigs are fed should be kept clean. No stale feed should be allowed to remain in it from one feed to 
the next. 

As the pigs learn to eat, the feed may be increased. Skim milk should be used liberally, using 
rather large quantities at first— from 6 to 12 pounds of milk to each pound of grain. During this period 
comparatively little corn should be fed, as a rule. More growth can be obtained with a narrow ration 
and the corn should be withheld until the fattening period comes. The pigs should be kept growing con- 
stantly, and the best results will come with feeding a little under their capacity rather than all they, 
can consume. To counteract the tendency to become too fat they should have plenty of exercise. 

Scours and thumps often cause very serious losses among young pigs. The former is caused usually 
by overfeeding, by feeding badly spoiled feed, by an abrupt change of feed, or by a change in the feed 
of the dam that affects her milk. Thumps is generally caused by overfeeding and lack of exercise. 

If the pigs have been properly managed for the month after they first begin 
Weaning. to eat, and are taking feed in amounts sufficient to make them more or less 

independent of the sow's milk, weaning will not be a difficult process and will 
be brought about so that it will be scarcely perceptible, so far as the effects on the pigs are concerned. 
The time to wean will depend on the way the pigs are eating and the convenience of the breeder. If 
they are not thoroughly accustomed to grain and skim milk ration, the time must be delayed ; and 
if there is no occasion for breeding the sow, no harm is done by allowing the pigs to run with her to the 
age of twelve weeks or older. _ Breeders differ widely as to the age of weaning. The majority wean at 
six to ten weeks with a considerable number at twelve weeks, some older than twelve weeks, and a few 
younger than six weeks. The 398 breeders of pure bred hogs, situated in all parts of the country, who 
stated definitely the ages at which they wean their pigs, reported their practice as follows: 

As early as four weeks of age 13 

Not before six weeks of age 67 

Not before seven weeks of age 2 

Not before eight weeks of age 161 

Not before nine weeks of age 3 

Not before ten weeks of age 93 

Not before twelve weeks of age 59 



04 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

The breeders who wean at the early periods usually are situated where dairy by products are 
plentiful and they usually raise two litters each year, making the demands of the pigs on the sow as 
brief and light as possible. Breeders in the corn belt wean at the more mature ages, rarely weaning as 
young as six weeks, and often allowing the pigs to reach the age of sixteen weeks before the sow is taken 
away. A considerable number of breeders make no attempt to wean, as the word is generally used ; 
that is, there is no enforced separation of the sow from the pigs ; the pigs run with the sow until her 
instinct tells her that they are old enough to shift for themselves. 

The method of weaning will depend somewhat on circumstances. If the pigs are so little depend- 
ent on the sow's milk that she is gaining rapidly in flesh and lessening in milk flow, the weaning may be 
abrupt, and the sow being taken away out of hearing. If she is still milking considerably she may be 
returned to the pigs once a day for two or three days, or the pigs may be taken away in detachments, 
beginning with two or three of the largest and strongest, then the next strongest, leaving the weakest ones 
of the litter to complete the drying off. 

Whether the weaning is brought about directly or gradually, it should in all cases be complete 
and decisive. The pigs should be placed apart from the sows in quarters secure enough to prevent 
communication, and by no means should pigs be allowed to follow the sow until she is almost worn out.' 
The pigs are no better and the sow infinitely worse than if weaning had been brought about properly. 

Attention will now be given to the pigs that have been weaned. Up to this 
Feeding time all are on the same feed and under the same management. From now 

the PigS. on, however, those that are to be retained as breeding animals should be con- 

tinued on a growing ration — that is, one which is somewhat narrow and will 
develop bone and muscle to the largest extent ; those that are to be fattened for market should be fed 
more liberally, and their feed made more carbonaceous. 

The foundation on which to build up a successful breeding animal is of ample 
The Breed- range, affording an abundance of exercise and a rather narrow ration. Growth 

ing Stock. should be continuous and feed plentiful. The pigs should not be given range 

so large and . so little feed that they will develop nothing but bone ; neither 
should they have so much to eat that they will become indolent and refuse to take the exercise required 
to develop necessary bone and muscle. Exercise will strengthen the sinews and develop strong muscles, 
as well as firm joints and strong legs, while a well filled stomach will nourish these, and from this man- 
agement we may expect a sow that will be strong, thrifty and a good breeder, and a boar that will do good 
work in the herd without breaking down in any respect before he should. 

Gilts should not be served before the age of eight months, bringing the first litter at twelve months. 
This gives sufficient time for the development of the reproductive organs. 

As soon as it is determined what pigs are to be fed for market, their fattening 
Fattening. should be started without delay. Experiments have repeatedly proved that 

young animals always fatten more economically than old ones, and therefore 
any delay in finishing is accompanied with a loss. In rare instances it may pay to keep a pig over winter 
as a "store" hog; but generally he loses the flesh he accumulated while suckling his dam, and this cannot 
be replaced except at increased expense. Corn will now come into the ration, and should be supple- 
mented by all the variety of feed at the feeder's command, to which Davis Stock Food has been added 
to keep the appetite keen and the digestive system in the best of condition. This variety should consist 
of mill feeds, dairy by products and succulent feeds and, according to some authorities, pasture. If 
skim milk, whey and buttermilk are at command, they can be combined to very good advantage with 
the ration, commencing with a proportion of about 2 pounds of milk to 1 of grain at weaning time, and 
reducing the quantity of milk until the pigs are finished on grain alone. A pig gives best returns from 
dairy by products while young. The fattening pig should gain from 1 to 1J^ pounds daily, and should 
weigh between 250 and 300 pounds at nine or ten months of age. Gains made after this weight are nearly 
twice as expensive as those made when weighing from 50 to 100 pounds, and a well bred pig finished at 
a weight of about 250 pounds will very nearly fill the market requirements and bring a satisfactory price. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 95 

The pigs which are to be used for breeding purposes should be selected during 
Selection Of the time when the pigs are with the sow. If he is raising hogs for market a 
Breeding Stock, breeder will select only sows, castrating all boars. No boar should be used or 

sold that is not eligible to registry. If the breeder is raising pure bred stock 
the inferior boars will be culled out and castrated, the others being kept for the breeding market. 

The selection should be made as early as possible, depending on the skill of the breeder* That 
noted feeder, the late Mr. William Watson, used to select his show lambs and calves not later than three 
days of age. He said an animal had all the development of heart and rib at that age that he would ever 
get, and his results in the show ring bear out the accuracy of his judgment. Howevei, all are not endowed 
with the keen insight into animal form that Watson possessed. A selection for a breeding animal should 
not be made unless there are good and sufficient reasons for it, and unless the breeder is quite sure he 
is right in making the selection. The sow selected should be from large litters and from dams that are 
good milkers, and of a quiet, motherly disposition. 

The boar should be castrated during cool weather, as soon as the testicles 

Castrating descend into the scrotum. An early date is always preferable to a late one, 

and Spaying. for the development of sex characteristics is of no value to an animal that is 

intended for meat. 

The practice of, spaying sows is not very general. It is much more difficult than castration. 

It often happens that sows which have been impregnated before spaying bear good litters of pigs after 

that operation. 

The age of castration mentioned by correspondents has been tabulated, and it is found that 341 
breeders made definite statements as follows: 

At or over one week of age 5 

At or over two weeks of age ~r 40 

At or over three weeks of age 1 

At or over four weeks of age 57 

At or over six weeks of age 66 

At or over eight weeks of age 64 

At or over nine weeks of age 2 

At or over ten weeks of age 26 

At or over twelve weeks of age 80 

After the pigs are weaned the dry sows should be placed in a pasture by them- 
Management of ..selves and given very little grain; Those that show themselves to be prolific 
the Dry Sow. and good mothers should be retained as breeders ; those having a deficient breed- 
ing record or being unsatisfactory in any way should be fattened and sold as 
soon as possible. It does not pay to keep over a year a sow that cannot raise a large litter, unless she 
is pure bred and a very exceptional individual. 

If a second litter is wanted during a year the sow should be put to the boar during the first heat 
after weaning. Many breeders do not like to pass many periods of heat for fear that the -sow may 
become "shy;" and there is little reason why the sow should not have two litters a year. In any case, 
the sow should be carried on comparatively light feed until time to breed again, gaining a little in 
weight, and their treatment after breeding should be as already detailed. 

The management of the boar has been left until this place in the discussion, 

Management not because it is an unimportant subject, but because the sows occupy by far 

of the Boar. the greatest amount of the breeder's attention, and also because it was assumed 

at the outset of this, discussion that the work of a beginner, with only a group 

of brood sows was being outlined. 

When the boar arrives at the farm he should be dipped as a matter of ordinary precaution against 
the introduction of vermin. As an additional precaution, a quarantine pen should be ready for him, 
especially if epidemics are prevalent. In short, he should be treated in much the same manner as has 



96 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 



boon described for the sow. His food before change of owners should be known, and either adhered 
or changed gradually to suit the now conditions. If he has come a long journey, it will be well to 
food lightly until he is well acclimated. 

His permanent quarters should be a clean, dry, warm, well lighted and well ventilated pen 10 

or T2 feet square, with a yard adjoining where sows may be brought for service. This yard should be 

largo enough to give him some exercise during the breeding season, when it may be inconvenient to allow 

!um the run of a pasture. Adjoining the yard should be the boar's pasture, from one-half acre to one 

re m extent, consisting of clover, alfalfa or good pasture grasses that thrive in the locality 

Brooders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to himself during the entire year- 
out of sxght and hearing of the sows. However, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after they 
are sale in pig, but during the breeding season it is by far the best policy to keep him by himself 
admitting a sow to his yard for mating, and allowing but one service. This will be productive of the best 
results in many ways. The energies of the male are not overtaxed. He may thus serve a much larger 
number of sows, and the litters will generally be larger and the pigs stronger. In the case of a sow that 
is a somewhat shy breeder and a valuable animal, she may be allowed to remain with the boar during 
the greater part of her heat ; but such instances are exceptional. Another advantage of the single service 
system is that a man always has an accurate knowledge of his breeding operations and knows when 
to expect farrowing time. 

The feed of the boar when not in service may be of a succulent nature, mainly pasture and cut 
green forage during the summer months, and roots in winter. A boar can hardly be sustained on this 
alone, and some gram should be allowed to keep him in condition. This should be nitrogenous in char 
acter, consisting of mill feeds, such as shorts, middlings and bran, some oil meal, and the leguminous 
grains, with a little corn. As the breeding season approaches, the feed should be increased, so that the 
boar will be in good condition. It goes without saying that unless the general health of the boar is the 
best, that he will not obtain healthy litters nor as large litters. It is therefore important that he receive 
good, substantial feed of the proper character, and if Davis Stock Food is used with religious regularity 
it wdl insure large, healthy litters. While not in service, ample exercise should always be insisted upon 
even if it must be urged by the whip. Exercise is productive of well developed muscles and general 
thrift; with these two conditions activity and soundness of reproductive organs will usually follow 
During the breeding season it will not be possible for the boar to get the same amount of exercise and 
accordingly care must be taken that his energies are not wasted by unnecessary service. Careful feeding 
will do much to counteract this'disadvantage. It must always be remembered that the drains on a boar 
during service are severe, especially if fifty or sixty sows are served, and a good tonic and stimulant 
such as nux vomica, gentian, and iron, three of the ingredients of Davis Stock Food will prove 
invaluable. This will require ample feed with as much exercise as possible, and with care in his treatment 
will bring about good results. A fully matured boar should not serve more than two sows daily pref- 
erably one in the morning and one in the afternoon, and he can serve fifty or sixty in a season without 
difficulty. Coburn advises that where farmers own but twelve or fifteen sows each, three or four 
breeders might purchase a boar and use him in common, thus saving materially in expense 
Cownie states that he has found it well to have at least two boars in the herd, even though the herd be 
small in number. 

The greatest drawback to the hog industry which breeders in this country have 

Sanitation in to contend against is the presence of the highly contagious diseases known as hog 

the Hog Lot. cholera and swine plague, or, popularly known as "cholera;' "and, were it not for 

the fecundity of these animals, their profitable production would be out of 

the question. These two diseases are so closely identical that post mortem examinations are usually 

required to distinguish between them. Indeed, only recently (on October 1, 1903) DeSchweinitz and 

Dorset, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, announced the discovery of a fatal disease of hogs which is 

caused neither by the hog cholera nor swine plague bacilli, and which apparently is a very frequent 

cause of swine fatalities. 

For the present the breeder can regard these diseases as identical, so far- as his practical 
management of the herd is concerned. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 97 

There are a few fundamental facts which he must remember if he is to avoid losses by reason 
of the presence of hog cholera or swine plague in the herd. The first is that they are specific germ dis- 
eases, disseminated by bacteria, and the contagion cannot be spread from one animal to another or from 
one herd to another except by these minute organisms. They may be carried in a multitude of ways — 
by the hogs themselyes, on the clothing of persons, on vehicles, in feed, by dogs, birds and other animals, 
or by streams. The breeding or feed of a hog cannot cause either disease, although bad methods may 
so weaken the constitution and vitality that the animal becomes more susceptible than would otherwise 
be the case; second, diseases by bacteria may be prevented in largepart by a thorough disinfection 
by the regular use of Phenalin; third, bacteria are generally preserved in filth, and therefore scrupu- 
lous cleanliness will go far toward preventing outbreaks of disease in herds of hogs. 

Cleanliness. — Preventive measures must be mostly relied upon. Hogs must be 
Prevention given dry and well ventilated quarters, which must be kept clean. Contrary 

of Disease. to common belief, hogs have some habits which raise them above other domestic 

animals from the standpoint of cleanliness. For example, unless compelled to 
do so, a hog will not sleep in its own filth. If part of the floor of the pen is raised and kept well bedded 
with straw while the rest is not, all excrement will be left on the unbedded portion of the floor, and the 
bed itself will always be clean. Feeding and drinking places should be clean and the water supply 
pure ; Unless the origin is known to be uncontaminated,' and there has been no possibility of infection 
during the course, hogs should not be allowed access to streams. Wallows should be kept filled up as 
much as possible. At least once a month the quarters should be disinfected with air slaked lime or a 
5 per cent solution of crude carbolic acid. If a hog dies from any cause the carcass should be burned or 
buried and pens thoroughly disinfected at once. If Davis Stock Food is" fed regularly there can be little 
danger of disease, because of the functions exercised by the several ingredients, which are antiseptic, 
atonic and alterative. Hog raisers as a class know that a great percentage of diseases in hogs can be 
directly traced to constipation and uncleanliness. The regular use of Davis Stock Food will keep the 
bowels in just the right condition. 

Breeding and Feeding. — While inbreeding is the surest and quickest means to fix type, the system 
weakens vitality unless very carefully followed. For this reason closely inbred hogs are more susceptible 
to cholera than those whose constitutions have not been impaired by the system. The straight corn 
diet which many hogs receive from one year's end to the other also lessens vitality, and the researches 
of the Wisconsin Experiment Station have shown that this is probably brought about by actually retard- 
ing the development of the vital organs. A minimum of inbreeding and a varied diet, including, especially 
for breeding stock, ample range, will therefore better enable the herd to resist the attacks of disease. 
Isolated Houses.— The advantage of a number of small, portable houses, each accommodating 
a few hogs, rather than one large piggery for the entire herd, has been referred to in the foregoing pages. 
In districts where cholera is prevalent these are undoubtedly the best shelters. They make it more dif- 
ficult to carry contagion to all animals in the herd, and the destruction of one of them in case of an out- 
break does not entail a great expense. An added advantage is that they may be moved from place to 
place as needed. While more work is necessary in feeding, the convenience and safety from their use 
more than offsets this disadvantage. 

Quarantine. — Whenever new animals are brought to the farm, or when animals are brought home 
from shows, or from neighboring herds, they should be kept apart from the rest of the herd for at least 
three weeks. If they have been exposed, the disease will manifest itself within that time, and the sick 
animals can be treated or killed and disposed of at once. 

If cholera breaks out in the neighborhood the farmer should maintain a strict quarantine against 
the infected herd. He should refrain from visits to farms where they are located, and should insist on 
his neighbors staying out of his hog lot. Intercourse of all kinds at this time should be carefully restricted. 
The contagion is so easily carried that the -strictest measures are justifiable. 

All the hog lots should be sprinkled with a solution of Phenalin and the houses thoroughly washed 
with it. It would also be advisable to whitewash the fences and pens, adding to each gallon of 
whitewash half a pint of Phenalin. 



Slg. 7 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 



As soon as sickness appears in the herd the unaffected hogs should be at once 

Treatment removed to clean, disinfected quarters, preferably without much range; for 

of Diseases. by running over pastures they may come in contact with contagion. Their 

feed should be carefully regulated and, if they have previously been on pasture, 

should include some green feed, roots, or an abundance of skim milk. 

The quarters m which the sickness first appeared should be thoroughly cleaned, all bedding and 
rubbish burned, and loose boards and old partitions torn out and burned. If the pen is old, knock it to 
pieces and burn it. Disinfect .pens and sleeping places with Phenalin, using air slaked lime on the floors, 
and the Phenalin solution on the walls and ceilings. Whitewash everything. If a hog dies, burn the 
carcass or bury it deeply, out of the reach of crows, buzzards or dogs. If possible, do not move the 
carcass from the place where it falls, but, if this cannot be done, the ground over which it is dragged 
should be disinfected. Hog cholera bacilli can live in the ground for at least three months. Care must 
be taken to maintain an absolute quarantine between the sick and well hogs. The same attendant should 
not care for both lots unless he disinfects himself thoroughly after each visit to the infected hog. Dogs 
should be confined until the disease is stamped out. ■ 

Treatment of hogs suffering from cholera or swine plague is not always satisfactory. The dis- 
ease runs its course so rapidly that curative measures are more or less ineffectual, and prevention of an 
outbreak should be relied upon rather than the cure of sick animals. 

Dr. Salmon states that the following formula has been successful in less virulent outbreaks when 
properly administered as soon as sighs of sickness are shown : 

Pounds 

Wood charcoal ..:... 1 

Sulphur 1 

Sodium chloride . . . ' 2 

Sodium bicarbonate 2 

Sodium hyposulphite : 2 

Sodium sulphate 1 

Antimony sulphide (black antimony) 1 

These ingredients should be completely pulverized and thoroughly mixed. In case there is 
profuse diarrhea the sulphate of sodium may be omitted. 

A large tablespoonful once a day for each 200 pounds of live weight of hogs to be treated is a dose. 
The medicine and Davis Stock Food should be thoroughly mixed with the feed, which should be soft, 
made of bran and middlings, corn meal and middlings, corn meal and ground and sifted oats, or crushed 
wheat, mixed with hot water. If the hogs are too sick to come to the feed they should be drenched by 
pulling the cheek away from the teeth and pouring the medicine in slowly. Care should be exercised, 
as hogs are easily suffocated by drenching. Do not turn a hog on its back to drench it. 

Hogs often suffer very much from vermin. Lice are introduced from neigh- 
Prevention and boring -herds, and the losses in feeding are often severe, especially among 
Destruction young pigs, when death is sometimes a secondary if not an immediate result. 
of Vermin. When very numerous, lice arc: a very serious drain on vitality, fattening is pre- 
vented, and, in case of exposure to disease, the lousy hogs are much more liable 
to contract and to succumb to it. 

Vermin are most common around the ears, inside the legs and in the folds of the skin on the 
jowl, sides and flanks. In light and isolated cases they may be destroyed by washing the hogs in a 
2 per cent solution of Phenalin. In severe cases, however, especially where the whole herd is 
affected, thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. In this case a dipping tank will be a 
great convenience. 

One of the most effective and cheapest preparations to use as a dip is a 2 per cent solution of 
Phenalin. If the hogs are washed, apply the solution with a broom; if they are sprayed, use an ordinary 
spray pump; for dipping, use a dipping tank. When being washed or sprayed, the hogs should stand on 
a tight board floor. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 99 

Newly purchased hogs should be carefully examined for vermin, and they should not be turned 
with the herd until they are known to be free from these pests. 

When the herd is found to be badly infested with lice, all bedding should be burned and loose 
floors and partitions torn out. Old boards and rubbish should be burned. The quarters should then 
be thoroughly disinfected by spraying with one of the solutions mentioned (the Phenalin solution is good). 
After this infection, as in the case of a disease outbreak, everything about the place, inside and out, 
should be thoroughly whitewashed. 

In these remarks on sanitation no attempt has been made to go into the details of the diseases 
affecting hogs or their treatment. They are simply intended to call attention to the simple measures 
which may be used by any farmer to avoid to a large extent the decimation of his herd by epidemics. 
Cleanliness, rational methods of management and Davis Stock Food are relied upon by thousand^ 
of farmers to keep their herds in health and vigor. They are the marks of the good farmer and successful 
hog breeder. 

Food is generally divided into two classes; namely, concentrated foods, and 

Principles Of bulky foods. The latter are commonly called coarse fodder, roughage or forage, 

Hog Feeding. while under the former classification- we have seeds of plants, grain, etc., whole 

or ground. Vegetables such as pumpkins and the waste fruit of orchards are 

often fed to hogs and would come under bulky foods. All of these supply, however, a relatively small 

amount of nutriment. Milk is, properly speaking, a bulky food when fed to mature animals. For 

young animals whole milk is the most complete food known, but is too expensive to feed to any but the 

youngest animals. 

The amount of bulky food required is different in the various animals, and depends 

"Relation of TCiilkv u P on the complexity of the food, as well as upon the kind and variety. For 

1? A + T fh -f exain pl e > i n a state of nature carnivorous animals, such as the dog and cat tribes, 

° have very short and simple alimentary canals, and live upon flesh, which is a 

Alimentary l^anai. ver y simple diet. Herbivorous animals, such as the horse, ox, sheep and goat, 

have the most complicated digestive apparatus, and need a great variety of 
foods. Between these two classes we have those animals which live on both flesh and vegetable diet. 
They are known as omnivora. Their alimentary canal is more complicated than the carnivora, but less 
so than the herbiVora. Domestication has to a certain degree changed the habits of all animals consider- 
ably, and in doing so has changed the internal characteristics of the body. Pigs are fed almost exclusively 
on a vegetable diet, only occasionally indulging their appetite for animal diet. As a consequence of this 
variation in the range of food eaten, these animals have a larger and more complicated digestive tract than 
the same species in the wild state. 

The function of bulky food is more than the mere furnishing of nutriment, for, 

Function of Bulk * n a mecnan i ca I way, it aids digestion. In the ruminants especially there is an 

, , -p , enormous stomach cdntent, which must be comfortably filled if digestion is to 

be carried on properly. Hence, with this class of animals a larger amount of 

hay is required. They give much better returns from a bulky food and subsist 

much more satisfactorily on it alone than any other animals. While pigs require less bulky food than 

other domestic animals, recent experiments clearly prove that up to a certain amount the feeding of 

roughage is very profitable, as it assists the digestion of the more concentrated foods, which have a 

tendency to derange the digestive system. 

From a chemical standpoint the constituents of food that may concern the 

Chemical feeder are the nitrogenous substances, usually termed protein compounds. The 

Composition. starches, sugars, etc., are classed in this book as carbohydrates, and fat found 

in the analyses is referred to as ether extract. In addition to this, ash is an 

important constituent of most foods, and should be carefully considered when feeders are making up 

their rations. 



DIFFE RENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 

All feeds contain more or less water. The most valuable portion of food is the 
Water Content. dry matter. This is what remains of a food after heating it in a drying chamber 

at or near the boiling point until repeated weighings show no change in weight. 
While water yields neither tissue nor energy, it enters into the composition of the body, and is, as we 
know, indispensable. When animals are compelled to take water into the .system beyond the normal 
amount, undesirable results will surely follow. Milk, roots, etc., contain from SO to 90 per cent water. 
On the other hand, hay does not ordinarily contain more than 15 to 20 percent, while dried grains "usually 
contain from 10 to 12 per cent. 

One thing about food that is being more carefully considered in placing a value 
Energy. thereon is the amount of energy that it will yield, When food is utilized in 

the animal body a certain amount of heat is evolved, the process not being unlike 
the consumption of fuel in a furnace. That heat is converted into energy, which is necessary whatever 
work is performed. It is evident, then, that a horse at hard work will need a ration supplying more energy 
than one at moderate or light work. The term work, however, has a wider ^significance than denoting 
actual muscular effort in the performance of the task — the operations of mastication, deglutition, and 
the construction of the walls of the stomach and intestines — and involves muscular action both voluntary 
and involuntary. In the movement of the heart and lungs and the circulation of the fluids in the body, 
muscular action of some kind is constantly going on. In fact, the performance of nearly every function 
of the body is actually some form of work involving the expenditure of energy, and accompanied by the 
evolution of heat^and maintained by the energy yielding material in the food. The amount of work 
performed by an animal in the ordinary process of hustling for a living — that is, finding its own food, 
eating it and digesting it — is enormous. In experiments with suckling pigs it was found that the young 
animals required nearly as much energy per square meter of surface as had been found by other investi- 
gators to be required by a man at hard work. It is therefore readily -apparent that the heat producing 
powers of food have a very much more important function than the mere maintenance of bodily warmth. 
In computing the value of a food from a heat producing standpoint, the word calorie is used, which 
means the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree centigrade. 
Fat yields a greater amount of energy than either carbohydrate or protein, there being comparatively 
little energy given up by protein and carbohydrate. 

» 

We have seen that the most important constituents of feedstuff s are the protein, 
R plat ion of carbohydrates and fats. These, together with the ash, are practically all that 
j2 , , the feeder considers in making up his rations. 

The following table shows the relation between the constituents of the 
Annua* xsOay. f 00( j an( j those of the body; that is, to just what part of the body the various 

foods get. 

Disposition of Food in the Body. 

Food Produces in the Body 

Water .' Water. 

Proteids Proteids 

Carbohydrates '. ) 

Fat ; V Fat. 

Proteids (rarely) ) 

Ash Ash. 

Fat | 

Carbohydrates V Energy. 

Proteids ; 

It is seen that the water of the food reappears in the water of the body, the proteids of the food 

become the proteids of the body, the fat of the body is formed by the carbohydrates and fat of the food, 

and under certain conditions from the proteids. The ash of the body, such as the mineral matter of the 

:s, comes from the ash of the food. The three principal food constituents, fat, carbohydrates and 

protein, yield energy in the order named. 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 101 

As animals have different demands made upon them, we must therefore naturally 'expect them 
to require different constituents in their food. To be more explicit, a young and growing animal is build- 
ing up tissue rapidly, and this should be largely muscular and bony if the best health is to be maintained. 
Muscular tissue is made up largely of protein. We therefore must see that the food contains a large 
amount of protein. For the young there should also be a plentiful supply of mineral matter, such as 
phosphates, so that the bony structure may be properly built up. Nature took care of this in milk. 
Again, animals that are to be fattened rapidly must have a large amount of fat producing material in 
the ration, such as carbohydrates or free extract of ether extract. ,It is for this reason that farmers 
find corn such a valuable food in fattening. The large amount of energy yielded by fattening rations has 
an interesting bearing on the shelter requirements. Steers or hogs that are on full feed can enjoy them- 
selves in the coldest weather if provided with a simple shed, although it is apparent that it will be economy 
to provide them with comfortable, warm quarters, the best temperature for the quarters being approx- 
imately 50 degrees Fahrenheit, for while they are able to stay in cold quarters they will consume a large 
amount of food in heating the body instead of storing it away in fat, and the gains will be that much less. 

The amount of nutritive material which an animal can get from his food is the 
Digestibility all important factor. It is obvious that when skim milk or roots are fed alone 

of Foods. immense ' quantities must be eaten in order to supply a sufficient amount of > 

digestive nutriment. A similar condition is met in foods having a low digestibil- 
ity, as for instance animals wintered at straw stacks acquire large stomachs by reason of having to gorge 
themselves with coarse, bulk}^ food in order to get sufficient nutriment to supply the body. Such animals 
usually present a half starved appearance, because they are not able from such food to obtain an adequate 
amount of nourishment. We are comparatively safe in stating that not 10 per cent of domestic animals 
today are capable of extracting all of the digestible nutriment from American feedstuffs; in fact, the 
majority of them do not obtain over 75 per cent of the available material. It is therefore necessary to 
feed them from 20 to 25 per cent more food than would be necessary were they able to extract all of the 
nutriment. To be able to extract all the nutriment everything must, of course, be favorable. The food 
must be right to begin with, and the conditions and surroundings under which it is fed must be right. 
Granting all this, then, the animal's system must be working in perfect harmony, it must be blessed with 
an appetite and enjoy its food, which must be palatable, thus inducing. the flow of saliva, the first digestive 
juice to come in contact with the food, and which has for its function the changing of the starches and 
sugar. The food then passes into the stomach, carrying with it the saliva, which further exerts its action 
there. In the stomach the digestive juices perform their function. In order to do so properly all the 
glands must be working so as to furnish a supply. From here, as the food passes through the alimentary 
canal, the bile from the liver and the pancreatic juice play their part. From there on the walls are lined 
with minute glands supplying various digestive juices. All of these must be working perfectly, and once 
the food is digested the soluble nutriments must be assimilated, which is done by the small capillaries 
and villi. It is in insuring the efficiency of the digestive system that Davis Stock Food proves its worth. 
The gentian, nux vomica and iron, all being tonics, provide the animal with a healthy appetite. In addi- 
tion to this, they have a stimulating action upon the glands producing the various digestive juices, thus 
increasing their flow. They also assist in the peristaltic movement of the intestines, guarding against 
constipation. The iron, together with the sulphur, is absorbed by the system, and acts as a blood purifier. 
The charcoal is an intestinal antiseptic and the santonica keeps the intestinal tract free from worms 
and parasites. 

In discussing feeding, the term "nutritive ratio" is frequently met, and it is 
The Nutri- well for the feeder to become familiar with its meaning. It simply means the 

tive Ratio. ratio between the total amount of digestible protein in a ration (that is, one 

day's feed) to the total amount of digestible carbohydrates, plus 2.25 times the 
digestible fat or ether extract. . The fat is of greater value for the purpose of yielding energy than the car- 
bohydrates, and chemists have determined that this ratio is about 2.25; hence the reason for this factor 
in the computation of a ration. As the functions of the fat and the carbohydrates are very similar, the 
reason is apparent for the addition of the former. There are many publications available that discuss 
in detail the computation of rations, but they go deeper into the subject than is necessary for the 



102 



DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREEDS AS UNITS. 



Preparation of 
Feed and Meth- 
ods of Feeding. 



Cooking. 



an. One of the principal things to avoid is getting a rat ion which, while correct, so far as nutritive 
concerned, cannot he fed successfully on account of its low digestibility or high water content. 

Investigation of the value of different methods of preparing feed was one of 
the earliest efforts of the experiment stations made in animal husbandry. The 
questions that relate to this subject were at once recognized to be of the highest 
importance and their study very interesting. The subject divides itself into 
three general sections: (1) cooking, (2) grinding, and (3) wetting or soaking. 

The utility of cooking feed for animals, and especially for pigs, was given most 

attention in the days previous to investigations by experiment stations.. The 

subject demands only brief consideration here. Cooking feed is no longer 

regarded as an economical practice for fattening animals. However, for breeding stock and sick animals, 

and for animals which it is desired to put into the very highest condition, cooking may be practiced 

with good results, if expense is disregarded. Pigs so fed show marked thriftiness and health. 

The question whether grain should be fed whole or ground is by no means settled; 
thus it is one that differs radically from that of cooking, and is of much more 
importance to feeders. ! 

The theory of grinding grain is that when the feed is in the condition of a meal 
it is more readily or quickly available for digestion. It is fallacious to claim that 
a feed given as meal contains more digestible matter than the same feed before 
it has been reduced to the condition of meal ; for that is a thing that is obviously 
impossible. But it is not, perhaps, incorrect to say that the digestive fluids 
may be more effective in their action on feed that has been crushed, or ground, and that less undigested 
matter is voided by the animal than when whole grain is given. The amount of the feed that is digested 
and absorbed in its passage through the body, plus the undigested nutrient content , of the excrement, 
practically equals the total digestible matter in the feed before eaten. All practical feeders readily recog- 
nize the great possibility of loss by way of excrement when feeding steers on shelled or ear corn, and, 
to obviate this, they use hogs to consume the waste. Some waste is inevitable. There cannot be per- 
fect feeds or perfect digestions, but we may avoid wasteful methods ; and the feeder's problem is to render 
the loss of feed in the manure as small as possible; and successful feeders are quick to recognize the value 
of such an article as Davis Stock Food. It is unnecessary to remark that grain which is swallowed with- 
out being masticated is much more likely to. pass undigested than if thoroughly masticated before swal- 
lowing. The kind of grain that is more readily masticated when fed whole would therefore seem to be 
less in need of grinding than that which is more generally swallowed without thorough mastication. 
It is interesting to note that the more palatable a ration is, the more thoroughly it is masticated. Davis 
Stock Food property used is to the animals' feed what salt and pepper is to ours. 

The Central Experiment Farm, at Ottawa, Canada, conducted experiments 
to study this subject with pigs. Whole grain was fed and the excrement was 
collected for one day, the whole grain in it washed and weighed, the weight 
per bushel estimated, and the germinating power determined. The following 
table shows the results: 

Loss in Feeding Whole Grain. 



Grinding. 



The Philoso- 
phy of Grind- 
ing Grain. 



Experiments to 
Determine the 
Amount of Un- 
digested Grain. 



RATION 



Amount 

Unmastt- 

cated 



Oats, soaked 54 hours, all pigs would eat clean, and 3 pounds skimmed milk per head daily 

Barley, supplemented as above 

Peas, supplemented as above 

Indian corn, supplemented as above 

The results of this experiment are very interesting. Note that the amount of grain passed whole is 
influenced by the size and the kind of the grain ; for example, oats and barley were passed in much larger 




EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



103 



amounts than peas or corn. It is interesting to compare these results with the tables in the folloAving 
pages, which show the results of the experiment station work with grinding grain. It is also inter- 
esting to note the amount that can be saved by the use of Davis Stock Food when it is used regularly. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND 

GRAIN. 

Ground Compared with Whole Corn. — Numerous stations have reported experiments with ground 
corn compared with whole shelled corn. There is a considerable amount of variation between them, the 
results in some cases showing as great a loss from grinding as is gained in others. The following table shows 
results that have been obtained at experiment stations in various parts of the country. Where corn was 
fed on the cob, the amount is reduced to equivalent weights of shelled corn or not included in the averages: 

Results of Experiments with Ground and Unground Corn. 



RATION 



W. Virginia. 
Corn meal . . . 
Whole corn . . 
Corn meal . . . 
Whole shelled 
corn, soaked 
Kentucky. 
Corn meal. . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Missouri. 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Wisconsin. 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 
Whole corn . 
Corn meal . . 



3«i 



2 
2 
3 
3 

4 

4 
4 

4 

10 

10 

9 

9 

10 

10 

9 

9 

7 

7 

8 



8 
19 



Average 

Weight 

Beginning, 

Pounds 



195 

239 

95 

95 

100 
100 
149 
196 

160 
150 

85 
86 

255 

251 

346 

354 

223 

225 

210 

212 

198 

183, 

187 

184 

184 

184 

186 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



361 
141 
581 

555 

175 

182 

113 

65 

638 
594 
250 
164 

528 

420 

1,348 

1,235 

1,076 

789 

1,348 

984 

576 

552 

992 

.830 

1,030 

799 

2,132 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



28 

28 
56 

56 

63 
63 

28 
21 

78 

78 

116 

116 

30 
30 
70 
70 
70 
70 
84 
84 
63 
63 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



2.15 
1.68 
1.73 

1.65 

1.39 
1.44 
1.35 
1.03 

2.04 

1.90 

.54 

.35 

1.76 
1.40 
2.13 
1.9.6 
1.53 
1.12 
1.79 
1.30 
1.30 
1.25 
1.47 
1.23 
1.53 
1.19 
1.34 



Total Feed Eaten 



Whole 
Grain, 
Pounds 



Meal, 
Pounds 



819 



2,138 



780 
357 

2,864 
1,239 

1,815 



5,947 



4; 665 



4,926 



2,340 



4,137 



3,914 



1,699 



2,384 



753 



286 



3,196 



1,612 



2,004 



5,968 
5,236 



5,956 
2,660 



4,698 

4,617 

10,794 



Milk, 
Pounds 



1,002 
908 



Feed per 100 Pounds Gain 



Whole 
Grain, 
Pounds 



Meal, 
Pounds 



471 



579 



410 



385 



429 
549 



482 



755 



432 



481 
591 



430 
253 



501 



645 



380 



501 

424 



500 
489 



443 

487 



Milk, 
Pounds 



190 
216 



442 
462 



473 
448 
507 



104 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Results of Experiments with 


Ground 


and Unground 


Corn. — Continued. 






BE 

/. c 

[9 

14 
14 

VI 

12 
3 
3 
3 

3 
3 
3 

2 

2 
2 
2 

3 
3 
3 
3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 
3 


Average 

W , u 

Beginning, 

l'onnds 


Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Number 

of Days 
Fed 


Average 
Dai 

Gain, 
Pounds 


Total Peed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds Gain 


RATION 


Whole 
Grain, 

Pounds 


Meal, 

Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Whole 
Grain, 
Pounds 


Meal, 
Pounds 


Milk, 

Pou 


Whole corn .... 


186 

175 

174 

148 

145 

72 

• 70 

80 

80 

134 

136 

78 

80 

172 

104 

86 

86 

165 

165 

110 
112 

191 

202 
205 
199 


2,136 
1.938 
1,571 

1,038 
893 
218 
234 
166 
169 
274 
255 

55 
28 
67 
36 

385 
387 
252 
271 

253 
174 

404 

167 
383 
404 


84 
9S 
98 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
91 
91 

21 
21 
21 
21 

196 

196 
84 
84 

63 
63 

112 

112 
112 
112 


1,34 

1.41 

1.15 

1.03 

.89 

.89 

.93 

.66 

- .67 

1.00 

.93 

1.31 

.66 

1.59 

.85 

.65 

.66 
1.00 
1.08 

1.00 
.69 

1.20 

.50 
1.14 
1.20 


10,026 
8,778 
5,256 
1,038 
1,004 
1,426 

155 

138 






497 






Corn meal 


9,275 




479 




Whole corn .... 




559 




Corn meal 


5,745 




553 




Whole corn .... 




588 




Corn meal 


979 




449 




Whole corn .... 




444 




Cora meal 


961 




579 




Whole corn .... 




594 




Corn meal 


1,407 




513 




Whole corn .... 




559 




Alabama. 


182 




330 




Whole corn .... 




536 




Cora meal 


216 




323 




Whole corn .... 




384 




Maine. 

Corn meal 










Whole corn .... 


- 












Corn meal 














Whole corn .... 














New York. 
Cora meal 










269 




Corn on cob .... 








401 




Ohio. 

Corn meal, 
cooked 


2,109 
2,039 


2,386 




590 




Corn on cob,' 
cooked 




1,260 






2,116 




552 




Whole corn .... 




505 















Average of trials (where total feed is reported) with 297 pigs 524 479 

The rations in the first experiment included raw potatoes and skim milk. Those pigs in the second 
were fed corn meal and water, and corn and water. A supplementary ration to give variety was fed both- 
lots. The feed per 100 pounds gain is dry matter. 

The weights of the feed eaten by the lots fed whole corn in these experiments represented equiva- 
lent amounts in shelled corn, the weight of the ear corn being thus reduced to show the actual amount 
eaten. It will be noticed that it took more pounds of whole grain for 100 pounds gain than it did of the 
corn meal, due undoubtedly to improper mastication, which could have been overcome by the proper use 
of Davis Stock Food, used as directed with whole grain. 

In all but the first test, meal, such as shorts or middlings, was fed to give variety to the ration and 
give a good appetite and steady gains. It was in the same proportion to both lots in each test. 

The results detailed above show a preponderating amount of evidence in favor of corn meal, 
judging purely from the basis of feed required for 100 pounds of gain and disregarding the expense of 
grinding. The average for nineteen trials, with 297 pigs, where the amount of feed eaten is reported, 
is 524 pounds of grain required for 100 pounds of gain when corn is fed whole in the form of shelled corn, 
and 479 pounds when fed ground, a difference of nearly 8.59 per cent in favor of grinding. This is con- 
siderably higher than the value usually given for corn meal, and may be explained to some extent by the 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



105 



large amount of feed required to. make a given amount of gain in some of the experiments, notably 
the first at the Ohio Station, which must have been due to extraordinary conditions and shows the 
necessity of a good reliable stock food. Careful researches show that an exact estimate cannot be 
made of the comparative value of shelled corn and corn meal. It is worthy of particular attention, 
however, that in these experiments there were only nine, instances out of twenty-six where the value of the 
two feeds was equal to or in favor of whole grain, and in one of the latter, the first Missouri test; although 
the gains are considerably in favor of the pigs on corn meal, they were more economically made by the 
pigs on whole corn. The instances that favor whole grain are the main experiments, the first in Ohio, 
the second in West Virginia, the first in Kentucky, the first in Missouri, and the fifth, eighth, and eleventh 
in Wisconsin. The researches of Henry, in Wisconsin, have been the most exhaustive that have been 
undertaken on this subject. All experiments, however, served to illustrate the wide difference in the 
digestive faculties of individual animals under domestic conditions and emphasize our point that a good 
stock food composed of known standard roots, herbs, seeds, etc., possessing digestive, tonic and corrective 
properties is an absolute necessity in economical stock feeding and raising. In the Nineteenth Annual 
Report of the Wisconsin Station he publishes the following summary of seven years' winter feeding to 
determine the relative merits of ground and unground corn for fattening hogs. There were 210 hogs 
fed in all. 

Utility of Ground Grains. 



YEAR 


Number of Pigs in 
Each Lot 


Average Weight at 
Beginning, Pounds 


Condition 
at Beginning 


Saved or Lost 


1896 


1 8 

19- 

14 

112 

1 6 

\ 6 
I 6 


350 
224 
211 
190 
185 
■184 
186 
175 
146 
71 
80 
133 


Thin 
Fat 

Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Rather fat 
Fair 
Fair 
Rather fat 


8 per cent saved by grinding. 


1897 

1898 


17.6 per cent saved by grinding. 
1 1 per cent saved by grinding. 

9 per cent lost by grinding. 

5 . 4 per cent saved by grinding. 


• 

1899 

1900 

1901 


8 . 4 per cent saved by grinding. 

2 per cent lost by grinding. 

15 per cent saved by grinding. 

6 per cent saved by grinding. 


1902 


1 per cent lost by grinding. 
3 per cent saved by grinding. 




S per cent saved by grinding 



In these experiments no allowance was made for cost of grinding. In nine cases grinding showed 
a saving of feed, the highest being 17.6 per cent and the lowest 3 per cent. In the three cases where 
ihere was a loss, it was 9 per cent, 2 per cent, and 1 per cent, respectively. 

Two experiments that have a very close bearing on this subject, but are not included in the above 
table, are reported from the New Hampshire and Colorado Stations. 

In New Hampshire, Burkett compared the feeding values of corn in ear with that of corn and cob 
meal. The lot receiving whole corn gained an average of 0.81 pound per day, at a cost of 333 pounds 
grain and 892 pounds skim milk per 100 pounds of gain. The meal fed lot averaged . 87 pound daily 
gain, at a cost of 319 pounds of grain and S55 pounds of skim milk per 100 pounds gain, a difference of 
4 per cent in favor of grinding. The Colorado Station made six tests with pigs averaging 62 and 63 pounds 
to compare ground and whole corn. Those on ground corn made an average daily gain of 0.52 pound, 
consuming 580 pounds of grain and 90 quarts of skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain. The pigs on 
whole corn made an average daily gain of 0.44 pound, consuming 670 pounds of grain and 120 quarts of 
skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain. 

The only definite conclusion that can be drawn from these figures is that it is' beyond anyone to 
say that an advantage may be expected to follow the feeding of corn meal sufficient to pay the cost of 
grinding. If corn sells on the open market at 50 cents per bushel of 56 pounds, and grinding costs from 
3 to 5 cents per bushel, a saving of 10 per cent by such methods would be very good economy, but if corn 
falls to 25 cents the cost of grinding must be lessened to make meal feeding profitable." 



100 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



The importance of doing every thing in our power to assist in the proper digestion of the food is, 
however, brought out with telling force in these experiments, and Davis Stock Food is more than worthy 
of consideration. In the experiments tabulated greater and more even gains would have been made had 
it been used and the increased gains would have paid for its use many times over. 

Peas. — An experiment with peas is reported from the Central Experiment Farm of Canada, the 
results of which follow: 



Ground Compared with Whole Feeds. 



RATION ' 


Number 
of Pigs 


A verage 

Weight at 

Beginning. 

Pounds 


Average 

Weight at 

Close 


Average 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 




Pounds 


Grain 


Milk 


Ground, soaked fifty-four hours .... 
Whole, soaked fiftv-four hours 


4 

4 


62 
100 


224 
207 


162 

107 


126 

84 


1.28 
1.27 


276 
333 


468 
235 



This experiment does not show any difference in the feeding value of ground peas as compared 
with whole peas, so far as daily gains are concerned, but the pigs on ground peas required 17 per cent less 
grain than those on whole peas. The results with both feeds were satisfactory. 

Grinding Small Grain. — The amount of material available on the subject of grinding small grains 
is not so voluminous as that pertaining to corn. In the United States a great amount of the oats, wheat, 
barley, or rye fed, is in the form of mill products and is, of course, ground. These feeds are, moreover, 
generally used as supplements to corn, and the greater attention has been directed to methods of Corn 
feeding on this account. In common practice, perhaps, these grains are ground more generally than corn, 
as they. are usually much harder. Their greater liability to pass through the animal undigested shows 
the correctness of this practice. 

The following table shows results at five experiment stations, comprising ten tests in all, with a 
total of sixty -nine pigs: 

Effect of Feeding Ground Small Grain. 





eft 
fie 

£ 

"3 

u 

CD 

a 

e 

3 
S5 


en 
fio3 

£ . 

fio5 

« 3 

M a 

CD *— 


CO 

p 

3 
O 
pH 

g 

'3 
O 

"3 
o 

Eh 


■a 

CD 
PR 
m 
>> 

cS 

n 

o 

CD 

s 

3 


Average Daily Gain, 
Pounds 


Feed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


Cost per 100 
Pounds Gain 


RATION 


CO 

3 

a 

o 


•a 

3 
3 

o 

Ch 

"3 

CD 


si 

02 


3 


y: 

■d 

3 
3 
O 

"3 


a"™ 

si 


c 
'3 

o 

CD 

o 

X) 


■3 

CD 

s 


Wisconsin. 
Ground oats, }/ z ;corn meal % 
Groundoats,% ;corn meal, % 
Whole oats, Y A ; corn meal, % 
Whole oats, % ; corn meal, J^ 

Oregon. 
Chopped oats and wheat, 
Whole oats and wheat. . . 


3 
3 
3 
3 

2 
2 

2 
2 

3 

3 


151 

158 

126 

148 

107 
109 


457 
371 
296 
246 

331 
308 

330 
332 

390 
333 


120 
120 
120 
120 

119 
119 

135 
135 

91 
91 


1.27 
1.03 

.82 
.68 

1 . 39 
1.29 

1.22 
1.23 

1.43 
1.22 


1457 
1388 

1830 

1474 
1589 


1839 
1593 






403 
429 




















492 

564 




















1603 




484 
431 






$5.90 






594 




$7.20 




Utah. 

Chopped wheat, dry 

Whole wheat, dry 

Ontario Agri. College. 
Ground peas and barley (1.1) 
Whole peas and barley (1.1) 


1421 








444 








15-89 




407 






3.87 




477 




4.25 



















In this experiment the pigs were fed on oats alone for two months, and the experiment was 
concluded with wheat alone. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND -GRAIN. 



107 



Effect of Feeding Ground Small Grain. — Continued. 



% 


bo 

ft 

O 

.Q 

s 

3 

55 


cjo3 

&0.5 


m 

a 

3 
O 
ft 

a 
'3 
O 

"3 
o 


■a 
<o 
ft 

ta 

o 
u 

O) 

E - 

3 

55 


a 
'3 
O 

> 

< 


Feed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


Cost per 100 
Pounds Gain 


RATION 


tn 

■a 
d 

a 


m 

•a 

a 

3 

o 
Pk 

"3 


So 

02 


to 

■o 

3 
Oft 

3 
O 


m 

•d 
C 
3 
O 
ft 

"3 
u 


Si 

S ft 
73 


H 

'3 
(-1 

O 
"3 


a 


Ottawa. 

Peas, barley and rye, ground, 
soaked twelve hours ..... 


5 
4 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


69 
76 
69 
69 
69 
67 
66 
66 
101 
103 


104 

134 

87 

135 

126 

108 

124 

105 

89 

82 


119 
119 
119 
119 
119 
119 
119 
119 
76 
76 


.87 
1.12 

.73 
1.13 
1.06 

.90 
1.04 

.88 
1.17 
1.08 


386 
330 

441 

409 

307 


455 
464 






436 
346 








Peas, barley and rye, ground, 
soaked twelve hours 


645 


445 
246 


481 






Peas, barley and rye, whole, 
soaked forty-eight hours . 

Peas, barley and rye, whole, 
soaked forty-eight hours . . 

Oats, peas, barley and one- 
half part bran, ground, dry 

Oats, peas and barley, whole, 
drv 






450 
467 


1,869 


356 


1,392 










i 


408 








Oats.peas and barley, ground, 
soaked thirty hours 

Oats, peas and barley, whole, 
soaked thirty hours 

Oats.peas and barley .ground, 
drv 


376 










388 








307 




343 








Oats, peas and barley, whole, 
drv 




360 



















Average, ten tests, with sixty-nine pigs 473 415 

The mixture of peas, barley and rye, and oats, peas and barley, fed in these experiments were 
composed of equal parts of those grains. 

The Colorado Station studied the value of grinding both bald, or beardless barley, and common 
barley. Four tests were made with bald and three with common barley. The pigs on ground bald bar- 
ley averaged 60 pounds at the beginning, made an average daily gain of 0. 75 pound, and consumed 320 
pounds of grain and 100 quarts of skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain. Those on whole bald barley 
averaged 58,pounds at the beginning, made an average daily gain of . 65 pound, and consumed 370 pounds 
of grain and 180 quarts of skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain. The pigs on common barley averaged 
43 pounds at the beginning. Those on ground grain made an average daily gain of 0. 47 pound, and con- 
sumed 470 pounds of grain and 90 quarts of skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain. Those on whole grain 
made an average daily gain of 0.44 pound, and consumed 520 pounds of grain and 90 quarts of skim 
milk per 100 pounds of gain. 

These results show a somewhat wider- variation between the feeding values of whole and ground 
small grain than those from the experiments with corn. It should be also noted that the results are 
much more uniformly favorable to grinding. The approximate averages are 473 pounds of whole grain 
per 100 pounds of gain and 415 pounds of ground grain per 100 pounds of gain, showing an advantage in 
favor of grinding of 12. 26 per cent. Davis Stock Food will show 20 per cent greater gains from the same 
amount -of feed. Trv it. 



108 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



The general custom of soaking grain has received considerable attention from 
Dry Compared t he experiment stations. In some localities a sentiment in favor of feeding meal 
With Soaked Feed, dry is gaining ground, and some experiments have shown an advantage J. or this 

method of feeding. Pigs have been fed to compare w"et and dry meal as follows: 

The Indiana Station fed two lots of pigs on a mixture of equal parts of corn meal and shorts, which, 

toward the end of the experiment, was changed to hominy meal and shorts. Lot 1 rceived dry meal 

and lot 2 received meal mixed with an equal weight of water. Both lots received all the water they 

■.red in addition to that in the feed. 

Two tests were made at the Wisconsin Station. In the first a ration of equal parts of corn meal 
and shorts was fed with water as wanted. In the second trial the grain was two parts of corn meal 
and one of shorts'. Salt and hardwood ashes were supplied to all lots. In both trials lot 1 received 
dry feed and lot 2 wet feed. 

In Minnesota twelve pigs were fed a ration of two parts of corn meal, two parts of shorts and one 
part of old process linseed meal. Two lots had their meals mixed in a thick slop with cold water, and 
others were fed dry. At the Missouri Station two lots were fed wheat chop and two others -a mixture of 
four parts whole wheat and one of bran. The wet grain was fed after being soaked thirty-six hours. 
The pigs, which were high bred Berkshires, were fed in pens open to the south, and they had'access to 
troughs in which was a mixture of hardwood ashes, coal and salt. 

In Utah three tests are reported. In the first, two lots were fed a ration of equal parts of wheat 
and bran in yards; in the second, two lots of pigs were fed a balanced ration of corn meal and bran, 
which was changed in proportion as age and weight increased ; the meal to the wet fed lot was thoroughly 
mixed with water, but not soaked; in the third experiment, three lots of pigs received a ration of equal 
parts by weight of bran and chopped wheat. Lot 1 received meal that had been soaked twelve hours; 
lot 2, meal wet just before feeding; and lot 3, dry meal. 

The Oregon Station fed four well bred Berkshire pigs two and one-half months old, at the begin- 
ning of the experiments. They received a ration of shorts from July 1st to September 5th, and after the 
latter date a ration of equal parts by weight of chopped wheat, oats, bran and shorts. The meal to the 
lot on wet feed was thoroughly wet with cold water and allowed to stand from one feeding time to the 
next. Charcoal and ashes were given two and three times each week. 

A brief experiment of this character that was conducted by a third year student as thesis work at 
the Ontario Agricultural College is noted in the reports of that institution fo'r 1900. The hogs in both 
lots were of similar breeding and were fed a meal mixture of wheat and barley. 

The Canada Central Experiment Farm fed four lot's of pigs on a mixture of equal parts of peas, 
barley and rye, as follows: Lot 1 received whole grain soaked thirty hours; lot 2 received whole grain 
dry ; lot 3 received ground grain soaked thirty hours, and lot 4 ground grain dry, 

The results of these experiments are shown in the following table: 

Results of Experiments with Dry and Wet Feed. 





c/j 
bu 



•ffi 

o 
l-i 
<u 
ja 

& 

3 


Average Weight 

at Beginning, 

Pounds 


Total Gain, 
Pounds 


Number of Davs 
Fed 


■a-g 

Q5 
o 

eg c 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


RATION 


-■o 

be 


OS 

-■a 


pgffl 

3) -a 

c3 3 
O O 
GO d< 


GO 


D9 


-— 
® U 

■* 5 

MPh 


Indiana. 
Corn meal or hominy meal and shorts, 
equal parts. Dry 


4 
4 

3 
3 

2 
2 


60 
59 

115 
115 
169 
169 


634 
645 

255 
337 
161 
220 


146 
146 

68 
68 
68 
68 


1.08 
1.10 

1.25 
1.65 

1.18 
1.62 


2,282 

1,228 
983 






359 






Wet 


2,451 




380 




Wisconsin. 

Corn meal and shorts, equal parts. Dry. 
Wet 




482 




1,361 




402 




Corn, two-thirds ; shorts, one-third. Dry. 
Wet 






611 




1,040 




473 













EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



109 



Results of Experiments with Dry and Wet Feed. — Continued. 





Number of Hogs 


Average Weight 

at Beginning. 

Pounds 


CO ,-« 

_ 3 
cS O 


Number of Days 
Fed 


Average Daily 
Gain, Pounds 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


RATION 


03 


£§ go 


to 

t-. r-J 

Ph 


CO 

-•a 


6b 

op 
COP* 


Minnesota. 

Corn meal, two ; shorts, two ; linseed meal 
(O pi one Drv 


3 
3 
3 
3 

3 
3 

3 
3 

2 
2 
3 
3 

3 
3 
3 

2 

2 

4 
4 

4 

4 
4 
4 . 


29 
33 
34 
30 

111 
112 

118 
119 

83 
69 
99 
96 

91 
93 

86 

63 
61 , 


246 
249 
342 
269 

562 

605 

414 

373 

296 
311 
202 
171 

216 
271 
234 

453 

527 


112 
112 
112 
112 

99 
99 

99 
99 

112 

125 
75 
75 

110 
110 
110 

182 
182 

49 
49- 

119 
119 
119 
119 


.73 

.74 

1.02 

.80 

1.89 
2.04 

1.39 
1.26 

1.32 

1.25 

.90 

.76 

.65 
.82 
.71 

1.24 

1.45 

1.04 
.96 

.90 

.88 

1.06 

1.04 


1,085 
1,141 

2,340 

2,105 

1,292 
998 

1,389 






441 

458 






Wet 








1,501 
1,234 




438 
459 




Wet 








Missouri. 

"Wheat chop Drv 




416 




Wet 


2,420 




400 




Wholewheat, four-fifths; bran, one-fifth. 

Dry 

Wet 




508 




2,054 




550 




Utah. 

Wheat and bran, equal parts. Drv 

Wet 




436 




1,462 




470 


• 


Corn meal and bran Dry 




494 




Wet 


868 




508 




Bran and chopped wheat, equal parts. 
Dry 




643 




Wet 


1,422 




525 




Soaked - 


1,360 




581 


Oregon. 

Mixed grain. Drv 

Wet 


2.116 




467 






2,320 




440 




Ontario Agricultural College. 

Wheat and barlev. Dry 




452 




Wet 












489 




• Ottawa. 

Peas, wheat barlev, whole Drv 


67 
66 
69 

66 


432 
420 
504 
496 


1,764 
1,800 






408 




Wet 


1.636 




388 




Peas, wheat, barley, ground. Dry 

Wet 




356 




1,868 




376 













Average of twelve tests, with eighty-nine pigs 444 434 



These results show an advantage of slightly over 2 per cent in favor of soaking as compared with 
feeding dry and would probably have been much greater had a good stomachic in the shape of a reliable 
stock food been given, thus increasing the flow of digestive juices. The results at Ottawa and in Mis- 
souri are worthy of particular notice. Grisdale calls attention to the fact that in the Ottawa experiments 
a loss is shown by soaking ground grain but the whole grain returned the better gains when fed soaked, 
and suggests that the results from soaking meal may not be so marked as from soaking whole grain. The 
Missouri results seem to present contradictory evidence in the second test, where four-fifths of the ration 
was whole wheat. The Utah results of soaking the meal twelve hours should be noted. They are not 
included in the average; if this were done the balance would be more favorable to dry feeding. 



110 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Two experiments carried on at the Illinois Experiment Station to compare soaked and dry shelled 
corn gave rather indefinite results. Four pigs fed in pens were used in each case, two being fed on soaked 
shelled corn and two on dry shelled corn. They had no other food. The first lasted from April 29 
to May 27, 1889; the second from June 2 to July 22, 1889. In the second trial the pigs were well fat- 
.1 when the experiment commenced. Sixty pounds of corn were put in water at one time, 
at the rate of 1 bushel of shelled corn to about 8 gallons of water, and taken out as needed for feeding. 
The daily gains favored the pigs on soaked corn in both tests; but in the first test there was an advantage 
of about 4 1 L . per cent in favor of soaking, while in the second there was an advantage of about 6^ per 
cent in favor of the pigs on dry corn. 

In Indiana, Plumb and Van Norman fed sixteen pure bred pigs, in order to study 
the effect of water content of slop. The breeds were Chester White and Berkshire. 
They were divided into four lots of four pigs each, with two of each breed in each 
lot. They were of September and October farrow, and the feed was equal parts 
of corn meal and shorts for the greater part of the experiment. For a time 
hominy meal was substituted for the corn meal. They were fed as follows: Lot 1, dry feed; lot 2, feed 
mixed with twice its weight of water; lot 3, feed mixed with three times its weight of water. Each lot 
was given all the water that was desired in addition to that contained in the feed-; records were kept 
of all water drank. Salt and ashes were accessible. Health was good during the entire experiment. 
The following table shows the results : 

Effect of Water Content of Slop Fed to Pigs. 



The Effect of 
Water Con- 
tent of Slop. 



RATION 



Meal (dry) 
Meal 1, water 1 
Meal 1, water 2 
Meal 1, w r ater 3 



Number 
of Pigs 



4 
4 
4 
4 



Average 

Weight 

Beginning 

Pounds 



60 
59 
60 
60 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



634 
645 
651 
614 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



1.08 
1.10 
1.10 
1.05 



Feed per 

100 Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



359 
380 
374 
375 



Aside from the apparent advantage in favor of dry feeding, at least in this experiment, the water 
content seems to have very little influence on the gains when both rate of gain and feed per 100 pounds 
of grain are considered. 

Burkett, in New Hampshire, fed two lots (three in each lot) of Berkshire-Chester 
White pigs for ninety -nine days, in order to compare the effect of fermented br#n 
in a pig's ration. Lot 1 received fermented bran and skim milk; lot 2 received 
unfermented bran and skim milk. The bran was steamed in a barrel and left 
for ten davs before it was used, The results follow: 



Fermented and 

Unfermented 

Bran . 



Feeding Fermented and Unfermented Bran to Pigs. 


- 








Number 
of Pigs 


Average 

Weight 

Beginning , 

Pounds 


Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Feed per 100 
Pounds Gain 




Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Fermented bran 


3 
3 


47 
48 


181 

208 


.61 

.70 


291 


906 


Unfermented bran ■ 


322 923 









Davis Stock Food added to these rations would have increased the gains to at least 1 pound a day 
on the same amount of feed. It is said to be the practice of some New Hampshire farmers to allow bran 
to ferment before it is fed to pigs, and this experiment was conducted in order to test the value of this 
practice. The pigs on fermented bran seem to have an advantage in the economy of gain, but their 
gains were smaller. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Ill 



The Wisconsin Station recently reported four experiments, the object of which 
Wide and was to compare the feeding value of wide and narrow rations. The first compared 
NaiTOW Rations a ration of equal parts of corn meal and skim milkwith one of equal parts of 

ground peas and wheat middlings plus an equal weight of skim milk. The pigs were 
Poland Chinas and large Yorkshires, both breeds being represented in each lot. Each lot had a pen 12 feet 
square, having a clay floor, and opening into a yard of the same size. Salt and wood ashes were often given. 

The second experiment compared a ration of equal parts of corn meal and ground rye with one 
composed of one-third ground peas and two-thirds wheat shorts. The meal was mixed with water just 
before feeding and formed a thin slop. The pigs had access to coal ashes and salt, and by subdividing 
the feeding pen at meal time each pig was fed separately. A pen 12 feet square, with clay floor, and open- 
ing into a small yard was allowed each lot. There were ten pigs, two Berkshires, two Poland Chinas, 
two Yorkshires, and four cross bred Razorback Poland Chinas. These crosses were by an Indian Ter- 
ritory native boar (the typical Razorback of the South), out of a fine boned, short bodied Poland China 
sow". The two lots were as equal as possible as regards size, age, condition and breed. 

In the third experiment pea -meal and corn meal were compared. The pigs used were Yorkshires, 
Berkshires, Razorbacks and crosses of the Razorback with Berkshires and Poland Chinas. They were 
divided into lots as nearly equal is all respects as possible, and were confined in similar manner to those 
in the preceding experiments. 

The fourth experiment also compared ground peas and corn meal. The pigs were Berkshires, 
Poland Chinas, Razorbacks and crosses of these large type breeds with Razorbacks. The grain was made 
into a slop just before feeding time, and the pigs were confined in a similar manner to. those in the pre- 
ceding experiments. Each pig had good ashes and salt and a plentiful supply of water. The following 
table shows some of the results of these experiments: 



Feeding Pigs on Wide and Narrow Rations. 



RATION 



Wide Ration. _ , 

Corn meal and skim milk 

Corn and rye meals 

Corn meal 

Corn meal 

Narrow Ration. 

Peas, middlings and skim milk . . . 

Peas and shorts 

Peas 

Peas 



Total Gain 

per Head, 

Pounds 



158.76 
80.8 
117.7 
130.8 

147.75 
48.4 
143.1 
140.6 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



1.26 
.96 
.63 
.62 

1.17 
.62 

.75 
\84 



Average Daily 
Amount Grain 

Eaten, 

Pounds 



3.92 
5.3 
3.07 
3.28 

3.94 
4.68 
3.26 
4.14 



Feed per 100 

Pounds Gain, 

Pounds 



632 
552 
491 
606 

681 
762 
452 
495 



Digestible Pro- 
tein in 100 
Pounds Feed, 
Pounds 



3.35 
8.9 
7.9 
7.0 

8.85 
13.7 
16.8 
16.8 



RATION 



Wide Ration. 

Corn meal and skim milk .... 

Corn and rye meals 

Corn meal 

Corn meal 

Narrow Ration. 

Peas, middlings and skim milk 

Peas and shorts 

Peas 

Peas 



Digestible 

Carbohydrates 

in 100 Pounds 

Feed, 

- Pounds 



35.85 
67.1 
66.7 
66.7 

28.8 
50.6 
51.8 
51.8 



Digestible 

Fat in 100 

Pounds Feed, 

Pounds 



2.3 
2.7 
4.3 
4.3 

1.18 

2.7 

.7 
.7 



Digestible 

Protein for 

100 Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



33.34 
49.13 
38.789 

47.874 

60.14 
194.39 
75.936 
83.16 



Digestible 

Carbohydrates 

for 100 Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



223.41 
370.39 
327.497 
404.202 

196.59 
385.57 
234.136 
256.41 



Digestible 

Fat for 100 

Pounds Gain 

Pounds 



14.33 
14.90 
21.113 
26.058 

8.05 
20.57 
3.164 
3.465 



Nutritive 
Ratio 



1:7.7 
1:8.2 
1:9.75 
1:9.75 

1:3.6 
1:4.1 
1:3.18 
1:3.18 



112 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROi AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



During the Last two years of p Ling experiments, where the comparison of breeds was studied, 

the low - two Lots of similarly bred Duroc Jersey pigs to compare wide and narrow rations. 



The followir. ■ shows the results of this station: 



Feeding Pigs on Wide and Narrow Rations. 



RATION 


Number 
of Pigs 


Average 
Weight 

Beginning, 
Pounds 


Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Number . 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Wide. 

First experiment 

Second experiment 


5 
5 

5 
5 


38 
22 

35 
22 


1056 
805 

967 

746 


153 
163 

153 
163 


1.38 
.98 


Narrow. 

First experiment 

Second experiment 


1.28 
.92 



RATION 


Digestible 

Dry Matter 

per 100 Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Cost of Feed 

per 100 Pounds 

Gain 


Selling Price per 
100 Pounds 


Dressed 
Weight, 
Per Cent 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Wide. 

First experiment 

Second experiment 

Narrow. 

First experiment 


319 

448 

328 
487 


$1.84 • 
2.23 

1.93 
2.68 


$3.70 

3.55 

3.70 
3.55 


79.3 

77. 

77.1 
74.1 


1:7.8 
1:7.7 

1:4.1 


Second experiment ■ 


1:4.9 



The most striking feature of these results is the advantageous showing of the pigs on the wide 
rations. In the Wisconsin tests those pigs on corn meal and skim milk made larger, more rapid, and 
more economical gains than those on peas, middlings, and skim milk, and the same was true of those on 
corn meal and rye compared with peas and shorts. The rations were not excessively unbalanced in 
either case, the wide ones being 1:7.7 aneLJL:8.2 and the narrow ones 1:4.1 and 1:3.6. In both Iowa 
experiments there is a decided advantage in favor of the pigs receiving the wide rations. They made 
the largest and most rapid gains, fed more economically, both in feed eaten and money cost of feed, but 
sold at the same price on the market. The third and fourth Wisconsin experiments gave better returns 
for peas alone (a narrow ration) than for corn alone (a decidedly wide ration). These tests show, pound 
for pound, a greater value for peas than for corn, but it is suggested that, considering market prices of 
feed, corn is the cheaper. The better appetite of the pea fed pigs was remarkedupon in both tests, but 
especially in the last one, and again suggests the advisability of feeding a reliable stock food to increase 
the appetite and thus be able to turn the stock off quicker. Some investigators have not found peas to 
be successful when fed alone". Day states that at Guelph, pea feeding resulted in poor gains and unthrifty 
animals, but feeding a mixture of three parts pea meal and one part middlings gave good gains and 
produced excellent bacon. - 

The effect of the narrow rations on the external appearance of the pigs was noted in the Wisconsin 
experiments. Toward the end of the experiment, when pea meal and shorts were compared with corn 
meal and rye meal, the luxuriant hair and smoother flesh of the pea fed pigs was remarked upon. The 
corn fed pigs were less smooth, had deeper wrinkles, and the flesh showed a tendency to be soft and roll 
over the shoulders and flanks. 

Limited Compared The utility of feeding hogs on a ration which contains a quantity somewhat 
With Unlimited less than they might consume if the opportunity were afforded, has been studied 
Rations. from two standpoints. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



113 



The Value of a Re- 
duced Ration and 
Davis Stock Food. 



The market of today demands a finished pig of 175 to 190 pounds weight, with 
a thickness of fat on the-back not to exceed IK to 2 inches. It has been demon- 
strated that such a pig can be produced at a large saving of grain if Davis Stock 
Food is used in connection. We give an example of what may be accomplished. 
Give one lot all the grain they will eat up clean, and the others somewhat less 
than this amount. The ration of one lot should be 5 pounds of mixed grain and about 33^ pounds 
of skim milk daily, and that of the others about 4 pounds of mixed grain to which Davis Stock Food has 
been added in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to 10 pounds of grain and the same amount of skim milk 
daily. The following table is submitted as a tentative study of the subject and shows the results 
obtained in one trial: 

Effect of a Slight Reduction in the Ration of Pigs. 



RATION 


Number 
ol Pigs 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


Average 

Weight at 

Close, 

Pounds 


Average 

Net Gain, 

Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Average 

Amount 

Feed 

Eaten, 

Pounds 


Average 

Amount 

Feed per 

lOOPounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Full Ration. 

Oats, peas, barley, whole; amount 

Skim milk 


4 


106 


182 


76 


72 


1.05 


304 
256 

304 

256 


400 
334 


Limited Ration. 

Oats, peas, barley; amount lim- 
ited, ground, and Davis Stock 
Food 

Skim milk 


4 


102 


198 


96 


72 


1.33 


306 
'256 



















Feeding With 
a Greatly 
Reduced Ration. 



Although the statement is made that these results are not to be regarded as conclusive, this table 
affords material for interesting study. The limited ration lots made better net gains, better daily gains, 
and pork at a less cost of feed per 100 pounds gain than the unlimited ration lot. The influence of 
Davis Stock Food is plainly apparent on the second lot. 

In Utah, Foster and Merrill made exhaustive studies of the utility of a scanty 
ration as compared with an unlimited one and also the value of a period of par- 
tial starvation" followed by one of unlimited feeding. This is obviously a 
decidedly different problem from that of the Canadian Station. It is held by 
some feeders that pigs do better' on scanty food than on a liberal supply and it 
is also held that when a period of insufficient nourishment is followed by one of full feeding, the great 
gains made on full feed more than compensate for the loss while on the light ration. 

The Utah results show the effect of partial grain rations as compared with full 
grain rations during five years while pigs were on pasture; also two years' work 
showing the effect of full feeding following partial feeding, the pigs having 
pasture during both tests, and also the effect of full feeding following pasture 
alone. The usual plan was to feed one lot of pigs all the grain they would eat 
without waste; this is known as" a full grain ration. The three-fourths ration, one-half ration, and 
one-fourth ration were computed from the full ration as a standard. These large reductions put the 
Utah results on a different basis from those of the Canada Station. The following table shows the 
results of the five years'- work with pigs receiving full and partial grain rations on pasture: 

Feeding Pigs on Full Rations and Greatly Reduced Rations. 



Effect of Partial 
Grain Rations 
With Pasture. 



RATION 



Full grain ration 
Three-fourths ration. 

One-half ration 

One-fourth ration . . . 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Grain 

Eaten 
Daily, 
Pounds 


Grain Per 

lOOPounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


299 


1.21 


4.56 


374 


248 


1.01 


3.64 


354 


186 


.75 


2.83 


302 


119 


.55 


1.35 


247 



114 



CPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Following a Lim- 
ited Ration With 
Full Feeding. 



Foster and Merrill studied the after effects of partial grain rations by placing 
pigs on full and partial grain rations for a time, .and following this period with 
one in which all the lots had a full ration. 

There were six pigs in each lot; they were pure bred and high grade 

Berkshire?, with a few pure bred Poland Chinas; were fourteen weeks old when 

I had run on pasture with their dams. During the experiment they had the run 

of a pasture. The grain fed was chopped wheat and bran, equal parts by weight. Lot 1 

1 all the grain they would eat. Lot 2 received three-fourths as much grain as lot 1. Lot 3 

ived one-half as much grain as lot 1.** Lot 4 received one-fourth as much grain as lot 1. The second 

jan immediately at the close of the first and continued six weeks. During this period the 

s still had the run of the pasture, but all the lots received as much grain as they would eat; that 

full ration. 

The following table gives a comparative statement of results of the entire experiment: 



Following a Limited Ration With Full Feeding. 



RATION 


t-i w 


Total 
Weight 
at Begin- 
ning, 
Pounds 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Average 

Amount 

Grain 

Eaten 

Daily, 

Pounds 


Total 

Feed 

Eaten, 

Pounds 


Grain 

Eaten 

Per 100 

Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Cost per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain 


Profit by 
Periods 


Total 
Profit 


Lot 1. 






















First period, full grain ration 


6 


259 ' 


1.18 


3.92 


1697 


333 


$2.08 


$9.77 


j$12 


81 


Second period, full grain ration . . . 


6 


786 


1.25 


6.21 


1697. 


496 


3.10 


3.04 


Lot 2. 






















First period, three-fourths grain 






















ration 


6 


259 


9.14 


2.94 


1273 


322 


2.01 


7.86 


}" 


79 


Second period, full grain ration . . . 
Lot 3. 
First period, one-half grain ration. 


6 


654 


1.23 


5.58 


1507 


452 


2.82 


3.93 


6 


260 


.685 


1.96 


849 


286 


1.79 


6.54 


}» 


38 


Second period , full grain ration . . . 


6 


556 


1.19 


5.31 


1436 


448 


2.80 


3.84 


Lot 4. 






















Firstperiod, one-fourth grain ration 


6 


250 


.386 


.975 


424 


254 


1.59 


4.03 


I 8 


19 


Second period, full grain ration . . . 


6 


417 


1.12 


.474 


1281 


421 


2.63 


4.16 



It will be seen that during the entire experiment the average daily gain varied with the amount 
of grain received during the first period. The lots receiving the smallest ration during the first period 
made the cheapest gains but the advantage in the total profits is with lot 1. 

The effect of a period of full feeding following one of scanty nourishment is 
Full Rations strikingly shown in the Utah results with pigs that Went through tests on pasture 
After Pasture. alone. In 1898 one lot of pigs was on a mixed pasture on which were also some 
cattle and sheep. A second lot was on alfalfa pasture. No grain was given in 
either case. The lot on mixed pasture made slight gains. Those on alfalfa changed greatly in appear- 
ance during the experiment and lost in weight. At the close of the pasture test the pigs were placed in 
a pen and fed a full ration of grain and dairy by products. This second period lasted eight weeks. 

In 1899 a similar experiment was conducted, the pigs being on alfalfa pasture. Both lots lost 
in weight. At the close of the pasture test they were placed in pens and fed all the grain they would 
eat up clean, having the run of the pasture during feeding times. This period lasted forty-four days, 
pig in lot 2 failed to thrive and died after the experiment closed. Post mortem examination showed 
and undigested food in the intestines, also the intestines much inflamed. None of these animals had 
the advantage of a good digestive agent in the form of a reliable stock food and the post mortem 
emphasizes the necessity of its use. 

The following table shows the results of these tests: 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



115 



Feeding Pigs on Full Grain Rations Following Pasture. 



DATA 



Total weight at beginning, pounds . . . 

Total weight at close, pounds 

Total gain, pounds 

Days fed, number 

Average daily gain, pounds 

Total feed eaten: 

Milk, pounds 

Whey, pounds 

Grain, pounds- 

Average amount of feed eaten daily : 

Milk, pounds 

Whey, pounds 

Grain, pounds 

Feed per 100 pounds gain: 

Milk, pounds 

Whey, pounds 

Grain, pounds 

Cost per 100 pounds gain: 

Milk, dollars 

Whey, dollars 

Grain, dollars ....-..• 



1898 



Lots 1 and 2 



601 

.,310 

709 

56 

2.11 

101 

,751 
,387 

12.20 
8.19 
7.10 

578 
388 
337 . 

$0 . 87 

..27 

2.11 



1899 



Lot 1 



172 

358 
186 
44 
1.41 



1 



J 



)- a-673 



a- 5.1 



a-363 



$2 . 26 



J 



Lot 2 



299 

486 

187 

44 

1.42 



a-862 



a- 6.53 



a-461 



$2 . 89 



a-Grain only. 
These experiments seem to point to two conclusions. In the Canadian results a carefully con- 
ducted experiment apparently confirms what has frequently been urged by writers on the feeding of both 
men and the lower animals, namely, that the digestive system will be kept in better tone and will thus 
be able tc do better work if it is not crowded to the limit unless some good digestant such as Davis Stock 
Food is used. The great forcing to which animals are subjected during the fattening process must surely 
have an effect that is similar to that of high living in man, namely, a derangement of the digestive and 
circulatory organs; and it is beginning to be questioned whether this process of compelling a pig or a 
steer or a sheep to eat up- to his limit twice or three times a day for several months is economical, unless 
the digestive organs are assisted by the addition of some of the well known digestive agents such as 
gentian, nux vomica, salt, anise, etc. The pigs on a limited ration in the Canadian experiments received an 
average daily amount of grain of only about one-half pound less than those that were eating all they would 
clean up, and ate in seventy-six days a total of only 19 pounds less grain. Yet in one case the average 
daily gain was better, and in both the gains were made more economically — 384 pounds grain and 299 
pounds milk being required for 100 pounds gain with the unlimited ration lot, while 343 pounds grain 
and 285 pounds milk and 360 pounds grain and 309 pounds milk, respectively, were required for 100 
pounds gain with the two lots on the limited ration. This would seem to be a subject worthy of further 
investigation. 

The Utah results are decidedly against the system of starving animals at any period of their growth. 
While the economy of the cramming method of feeding may be questioned, no one can doubt that the 
best results in the fattening of animals will come when they are kept gaining up to the feeding period. 
These experiments were conducted to test the soundness of the claim made by some feeders that the loss 
due to feeding extremely light grain rations is more than made up by the large gains made when the 
animal is given all the grain it will eat, and that a period spent on pasture with little or no grain feeding 
distends the stomach of hogs by filling them with a mass of bulky feed, and so prepares them to assimilate 
feed more readily when placed on full grain ration, to eat more feed, and consequently to make larger 



ih> 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



and . conomical gains. Practically, they were designed to study the utility of a maintenance ration. 

In the experiment to study the effect of feeding partial grain rations followed by full feeding the pigs on 

rain ration during both periods made the greatest gains through the entire experiment; but the 

per 100 pounds gain and the money cost per 100 pounds gain varied directly with the amount of 

the daily ration, the pigs receiving the smallest amount making the cheapest gain. However, the profits 

on: ling were greatest with those pigs that were not stinted in their feed, except in the second 

period, whe that had been on partial rations showed the largest profits. The economy of feed- 

ly months of a pig's life is thus exemplified. With the pigs that were on pasture alone, 

le is true; a summer of stagnation was counterbalanced by a short period of heavy feeding, 

us eating, and very large gains that nevertheless were not sufficient to make the entire feeding 

process economical. 

To the farmer of the corn belt those experiments with grains which may take 
the place of corn for feeding purposes in times of scarcity are always interesting. 
In seasons such as that of 1901, when a summer of extreme heat and little or no 
rain follows a spring of normal conditions, the short corn crop is frequently 
counterbalanced by a bountiful supply of small grains. Many farmers at such times rely on wheat, 
barley, oats and rye to carry their stock to marketable condition. Outside the corn growing districts 
such experiments are of even more importance, for the small grains are often grown in great abundance 
and form the basis of all rations. 

Wheat Compared with Corn. — At the Indiana Station, Plumb and Anderson fed four lots of Chester 
White pigs, to study the relative value of feeding corn and wheat, both alone and in combination. The 
pigs were farrowed late in October, and, the experiments began as soon as they were weaned, which was 
early in January. They were out of two sows that were litter sisters. Lot 1 received whole corn ; lot 2 
received dry whole wheat; lot 3 received a ration consisting of equal parts of corn and wheat; lot 4 
received soaked whole wheat. 

Up to March 6th they received 10 pounds of separator milk as a noon feed and after that date 12 
pounds of the same daily. They were fed 105 days. The results were as follows: 



Corn and Corn 
Substitutes, 



Wheat Compared with Corn for Pigs. 



Lot 
1 

2 
3 
4 



RATION 



Corn 

Wheat, dry 

Corn and wheat, equal parts . 
Wheat, soaked 



Number 
of Pigs 


Weight 

at 

Beginning, 

Pounds 


Weight 

at 

Close, 

Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


4 
4 
4 
4 


185 
175 
174 
189 


673 

• 607 

646 

633 


105 
105 

105 
105 


1.16 

1.02 
1.12 
1.05 



Pounds 
Feed per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain 



312 
355 
323 
355 



At the Utah Station, Foster and Merrill conducted similar work in comparing ground wheat with 
corn meal. Two lots of three pigs each were fed, in covered pens, all the ground grain they would eat. 
The results follow: 



Ground Wheat Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RATION 


Number 
of Pigs 


Weight 

at 

Beginning, 

Pounds 


Weight 

at 

Close, 

Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 

Daily 

. Gain, 

Pounds 


Pounds 

Feed per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain 


Corn meal 


3 
3 


290 
291 


519 
615 


91 ' 

91 


.85 
1.20 


558 


Ground wheat 


464 







At the usual price of corn and wheat, 75 cents per hundred weight, the cost of gain for the corn fed 
lot is given as 84. 18 per 100 pounds, and that of the wheat fed lot at $3.48 per 100- pounds. At least 
'zT> per cent greater gains can be made with the same amount of feed if Davis Stock Food is fed for the 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



117 



full feeding period and the gains in these cases would not have cost over $3 . 25 and $2 . 75 per 100 pounds, 
respectively, had it been used. 

At the close of this test a second one was made,- but the ration of the first lot was made equal 
parts of corn meal and pea meal after the middle of the test. The results follow: 

Ground Wheat Compared with Corn and Pea Meals for Pigs. 



RATION 



Corn and pea meals 
Ground wheat 



Number 
of Pigs 



3 
3 



Weight 
at 
Beginning, 
. Pounds 



260 
257 



Weight 

at 

Close, 

Pounds 



670 

587 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



115 
115 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



1.12 
.96 



Feed per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



407 
403 



Wheat Compared with Various Other Grains. — At the Nebraska Station, Smith fed eight lots of six 
pigs each to study the comparative feeding value of wheat, rye and corn, both alone and in combination. 
Charcoal and lime were fed occasionally. Four pigs in each lot were of the bacon type, Tamworth and 
Yorkshire, and two were. of the fat, or lard type, or block type, as the author expresses it. Each lot had 
an 8xl2-foot cement floored pen in a closed shed, with an 8xl6-foot yard adjoining. The ground feed was 
mixed into a thick slop after being weighed; the soaked wheat was weighed before being soaked. The 
first cost of the pigs was $4. 50 per 100 pounds and they were sold on the farm at $5. 52^ P e r 100 pounds. 
Corn and wheat were charged at 55 cents per bushel, rye at 50 cents per bushel, and shorts at $18.00 per 
ton. Grinding was charged at 8 cents per 100 pounds for wheat and rye and 6 cents per 100 pounds 
for corn. A statement of the results follows: 

Wheat Compared with Other Grain for Pigs. 



RATION 



t-4 W 



Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 



Average 
Weight 

at Close, 
Pounds 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



Total 

Feed 

Eaten, 

Pounds 



Feed per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



Profit per 
Lot 



Wholewheat, dry 

Whole wheat, soaked eighteen to 

twenty-four hours . , 

Ground wheat 

Ground wheat and corn, equal 

parts . . . 

Ground wheat and rye, equal 

parts ." 

Ground wheat and shorts, equal 

parts 

Ground corn . 

Ground rye 



110 

110 

108 

111 

107 

109 
110 

107 



167 

174 
177 

178 

170.7 

174 

174.5 

168 



342 

385 
414 

401 

383 

388 
387 
367 



91 

91 
91 

91 

91 

91 
91 
91 



.63 

.70 
.76 

.74 

.70 

.71 
.71 

.67 



2,178 

2,210 
2,317 

2,351 

2,376 

2,375 
2,356 
2,290 



637 

575 
559 

586 

621 

612 
609 
624 



$5.72 

7.81 
6.43 

6.03 

4.34 

5.65 
3.60 
4.55 



In this experiment the ground wheat gave the greatest returns for the least amount of grain, 
but did not return so large a profit as whole soaked wheat, owing to the expense of grinding. The unde- 
sirability of feeding whole wheat dry seems to be indicated by these results. Ground wheat and corn 
gave considerably better returns than ground wheat and rye or ground wheat and shorts. Ground corn 
and rye alone do not appear to advantage. 

TheseTesults show wheat to have a feeding value fully equal to that of corn, and are in line with 
the work that has previously been published on this subject. In the first Utah test, wheat showed a very 
much better and cheaper gain than corn, but when pea me'al was added to the corn meal ration wheat 
did not have so great an advantage. The Nebraska results are especially favorable to wheat feeding. 



US 



EXPERIMENTS WITH ('.ROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Feeding Frost- 
e d Wheat. 



Nine experiments with wheat that had been more or less damaged by frost were 
conducted at the Central Experiment Farm in Canada. The grain was fed alone, 
ground, unground and in combination with other grains and skim milk. 
The following shows the results and conclusions from the experiments : 



Frosted Wheat for Pigs. 



- 

E 

C 
_ 
— 

X 


RATION 


HOW PREPARED 


Number of 
Pigs 

- 


Average Weight 

at Beginning, 

Pounds 


.CO 

we 
' S o 

5? « 

2 ° 
go 


Average Net 

Gain, 

Pounds 


ot) 
7 v 

gi 


fig 
a - 

a a 


Average 

Amount 

Feed 

Eaten, 

Pounds 


Feed per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


1 
2 


Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat, barley and 

peas 

Wheat 

( Wheat 


Ground, soaked twelve 
hours 

Whole, soaked forty-two 
hours 


4 
4 
4 
5 

4 


185 
186 
187 
61 
104 


275 
273 
278 
165 
192 


90 

86 

92 

104 

88 


77 
77 
77 
120 
56 


1.17 
1.11 
1.19 

.87 
1.57 


479 

570 

557 

441 

233 
1,011 

442 

326 
• 53 

207 

268 
250 


530 
659 


3 

4 


Whole, soaked forty-two 
hours 

Ground, soaked twelve 
hours 


607 
423 




Ground, soaked five 




5 


' Skim milk .... 


265 
1,251 


6 


Wheat 


Ground, soaked eighteen 

hours 

Ground, soaked thirty 


12 
-21 


103 
117 


187 
179 


84 
62 


84 
84 


1.00 
.73 


7 


( Wheat and barley. . . . 
' Carrots . 


526 

445 

85 


8 


Barley, wheat, rye 
and bran i 


Ground and soaked 
twelve hours 


36 
31 


54 
108 


108 
191 


54 
83 


105 
83 


.51 
1.00 


385 


9 


f Barley, wheat, r y e, 
•\ and bran 


Ground and soaked 
twelve hours 


323 








300 






















The fact that this wheat had been injured by frost does not seem to have had a serious effect on 
its feeding value. In the majority of instances the gains made were satisfactory, and those cases in which 
a large amount of grain was required for 100 pounds of gain were generally with hogs of considerable 
maturity and consequently expensive feeders. 

Barley Compared with Corn. — The following results were obtained with barley alone in comparison 
with corn alone in South Dakota, Colorado and Canada: 



Barley Compared with Corn for Pigs. 



RATION 



Colorado. 

Whole corn 

Ground corn 

Whole bald barley 

Ground bald barley 
Whole common barley . 
Ground common barley 



No. of 

Tests 


No. of 
Pigs 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


6 




71 


5 




60 


8 




88 


5 




67 


4 




68 


4 




47 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



.39 
.46 

.58 
.74 
.49 
.70 



Feed per 100 Pounds Gain 



Corn, 
Pounds 


Barley, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


700 




110 


540 




110 




500 


130 




360 


80 




540 


70 




430 


110 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



119 



Barley Compared with Corn for Pigs — Continued. 



RATION 
4 



South Dakota. 

Corn meal 

Barley 

Ontario Agricultural College. 

Corn 

Barley 

Central Experimental Farm, 
Ottawa. 

Whole corn 

Ground corn 

Whole barley 

Ground-barley 



No. of 
Tests 



1 

2 



No. of 
Pigs 



5 

9 



3 
4 
4 

4 



Average 
Weight at 
Beginning. 

Pounds 



126 
112 



72 
74 
99 
73 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



430 
803 



354 
392 
400 
444 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



56 

56 



91 
112 

84 
112 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



1.53 
1.59 

.70 
1.17 



1.30 

.87 

1.19 

1.00 



Feed per 100 Pounds Gain 



Corn, 

Pounds 


Barley, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


453 








457 





547 








456 





290 




231 


416 








364 


252 




435 





This table does not present an accurate comparison between barley and corn, as skim milk 
enters into the results in five instances when barley was fed, as against only three instances when corn 
was fed, but the results command interest in showing that the value of barley for hog feeding compares 
favorably with that of corn. 

Barley Compared with Corn in Combinations. — The South Dakota Experiment Station and the 
Ontario Agricultural College have reported tests with barley in combination with such feeds as shorts 
and middlings. The following table shows the results: 

Barley Compared with Corn in Combination for Pigs. 



RATION 



South Dakota. 

Corn and shorts, equal parts 
Barley and shorts, equal parts . . . 
Ontario Agricultural College. 

Corn and middlings 

Corn and middlings 

Corn and middlings 

Barley and middlings 

Barley and middlings 

Barley and middlings 



Number 
of Tests 



2 
4 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 



Number 
of Pigs 



9 
17 

11 

12 

5 

13 

12 

4 



Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 



111 

115 
63 



55 
63 



42 



Total 
Gain, 
Pounds 



Number 

of Davs 

Fed 



840 
1,561 



664 



501 



56 
56 



140 



140 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



1.67 
1.64 

.79 

.817 

.667 

.80 

.841 

.639 



Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain, Pounds 



Corn 


Barley 


. 413 






456 


480 




432 




424.55 






490 




430 




439.22 



These results are not so favorable to barley as those of the preceding table, but it can also be said, 
in the light of these figures, that barley is nearly if not quite equal to corn for feeding pigs (but the use of a 
good digestive powder or food will make it fully as valuable), judging it solely from the standpoint of 
rate and economy of gain, and, if we take into consideration its effects on the carcass, it far surpasses 
corn as a high grade pig's feed. An experiment with pure bred hogs at the Ontario Agricultural College, 
which is not included in the foregoing table, compared barley and corn. Some middlings and skim milk 
were given, but during the last month the grains were fed alone. While receiving middlings and skim 
milk the pigs on corn made the most economical gains, but after the middlings and skim milk were with- 
drawn the pigs on barley made the most rapid and economical gains. The experience of this institution 
places barley at the head of the list of American bacon producing feeds. 

Ground Wheat and Barley Compared with Shelled Corn. — At the Colorado Station, Buffum and 
Griffith fed two lots of pigs to compare the feeding value of home grown Colorado grain with corn, 



120 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



which must be imported from states farther east. The pigs used were rather ordinary grade Poland 
Chinas and Berkshircs, about eight months old at the beginning of the experiment. One lot was fed 
shelled corn: the other, a mixture of equal parts of ground wheat and barley. The wheat and barley 
were grown on the college farm. The wheat was the common Defiance variety and was grown in a field 
producing 34 bushels per acre. The barley was of the common hulle*d variety and was grown in a field 
produced 2.") bushels per acre. 

The pigs were kept in pens of equal size, each pen with a yard adjoining. The pens were well 
bedded with straw. Water was given in abundance, and occasionally coal and ashes. The following 
le shows the results: 

Ground Wheat and Barley Compared with Shelled Corn for Pigs. 



RATION 


■ 83 


Average 
Weight at 


Average 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Number 
of Days 

Fed' 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Average Amount of 
Feed Eaten, Pounds 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain, Pounds 


Cost per 

100 

Pounds 

Gain 


Profit at 

7 Cunts 


Begi nning, 
Pounds 


Corn 


Wheat and 
Barley 


Corn 


Wheat and 
Barley 


Pound 


Corn 

Wheat and barley 


4 

4 


95 
94.5 


71.25 
120.25 


101 

104 


.70 
1.16 


383.50 


546.50 


540 


450 


$7.00 
4.50 


$0.95 
3.4JO 



This experiment shows a mixture of wheat and barley to be much more valuable than corn alone 
for pig feeding. It also speaks very well for" the economy of pork production in those states where corn 
is not a staple crop. Buff urn and Griffith state that it is a common practice in the neighborhood of Fort 
Collins for farmers to exchange barley or wheat for corn on even terms, and, even when corn is high in 
price and wheat and barley cheaper, they will sell the cheaper home grown grains and buy the expensive 
one. They give the average price for ten years of these grains in Colorado as 80. 5 cents per 100 pounds 
for corn, 99.5 cents per 100 pounds for wheat, and 55.1 cents per 100 pounds for barley. They ask, 
very pertinently, whether Colorado feeders have not the solution of the problem of a supply of concen- 
trates for pork production when home grown grain sells on the farm for less money per 100 pounds than 
corn can be purchased in town, and especially when either wheat or barley is equal to corn for this 
purpose, and in combination are superior to it. 

Oats Compared with Com. — Grisdale reports a comparison of oats and corn. The grain was fed 
whole and was soaked fifty-four hours before feeding. Both lots received skim milk in addition. The 
results were as follows: 

Oats Compared with Corn for Pigs. 



RATION 


Number 
of Pigs 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


Average 

Weight at 

Close, 

Pounds 


Average 

Gain, 
Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Oats 


4 
3 


97 
72 


170 
190 


73 

118 


84 

91 


.87 
1.30 


421 
290 


345 


Corn 


231 



The results of this test are not very favorable to oats as a pig feed, due in a large measure to the 
hulls of oats being very indigestible, and no stock food was used in this experiment. To get even as 
economical a gain as could be had from corn a feeder would have to get nearly twice as good gains as from 
the oats; for, pound for pound of nutrient material, oats are about twice as expensive as corn. 

Corn and Kaffir Corn. — The Oklahoma Station compared Indian corn and Kaffir corn as follows : 
Six pigs, averaging about 135 pounds at the beginning of the test, were fed six weeks on Kaffir 
heads, and made an average daily gain of 1 . 11 pounds, requiring about 665 pounds of grain for 100 pounds 
gain. Three pigs, averaging 220 pounds at the beginning, made an average daily gain of 1.53 
pounds for thirty-five days, and required the equivalent of 494 pounds of shelled corn for 100 pounds 
ain. These same pigs were then fed Kaffir meal for two weeks and made 1 pound of gain per head 
daily, eating 921 pounds of meal for each 100 pounds of gain. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



121 



Four pigs, averaging 105 pounds, were fed thirty-five days on Kaffir meal. They made an 

average daily gain of 1.21 pounds, eating 508 pounds of meal for 100 pounds of gain. For the next two 

weeks they were given soaked shelled corn. They made a total gain of only 30 pounds, eating 707 pounds 

-of corn for 100 pounds of gain. For the next four weeks a daily supply of green alfalfa was given with 

good effect. A total gain of 140 pounds was made, requiring 365 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain. 

Kaffir Corn. — The value of Kaffir corn for hogs has been studied extensively at the Kansas Station. 
Kaffir corn was found to have a feeding value considerably below that of Indian corn when both grains 
were fed alone. In Bulletin No. 95, Cottrell states that the average of a number of trials shows that 527 
pounds of Kaffir corn and 468 pounds of Indian corn, respectively, are required per 100 pounds of pork 
made ; the yield of pork per bushel of grain being 10 . 6 pounds in case of Kaffir corn and 11.9 pounds with 
Indian corn. Davis Stock Food, properly used, would have increased the gain at least 20 per cent in either 
case. On upland soil, however, the average of eleven years on the Kansas Agricultural College Farm 
shows returns of 46 bushels per acre for Kaffir corn and 34^ bushels for Indian corn. Such returns, with 
gains as noted above, indicate a pork yield per acre of grain at 487 pounds for Kaffir corn and 410 
pounds for Indian corn. The great value of Kaffir corn is its ability to resist drouth. 

Soy Beans in a Kaffir Corn Ration. — In addition to the lighter returns from Kaffir corn than from 
Indian corn, this grain is very constipating when fed alone, and hogs, especially young ones, tire of it 
sooner than they do of Indian corn. To remedy these difficulties a mixture is advised, especially with 
feeds of a laxative nature. One of the most convenient nitrogenous concentrates at the hands of the 
Kansas farmer is the soy bean. - The effect of eating soy beans is good. Hogs receiving them fatten 
rapidly, look thrifty, have strong appetites, and the hair and skin are glossy, like those of animals fed 
on oil meal. 

The following summary gives a more elaborate comparison of the relative values of Kaffir or Indian 
corn meal alone and in comparison with soy beans. The results are arranged in order of economy of gains, 
the total showing the number of pounds of feed required for 100 pounds of gain. 



Value of Soy Beans in a Kaffir Corn or Indian Corn Ration. 



RATIOiV 



Corn meal, two-thirds; soy bean meal, 
one-third 

Kaffir corn meal, two-thirds;- soy bean 
meal, one-third 

Kaffir corn meal, four-fifths ; soy bean 
meal, one-fifth 

Kaffir corn meal, four-fifths; soy bean 
meal, one-fifth 

Kaffir corn meal, one-half; corn meal, 
one-half 

Shelled corn , dry 

Kaffir corn meal, four-fifths; soy bean 
meal, one-fifth : 

Kaffir corn meal, wet 

Kaffir corn meal, one-half; corn meal, one- 
half, wet 



Feed 
per 100 
Pounds 

Gain, 
Pounds 




Shelled corn, dry 

Kaffir corn meal, soaked forty- eight hours 
Kaffir corn, whole, soaked forty-eight 

hours 

Kaffir corn meal, wet 

Kaffir corn, whole, soaked forty-eight 

hours ; : 

Kaffir corn, whole, wet 

Kaffir corn, whole, wet 

Kaffir corn meal, wet 

Kaffir corn, whole, dr" 

Kaffir corn meal, wet 

Kaffir corn meat, dry 

Averasre 



Feed 
per 100 
Pounds 

Gain, 
Pounds 



479 
542 

550 
559 

632 

638 
640 
653 
655 
691 
749 

528 



1 22 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



The six lots of pigs having soy beans as part of their ration required an average of 411 pounds of 
grain for 100 pounds of gain, while the nineteen lots not fed soy beans required an average of 54G pounds 
eed for 100 pounds of gain, an inerea.se in feed required of over 37 per cent. 

Peas Compared with Wheat.— The Utah Station compared the value of peas and wheat during two 
years. The pigs were confined in yards and the grain was given whole and dry. The average of results 
Follows: 

Peas Compared with Wheat for Pigs. 



NATION 



Peas . . 
Wheat 



Total 

Weight at 

Beginning, 

Pounds 



147 
136 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



303 

282 



Feed 
per 100 

Pounds 

Cain, 

Pounds 



452 
476 



Cow Peas Compared with Corn Alone. — At the South Carolina Station, Newman and Pickett fed 
to compare cow peas with corn. The pigs were from eight to eleven months old and were fed in pens. _ 
There were three pigs in each lot. 

The cow pea fed lot ate 6 . 7 pounds of cow peas per head daily and made an average daily gain for 
the lot of 3. 38 pounds. They required 491 pounds of cow peas to produce 100 pounds of gain. 

The corn fed lot ate 9 . 2 pounds of corn per head daily and made an average daily gain for the lot 
of 4. 17 pounds. The}- required 602 pounds of corn to produce 100 pounds of gain. 

With pork at 5 cents per pound and corn and cow peas yielding 15 bushels and 10 bushels, 
respectively, per acre, the value of an acre of corn in this experiment was $6.97 and that of an acre 
of cow peas 80. 12. 

Ground Cow Peas and Corn Meal Compared with Corn Meal. — At the Alabama Station, Duggar fed 
two lots of pigs to compare the relative value of a ration of half corn meal and half ground peas with an 
exclusive corn meal ration. The pigs used were placed in covered pens, with small yards adjoining, and 
after a preliminary period of a week were put into the experiment, which lasted sixty days. The results 
are as follows: 

Ground Cow Peas and Corn Meal Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RATION 



Ground corn alone 

Corn, one-half; cow peas, o'ne-half 



Gain, 
Pounds 


Number 

of Days 

Fed 


Feed 
Eaten, 
Pounds 


68 
108 


60 
60 


548 
570 



Feed 
per 100 
Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 



806 

528 



In. this experiment the cow pea and corn meal ration made gains 34 per cent more economical than 
corn alone. The quality of the pork made was as good as that of corn fed pork. 

Peanuts Compared with Corn Meal. — Duggar placed in pens the pigs used to compare the value of 
peanut pasture and corn meal to make a more accurate study -of the nutritive values of -Spanish pea- 
nuts and corn meal. The lots received the same rations, except that the peanuts were dry and fed 
unhulled. The test lasted six weeks, with the following results: 



Peanuts Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



NATION 



Peanuts, one-half 
Peanuts only 
Corn meal only . 



corn meal, one-half 



Number 
of Pigs 



Number 

of Days 

Fed 



42 

42 
42 



Total 

Gain, 

Pounds 



84 
59.5 
8.6 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



.67 

.47 
.10 



Feed 
per 100 
Pounds 

Gain, 
Pounds 



370 

280 

1,070 



This experiment shows the best daily gains from the combination of peanuts and corn meal, and 
shows the best returns for feed eaten by the pigs on peanuts alone. This lot made very much better 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



123 



gains than the pigs fed exclusively on corn meal, which fed very poorly. The pigs on peanuts alone made 
a gain of 9 pounds per bushel of peanuts. This gives a value of 27 cents to a bushel of Spanish peanuts 
when pork is worth 3 cents per pound gross, and 313^ cents when pork is worth 3^ cents per pound. 
The unthrifty appearance of the pigs fed on corn meal only was commented upon. 

At the South Carolina Station, Newman and Pickett fed two lots of grade Berkshire and Duroc 
Jersey pigs, from eight to eleven months old, in pens, to study the relative value of peanuts and corn. 
On land of similar character they estimated the corn yield at 15 bushels per acre and peanuts 90 bushels, 
and in their investigations they found that with exclusive corn feeding, 602 pounds of corn were required 
for 100 pounds of gain, and with peanuts, 443 pounds for 100 pounds of gain. On this basis an acre 
of corn will produce 140 pounds of pork and an acre of peanuts 488 pounds, worth, respectively, when 
pork is 5 cents a pound, $6.97 arid $24.37. 

One of the prominent features of , modern industry is the development of the pos- 
Commerci&l sibilities of the by product — the waste and offal of manufacturing establish- 

By Products. ments. Farmers have long appreciated the value of the by products of flour 

mills, but of recent years many other materials have come into the markets 
as valuable feed for farm animals. Rice mills, oil mills, and packing houses all have their byproducts, 
which are usefuf in supplementing the products of the farm. 

The by products of the flour mills have for years been bought by the farmers 

Milling By for use in the feed box, and one of these, middlings, has come to have an unsur- 

ProductS. passed reputation for hog feeding, especially for young animals in the early stages 

of fattening. With the development of milling, the ingenuity of the manufacturer 

has enabled him to throw a host of new feeds upon the market. In consequence, we have, in the first 

place, a by product more completely deprived of its nutrient material, perhaps, than formerly, tout more 

uniform in quality; and, in the second place, a greater variety of feeds with which to supply the bins. 

It is not alone the by products of the flour mills that have value for feeding purposes. The rice mills, glucose 

factories, and oil mills, all have by products that are useful adjuncts to feeding operations. Indeed, most 

of the experimental work of recent years deals with the value of the by products of these industries. 

In the majority of instances these feedstuff s are best used as adjuncts to corn or corn meal, although 

often a proximity of feed yards to a mill cheapens the by products sufficiently to enable the feeder to use 

them as the main part of the ration. 

Bran and Corn Meal Compared with Corn Meal. — Burkett fed two lots of three pigs each, one 
receiving a ration of equal parts of bran and corn meal and milk, and the other corn meal and milk. 
The object was to compare the value of bran in such a ration and have the corn fed lot as a check. 
The results follow: 

Bran and Corn Meal Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RATION 


Number 
of Pigs 


Average 

Weight at 

Beginning, 

Pounds 


Total Gain, 
Pounds 


Number of 
Days Fed 


Average 

DailyGain, 

Pounds 


Feed per 100 
Pounds Gain 


Grain, 

Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Bran and corn meal 

Corn meal - 


3 
3 


47.6 

47 


227 
323 


99 
99 


.76 
1.08 


308 
263 


882 
663 







This experiment gave much better returns for a corn meal and skim milk ration than for one where 
bran was added, because of the difficulty an animal has in digesting bran. Davis Stock Food should be 
added to all rations, and it will more than pay for itself in the feed saved. 

Shorts Compared with Corn. — At the Colorado Station, Buffum and Griffith fed pure bred 
Berkshire pigs, about five months old, to compare the feeding value of corn meal and shorts in combi- 
nation with wheat, barley and oats. One lot received shorts, Wheat, oats and barley in rotation — shorts 
with wheat and oats one day, with wheat and barley the next, with oats and barley the next, and so 
on. The lot on corn had the same method of feeding and the same ration, except that corn was fed in 
place of shorts. Feed was charged at the following prices: Corn, 83 cents per 100 pounds* shorts, 75 cents 
per 100 pounds; wheat, 95 cents per 100 pounds; oats, $1.20 per 100 pounds ; barley, $1.20 per 100 



124 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



The experiment lasted from March 21 to May 31, 1901, sixty-nine days, the results being 
Shorts Compared with Corn in Mixed Rations for Pigs. 





Num- 
ber ot 
Pigs 


\ i erage 
\\ eight at 
ining, 

rounds 


,\\ ei 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Number of 
Days Fed 


erage 
Dailj Gain, 

Pounds 


Average Amount Feed Eaten 


Feed 
per too 

Pounds 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Cost 


RATION 


Corn, 
Pounds 


Shorts, 
Pounds 


Other 
Grain, 

Pounds 


per 100 

Pounds 

Gain 


Shorts and grain .... 
■n and other grams 


3 

3 


112. 5 
98 


88.2 
85.6 


69 
69 


1.31 

1.27 


208.6 


226.5 


225.6 
209.1 


521 

487 


$4.70 
4.70 



At the Indiana Station, Plumb and Anderson fed two lots of high bred Chester White gilts, each 
five and one-half months old, to compare* the value of a ration of corn meal and wheat shorts with the 
ration of corn meal only. The mixture was equal parts by weight of corn meal and shorts. The pigs 
were fed in pens with small shelter houses attached. Shorts were valued at $14.00 per ton and corn 
meal at $13.50 per ton. The results were as follows: 

Feeding Value of Wheat Shorts. 



RATION 


Number 

of Pigs 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


Total Gain, 
Pounds 


Number of 
Days Fed 


Average 
Daily Gain, 

Pounds 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed 
per 100 
Pounds 

Gain, 
Pounds 


Cost of 
Feed per 


Shorts, 
Pounds 


Corn Meal, 
Pounds 


lOOPounds 
Gain 


Shorts and corn meal .... 
Corn meal 


3 
3 


129 
129 


354 

327 


70 
70 


1.69 
1.56 


718 


718 
1,413 


406 
432 


$2.74 
2.80 



The mixture of corn meal and shorts gave larger, more rapid and more economical gains than a 
ration of corn meal only. In the Colorado experiment the pigs fed on a ration of shorts made larger and 
more rapid gains than those on corn meal, but they required more feed per 100 pounds gain. 

Corn Meal Compared with Rice Meal. — The South Carolina Station compared rice meal and corn 
meal. The rice meal is a by product of the rice mills and consists largely of rice flour, rice polish and 
rice bran. As yet the mills have no uniform way of putting it on the market, and in order that the reader 
mav understand what is meant by rice meal, as used in this experiment, it may be said that it is all the 
by product in cleaning the rice grain for the market. Its chemical composition shows that it has about 
the same amount of protein, carbohydrates and fat as corn meal. 

The pigs used were Berkshires, about five months old, weighing about 90 pounds each. They were 
given a ration consisting of one part meal and four parts skim milk, the milk being mixed with meal, and 
w*ere confined in pens 20 by 40 feet, with plenty of shade. 

The experiment was divided into two periods. During the first period of thirty-nine days, lot 
1 was fed the corn meal ration, and lot 2 the rice meal ration. During the second period of twenty-two 
days the feed was reversed, lot 1 having rice meal and lot 2 corn meal. The results during the first period 
were not decisive, but during the second, they were somewhat favorable to the rice meal. The results 
for each kind of grain for the entire experiment were as follows: 

Rice Meal Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RATION 


Number 

of Pigs 


Total Gain, 
Pounds 


Number of 
Days Fed 


Average 

DailyGain, 

Pounds 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 


Cost of 
Feed per 


Meal, 

Pound:; 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Meal, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


lOOPounds 
_Gain 


meal one part, skim 

milk four parts 

Corn meal one part, skim 
milk four parts 


3 
3 


314.5 
303 


61 
61 


1.72 
1 . 66 


779 

779 


3,116 
3,116 


248 
257 


991 
1,028 


$3.84 
4.63 







The corn meal was valued at $20.00 per ton, rice meal at $15.00 per ton and skim milk at 20 
cents per 100 pounds. This experiment shows that rice meal, such as was used in this test, is fully as 
valuable as corn meal in pig feeding and corroborates previous work along this line. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



125 



Gluten Meal Compared with Corn Meal. — Pigs that had been fed without success on a potato ration 
at the Cornell Station were given a rational ration of corn meal and skim milk for a week and then they 
were employed in a test to compare gluten and corn meal. Skim milk was fed, the proportion of meal 
being about 3 pounds of milk to 1 of meal. Lots 1 and 3 received gluten meal and milk, and lots 2 and 4 
corn meal and milk. 

Gluten meal was charged at $11 . 75 per ton, corn meal at $14.00 per ton, and skim milk at 15 cents 
per 100 pounds. The following were the principal results: 

Gluten Meal Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RATION 



Gluten meal and milk 
Corn meal and milk . . 
Gluten meal and milk 
Corn meal and milk . . 



4 
4 
4 

4 



SB, fl m 

53 so c s 
>"& bb° 



87.25 

90.5 

47.5 

48.5 



c3 m 

oP* 



214 
■297.5 
157.5 
219 



-3 CO 



p3 

o 



50 
50 
50 
50 



1.07 

1.49 

.79 

1.10 




° c 

o a 

rt CO 

*» a 

O a 



52 . 70 
2.50 
2.40 
1.90 



CO — 

h MO 

fi'33 



77.40 
80.20 



£.2 

is 

z 



1:2.7 

1:5.8 
1:2.7 
1 :5 . 8 



The use of gluten meal in combination with skim milk in this experiment did not give results so 
satisfactory as where corn meal and milk were fed. Both corn meal lots made better gains and the average 
dry matter consumed and cost per 100 pounds gain, were much lower than with the pigs on gluten meal 
and milk. 

Hominy Meal Compared with Corn Meal.— In Massachusetts the Hatch Station compared hominy 
meal and corn meal. The latter is described as consisting of the hulls, germs, and some of the starch 
and gluten of the cony ground together. This separation is said to be brought about solely by the aid of 
machinery. The hard flint part of the corn is hominy, which is used as a human food. 

Seven Chester White grades were fed on a grain and skim milk ration, 7 to 10 quarts of skim milk 
being fed daily witbra grain allowance of 3 to 6 ounces to each quart of milk, depending on appetite and 
size. One lot received corn meal and milk, and the other hominy meal and milk. The results are shown 
in the following table: 

Hominy Meal Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 





o 

fe a, 

8P- 

2 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


•~ en 
cot3 

. OC 
_ 3 
asp 




o 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed Per 100 lbs. Gain 


53 S"2 


■ RATION 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Dry Matt 

Per 100 11 

Gain, Pour 


Corn meal 


4 
3 


56 

58 


503 
410 


98 
98 


1.28 
1.39 


1,022 
766 


7,702 
5,779 


203 

187 


1,532 
1,410 


321 


Hominy meal 


306 



These figures show hominy meal, as fed in this experiment, to have a feeding value equal to that 
of corn meal. In this one test corn meal failed to give quite so good results as the hominy meal, showing 
an average daily gain of 1.28 pounds to 1.39 pounds for hominy meal, and 321 pounds dry matter for 
100 pounds gain to 306 pounds dry matter for 100 pounds gain in the case of the hominy meal. 

Corn Meal Compared with Cerealine Feed. — Two tests were made at the Hatch Station to compare 
corn meal with cerealine feed. Like hominy meal, cerealine feed consists also of the hull and a portion of 
the starch of the corn. It contains rather less of the starch than hominy meal. It is the by product 
resulting from the preparation of the breakfast food known as*cerealine flakes. It is very coarse looking 
and appears' very much like unground corn hulls." 

In the first test six grade Chester White pigs, about five weeks old, were used. They were fed 6 to 
9 quarts of skim milk per head daily and the grain fed at the start was 3 ounces for each quart of milk ; 
the grain was increased with age and weight. The nutritive ration was 1:3 at the beginning and 1:7 
at the close. 






EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



In the second tost ^ix pigs, a cross between the Poland China and the Chester "White, about five 
ks old. were fed skim milk iit connection with the cerealine feed, which was eaten with seeming relish 
at all times. The following table shows the results: 

Cerealine Feed Compared with Corn Meal for Pigs. 



RA I'lUN 



Number of 
Pigs 


Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 

Pounds 


a 

O a 

"3 3 


. ° 

il 


Q § 

a>rv 
tuT 4 

t* 3 


Total Feed Eaten 


Feed Per 100 lbs. Gain 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 


3 


48 


413 


106 


1.30 


731 


4,827 


177 


1,169 


3 


45 


398 


106 


1.25 


731 


4,827 


184 


1,212 


3 


68 


3.15 


78 


1.34 


680 


3,061 


216 


972 


3 


67 


293 


78 


1.25 


676 


3,061 


231 


1,041 



0*O 



260 
277 
281 
305 



Corn meal 

Cerealine feed 

Corn meal. . . .„. 

Cerealine feed 

In these tests cerealine feed showed considerable value as a pig feed, but failed to give as good 
results, either in rate or economy of gain, as corn meal. Digestion experiments at the Hatch Station with 
sheep have shown that cerealine feed contains as much digestible matter as corn meal. The station 
authorities suggest that the coarse nature of cerealine feed lessens its value as a pig feed. 

Value of Corn Hearts. — Duggar fed three lots of three pigs each to compare hearts with corn meal 



and cow pea meal. These feeds constituted half the ration, the other half being rice bran. 

table shows the results: T7 . , ; ~ „ 

Value of Corn Hearts. 



The following 



RATION 


Number of Pigs 


Total Gain, 
Pounds 


Number of Days 
Fed 


Average Daily 
Gain, Pounds 


Feed Eaten, 
Pounds 


Feed Per 100 

Pounds 
Gain, Pounds 


Corn hearts 

Rice bran 

Cow pea meal 

Rice bran 


■ * 


r 65 

81 
98 


35 
35 
35 


.62 
.77 
.93 


480 
479 
540 


738 
595 


Corn meal 




Rice bran 


550 







Analyses at the Alabama Station indicated that the corn hearts used in this experiment contained 
8.9 per cent protein and the rice bran 9 per cent protein. 

Gluten Meal Compared with Linseed Meal for Balancing Rations. — Patterson, at the Maryland Ex- 
periment Station, fed four lots of five high grade Poland China pigs each to compare gluten meal and linseed 
meal as the nitrogenous components of the ration. Lots 1 and 2 received hominy chops, three-fifths ; linseed 
meal, two-fifths; lots 3 and 4 received hominy chops, three-fifths; king gluten meal, two-fifths. Both 
lots had skim milk in the proportion of 1 pound of milk to 1 of grain. The results were as follows: 

Gluten Meal Compared with Linseed Meal in a Carbonaceous Ration. 





o 

3 


Average 

Weight at 

Beginning, 

Pounds 


a 

■_. 3 
o 


0"3 

■S* 

-3 TO 

go 


3JT3 

S. £ 

°g 

Be 

to'% 


Feed Per 100 lbs. Gain 


M 


RATION 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Milk, 
Pounds 




Hominy chops, three-fifths; linseed meal, two-fifths 
Hominy chops, three-fifths; linseed meal, two-fifths 


5 

5 


37 
36 


298 
294 


60 
60 


.99 
.98 


242 
242 


242 
242 


$2.71 
2.70 


Average 


242 


242 


$2.70 






Hominy chops, three-fifths; gluten meal, two-fifths 
Hominy chops, three-fifths; gluten meal, two-fifths 


5 
5 


36 
37 


241 
256 


60 
60 


.80 
.85 


233 
220 


233 

220 


$2.20 
2.07 


A verage 


226 


226 


$2.13 







This table shows advantages of gluten meal. Both rate and economy of gain favor the corn by 
product. The i ost of gluten meal ration was much less than the one into which linseed meal entered. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 127 

No feed of the South has so wide a range of interest as cotton seed meal. It 
Cotton is a concentrated feed of high value for cattle and sheep, and its effects on the 

Seed Meal. fertilizing value of the manure are nearly as great as its effects on the feeding 

value of the ration. 

The influence of cotton seed meal extends far beyond the states where it is produced, and farm- 
ers the entire country over have come to depend upon it to balance their rations and enrich their fields. 

Danger of Use of Cotton Seed Meal in Pig Feeding. — For some reason, as yet unexplained, this by 
product is usually fatal to pigs in from three to ten weeks after feeding has commenced, the mortality 
being at least 50 per cent. In two tests conducted by the Texas Experiment Station, boiled cotton seed 
gave the least serious results, while soaked raw cotton seed, roasted cotton seed and raw cotton seed 
meal proved more serious. In one test, ten of a lot of fifteen pigs fed cotton seed or cotton seed 
meal, died. At the Iowa Experiment Station, of six pigs that were on a ration of cotton seed meal, 
corn and cob meai and buttermilk, three died. At the Kansas Experiment Station, four young pigs 
on a ration composed of one-sixth cotton seed meal and five-sixths corn meal, died within forty-six 
days after feeding commenced. At the Arkansas Station, three lots of three pigs each were fed 
mixed rations, the cotton seed meal constituting one-third of the grain. All died. 

The time intervening between the beginning of feeding cotton seed or cotton seed meal and the 
first appearance of trouble, varies somewhat. Curtis gave six to eight weeks; Lloyd, in one test, lost the 
first pig at the end of the fourth week; in another test, deaths began in about forty days; Curtis lost 
the first pig fifty-one days after feeding commenced. Dinwiddie's first pig died thirty-five days after 
feeding commenced, and Duggar lost the first pig thirty days after feeding commenced. It therefore 
appears that there is no very definite period of time that is required for the poison to manifest itself. 
However, Cottrell states that cotton seed meal may be fed for three to four weeks before danger is .immi- 
nent, and Curtis and M alone state that no case has come under their experience "where a pig has died 
if the cotton seed mixture has not been continued longer than three weeks." 

Symptoms of Poisoning. — Poisoning is manifested in a peculiar manner. In many cases pigs that 
are apparently well in the evening are found dead in the morning, and often the most careful watching 
fails to show any indications of indisposition. Where symptoms are present, those most characteristic 
seem to be disorder of respiration, which is manifested by quickened breathing, coughing or hiccough. 
Failing appetite usually calls the attention of the feeder to the approach of danger. Seldom more than 
two days intervene between the first symptom and death. Francis gives the following symptoms of 
the trouble with Texas pigs: 

"The attack was sudden as a rule; in fact, in the majority of cases an animal was found dead that 
had been apparently well twelve hours before. In those cases which we were fortunate enough to wit- 
ness, the symptoms were those of a sudden contraction of the diaphragm, producing a sound similar to 
hiccough in man. The animal stood with head near the ground, the flanks tucked up, the ears hanging 
pendulous, and the tail straight and limp. Some would lie flat on the belly, never on the side, while 
others would assume a sitting up-posture with the fore legs well apart. In several cases there was a marked 
elevation of temperature, the" thermometer registering 160 degrees Fahrenheit per rectum. The circu- 
lation seemed very weak and rapid. The gaspings became more and more frequent and violent, and 
alter a few struggles the animal was dead. As a rule they were dead in an hour. In the last moments 
great quantities of foam or froth would come from the nose or mouth." 

The symptoms observed by Dinwiddie are described as follows: 

"The disease in all cases was of a type which might be described as acute. In several instances 
the animals were said to be off their feed for one or two days before other svmptoms were observed. 
Every animal which exhibited any symptoms at all died within twenty-four hours. It would remain by 
itself, standing, disinclined to move, breathing with extreme rapidity and jerking or thumping in the 
flanks, and before death frothing at the mouth and nostrils. Fever was absent, or but slight; eyes" 
dull and sometimes bloodshot. Coughing occasionally occurred." 

Pathological Features. — Francis states: "On post mortem examination the digestive organs 
appeared normal throughout. The other abdominal organs appeared normal. The respiratory organs 
were full of foam. The lungs themselves were bright red and very much congested and doughy." 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



Mayo pronounced the death of the Kansas pigs to be due in all cases to "congestion and inflamma- 
tion of the intestines, lungs and heart," but Niles could find no assignable cause of death in the case 
of the Iowa pi 

Dinwiddle, in the Arkansas experiments, made post mortem examinations of eight of the nine 
pigs which died, and found a very constant condition of disorder. He says, in describing the first 
examination, the description of which applies to all cases: 

"The body presented no external changes. Subcutaneous tissue showed blood extravasations 
in streaks and points. Blood engorgement of lymph nodes of neck and jaws. Respiratory and buccal 
mucous membrane, dusky red. Pleural cavities contain a large quantity of yellow, cloudy fluid, com- 
ssing the lungs to less than half their normal bulk. In the pericardinal sac there is a similar dropsical 
effusion, part of which has formed into a soft, yellowish white clot. No evident pleuritis. Lung, dark 
red, congested and collapsed. Cavities of heart contain dark, soft blood clots; slight petechial extrav- 
ions on the epieardium. No obvious peritoneal effusion. Liver is dark in color, friable and deeply 
blood engorged, the lobular boundaries on section being unusually prominent, with dark red depressed 
centers. Kidneys on section appear congested throughout, capsule non-adherent. 

"The stomach and intestines often showed abnormal features. The small intestines ((jejunum) 
frequently showed hyperemic patches on both the serous and mucous surfaces, and the large intestine and 
stomach in several cases contained a considerable quantity of gravel. The urine- was slightly albuminous 
in two cases. In one instance, where the brain was dissected, there was engorgement of the veins and 
sinuses of the dura mater, which extended backward into the vessels of the neck. The histological 
examination is described as follows: 

"Sections of the liver tissue reveal an intense congestion of the portal system, the intralobular 
capillaries especially being enormously engorged throughout and the liver cells compressed and shrunken. 
There is, however, no marked degeneration, and the nuclei take the stain in the normal manner. Sec- 
tions of the kidney exhibit a similar capillary engorgement, though less intense. The glomerular tufts 
are compressed by edematous effusion into their capsules. A degenerated process in the cells of the 
urinary tubules or other marked pathologic changes were not demonstrated. In the spleen no distinct 
pathologic changes are found. The lung sections show a marked congestion of capillary vessels, with 
edematous effusions and occasional blood extravasations, but without cellular proliferation or infiltration.- 
There is no evidence of pneumonia or pleurisy." 

Treatment. — As a rule, hogs suffering from the effects of cotton seed poisoning, if taken from the 
cotton seed ration and pla'ced on rich, green pasture, become apparently well in a week. A similar result 
follows when they are simply deprived of the cotton seed meal of the ration and given an ordinary grain 
ration. However, Curtis reports a case where a pig died during the winter after a week's feeding on a 
straight corn diet that followed four weeks' feeding on a ration of one-fifth cotton seed meal and four- 
fifths corn meal ; and Dinwiddie and Duggar had similar experiences. In some cases pigs may pass through 
a season of cotton seed meal feeding and thereafter be indifferent to it. Curtis found that if a pig lived 
thirty days after the first appearance of trouble it could be regarded as immune from the effects of cotton 
seed but the experience of others, seem to contradict this. Dinwiddie gives two months as, the time 
required for a hog to be on cotton seed meal before it can be regarded as immune. 

The Cause of Poisoning not Known. — The poisonous agent in cotton seed has not yet been deter- 
mine!. So far chemical and bacteriological examinations have revealed nothing to which can be attrib- 
uted its dangerous character. The injurious action has been variously attributed to the lint on the seed, 
the large fat content, the highly nitrogenous composition, the sharpness of the hulls, the presence of a 
a, supposititious chemical or bacteriological changes in the meal, formation of poisonous crystals 
metabolism, etc. Up to a certain period the amount of cotton seed or cotton seed meal fed does not 
seem to have any influence on the health of the pigs, but the evidence on the subject is so meager that 
is not justified in drawing conclusions as to the amount of meal that can be fed safely. Curtis 
inclined to the toxin theory; he found the amount which proved fatal in his investigation to be from 23 
to '■','.', pounds of cotton seed rneal. Dinwiddie holds to the belief that there is a toxic principle in the 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 129 

seeds of the cotton plant is the most reasonable one, and one that has not been disproved. The action 
seems to be more virulent with young than with older animals, which is characteristic of poisons. He 
points out that the amount fed to pigs is much larger in proportion to their body weight than that fed 
to cattle and suggests this as a reason for the supposed greater immunity of cattle. With a 1,000 pound 
steer, 4 pounds of cotton seed meal is an amount equal to 0. 4 per cent of the body weight. In the case 
of the pigs in the Arkansas experiments, the proportion was about 1 . 5 per cent of the body weight at 
the beginning of feeding. The amount of cotton seed meal eaten per head was 23, 25, and 45 pounds, 
respectively, in the three experiments at that station. Dinwiddie calls attention to the fact that other 
animals are susceptible to cotton seed poisoning and states that guinea pigs, to which he fed small 
quantities of cotton seed meal along with bran, died in from two to three weeks. He also admits the 
possibility of ptomaine poisoning. 

At the Alabama Station, two of Duggar's experiments resulted fatally. In the first experiment 
the smaller pigs were the first to die. They averaged about 64 pounds, and 12.20 pounds of cotton 
seed meal were eaten by each before death ensued. This was . 25 pound daily per head, or . 4 pound daily 
per 100 pounds live weight for forty days and a total of 18. 90 pounds per 100 pounds average live weight. 
Larger pigs in this experiment, averaging a little over 70 pounds, died when 16. 60 pounds of cotton seed 
meal had been fed per head. These .pigs were fed 0.41 pound per head daily, or 0.50 pound per 100 
pounds live weight daily for forty-three days; the total amount of cotton seed meal fed was 21.60 per 
cent of the average live weight. In the second fatal experiment one of the pigs died after having appeared 
gaunt and weak for two days. This pig averaged about 60 pounds in weight and up to the time of 
death had been fed 5.4 pounds of cotton seed meal. This was a total of 9.2 pounds per 100 pounds 
live weight. The pig had not had more than . 25 pound cotton seed meal daily per 100 pounds live 
weight. The other pigs in the same lot showed an unthrifty condition and the ration was changed (in 
one of the Kansas Experiment Station tests a similar small amount of cotton seed meal produced fatal 
results). The ration in both experiments was cotton seed meal one-fifth, corn meal four-fifths. 

In another test with a ration of corn meal three-fourths, cotton seed meal one-fourth, the pigs 
were noticed to be out of condition toward the thirty fifth day, but no deaths occurred. They averaged 
about 118 pounds in weight, and the amount of cotton seed meal which made them sick was 25. 5 pounds. 
This was 21.4 pounds per 100 pounds live weight, or 0.61 pound daily per 100 pounds live weight. 

The causes of death are regarded by Dinwiddie as being both essential and contributory, the 
essential cause being the toxic principle supposed to be present. He describes the immediate cause of 
death as follows: 

"In all our cases the immediate cause of death was obviously asphyxia, due to pressure on the lungs 
by dropsical effusion into the pleural cavities. In its final manifestations the disease was an acute 
dropsy of the pleural and pericardinal sacs. The congestion of the abdominal organs, and especially of 
the portal system, can be attributed to obstructed circulation through the collapsed lungs, damming the 
blood back in the venous system, and hence a process secondary to the pleuritic effusion. That this 
portal engorgement was secondary to the pleural effusion, is inferred from the absencefof degenerative 
or other changes in the liver, which would account for it, and from absence of any marked peritoneal 
effusion. Ascites would be the first result of such extreme portal congestion if it were primary. All of 
these conditions, however, are necessarily the result of some fundamental cause, the nature of which 
is yet to be discovered. An acute hydrothorax and hydrops peridardii, unaccompanied by ascites and 
without any antecedent pleuritis, is a condition rarely met with in human pathology." Non-inflamma- 
tory dropsical effusion may be due to mechanical obstruction, cardiac disease, degenerative changes 
in the kidney or liver, or to physical or chemical changes in the blood itself. Neither of the first three 
causes appear to be in operation here. Further researches will probably show some grave alteration 
in the composition of the blood, as the primary effect of acute cotton seed meal poisoning. In hogs, at 
least, nervous derangements are not manifested, so far as have been seen." 

Points that may in time lead to the discovery of the trouble are that old meal seems to be more 
fatal than fresh, that cotton seed meal is more fatal than cotton seed in any condition, and that the 
poisonous agent is not in the oil, but seems to be entirely left in the cake when the oil is pressed out. It 



Slg.9 



1 50 E XPER [ME X PS WITH GROUND AND UN G ROUND GRAIN. 

is also well known throughout the South that decomposed cotton seed has little, if any, dangerous char- 
r. and it has boon pretty clearly established by the studies of Curtis and by the experience of prac- 
' feeders that the meal is so changed by the processes of digestion that hogs following steers which 

arc being ted a heavy cotton seed meal ration are not injured by the droppings. 

Feeding Value. — Disregarding, for the moment, the fatal effects of this product, let us consider 
its feeding value. The results from feeding either the whole grain or the meal have not been uniform, 
and have given rise to three opinions regarding its value as a pig feed — (1) that it is both worthless and 
dangerous; {'2) that it is only fairly valuable and hardly worth the risk of feeding, and (3) that it is 
extremely valuable if means can be devised to feed it without fatal results. 

The Kentucky Experiment Station fed a ration of one part cotton seed meal, one part wheat bran, 
two parts corn and cob meal for twenty-eight days, when ship stuff replaced the cotton seed meal, 
because the pigs refused it, whether fed wet or dry. No fatalities were reported, but the gains were unsatis- 
factory, and the station came to the conclusion that in Kentucky cotton seed meal could not be profitably 
fed to hogs, whether for growth or fat. 

Curtis expresses himself in a similar tone, that after two years' successive tests in feeding cotton 
seed and cotton seed meal to hogs, with a definite aim in view, and after practical attempts to use these 
products in a similar manner for the past ten years, we do not hesitate to express our candid opinion that 
there is no profit whatever in feeding cotton seed in any form or cotton seed meal to hogs of any age; 
that it is practically impossible to prepare cotton seed or cotton seed meal in any manner so that hogs 
will eat it greedily. 

Lloyd's opinion, from his experience at the Mississippi Station, is somewhat similar. He had losses 
from raw cotton seed meal, but none from those getting cooked seed, although these pigs became very 
sick and refused to eat. His gains were neither satisfactory nor profitable. With one bunch of pigs 
the average daily gain was but 1 pound for the first two weeks, after which the gains were small, although 
the pigs did not lose their appetite and continued to eat with relish. The after effects of feeding in this 
case were detrimental, as the pigs never got into good condition. 

At the North Carolina Station, Emeiy fed an 88-pound pig for sixty-one consecutive days on a 
cotton seed meal ration, the amotmt of cotton seed meal varying from 34 pound daily at the beginning 
to 2 pounds daily at the close. Skim milk was fed during the first three weeks, and green feed during 
the first six weeks. Two pounds of cotton seed meal daily made the pig sick, and for twenty-two days 
the meal was dropped from the ration. Then the feed was made one-fourth cotton seed meal, three- 
fourths wheat bran, with 12 pounds of skim milk daily for ten days, after which corn meal was substituted 
for the cotton seed meal. The feeding was unprofitable, but the pig did not die. 

Among the instances where feeding was fairly profitable, the results at the New York (State) 
Station may be noted. The intention was not to note the effects of cotton seed meal feeding. Cotton 
seed meal in amounts varying from one-thirteenth to three-tenths of the entire ration was fed with good 
results, covering periods of from fifty-six to one hundred and thirty-nine days. Two pigs in a lot fed on 
wet feed were troubled with indigestion, and after the close of the trial one of them died from congestion 
of the liver, following indigestion. This may have been cotton seed meal poisoning. The pigs were 
on a ration in which there was 3-10 pound daily for sixty-three days. ' 

Gary's results in Alabama are remarkable because of the large quantities of cotton seed fed. 
He conducted three experiments in which cotton seed or cotton seed meal were fed to thirteen pigs 
from \Yi to 43^» pounds of crushed cotton seed were fed per head daily. In two instances cotton seed 
meal was fed, but in small amounts (3-10 pound daily in each case). The pigs receiving cotton seed 
meal did not thrive, losing appetite; one of them received bran, the other corn meal in addition to 
the cotton seed meal, and both had green feed. When they were taken from the cotton seed meal and 
placed on corn and pasture they recovered rapidly. 

In the first test, the pigs on crushed cotton seed made fairly good gains. They had some grain 
in addition, and all received green or succulent feed. In the second test three pigs were fed rations of 
corn meal and crushed cotton seed or ground cow peas and crushed cotton seed. The rations were heavy, 
pounds when corn meal was fed and 6J^ pounds when cow peas were fed; the amount of cotton seed 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 131 

was more than half the ration. Fair gains were made and the after effect does not seem to have been 
serious as the pigs did well when placed on pasture and corn. One pig in this lot had crushed cotton 
seed alone, being fed 4^. pounds daily. He lost in weight but gained in size of frame. When turned on . 
pasture and given corn he did well. Another pig that had 3J^ pounds of crushed cotton seed and 3^ 
pounds green rye daily, lost 28 pounds in twenty-eight days. After the rye was discontinued the pig 
failed to thrive, but recuperated rapidly on pasture with corn. 

In three cases where 3 pounds of crushed cotton seed were fed daily, with ground cow peas and 
green rye, or corn meal and green rye, nominal gains were made. No disastrous effects followed when 
green feed was discontinued; subsequent treatment on pasture and corn gave good gains. 

In a third test two pigs were fed for forty -nine days on a daily ration of 6 pounds of separator milk 
and 33^ pounds of crushed cotton seed, then for fifty days on 6 pounds of whole milk and 3J^ pounds 
crushed~cotton seed. Their appetites failed twice, but they gained slightly in weight. 

Length of time that cotton seed or cotton seed meal was fed in these experiments was one hundred 
arid five days in the first, ninety-one days in the second, and one hundred and nine days in the third. 
Although the pigs were occasionally off their feed, there were no fatalities. 

Duggar's experiments did not show very favorable results for cotton seed meal as part of the 
pigs' ration. In no case did the pigs so fed make so great an average daily gain as 1 pound, and the 
gains were usually expensive, whether the grain was fed alone or with green feed. Rations of corn meal 
only gave better results. One lot of two pigs, averaging 68 pounds, fed a ration of cotton seed meal 
one-fifth, corn meal four-fifths, and grazed on sorghum made an average daily gain of 0.53 pound for 
thirty-four days, at an outlay of 380 pounds of grain for 100 pounds gain. Another, averaging 68 pounds, 
on the same grain ration, but grazing peanuts, made an average daily gain for thirty-eight days of 0.94 
pound, requiring 185 pounds grain for 100 pounds gain. Another lot made an average daily gain of 
0.8 pound for twenty-eight days on a ration of cotton seed meal one-fourth and corn meal three-fourths, 
requiring 384 pounds grain for 100 pounds gain, while a lot on corn meal only in the same test, made 
an average daily gain of 1 . 1 pounds, but required 531 pounds grain for 100 pounds gain. Duggar found 
corn meal only a more palatable ration than one to which cotton seed meal had been added, and had 
difficulty in inducing^pigs to eat a full allowance of a cotton seed meal ration. 

The Kentucky, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma Experiment Stations have published 
results that show cotton seed meal to have considerable feeding value for pigs. 

In Kentucky, May fed cotton seed meal at intervals of one week as part of the ration to twenty 
grade Berkshire pigs during a three weeks' finishing period with very good results. 

At the Wisconsin Station, Henry fed two lots of five pigs each for thirty-five days on a ration 
of which x /2 pound daily was cotton seed meal. The feeding was alternated, one lot receiving oil meal 
while the other had cotton seed meal. The result of the grain ration was a mixture of equal parts of wheat 
shorts and corn meal. Skim milk and whey were fed and the feeding was done in the fall and winter. 
The pigs were never sick nor off their feed and made their gains economically. The tabulation of results 
shows that while on cotton seed meal the pigs required 5 per cent less feed than while on oil meal. 

At the Iowa Experiment Station, Curtis fed two lots of three Poland China pigs each on a ration 
of corn and cob meal, cotton seed meal and buttermilk. One lot received Y^ pound of cotton seed meal 
per head daily and the other 1 pound per head daily. The grain fed was soaked for twelve hours before 
feeding. Salt and ashes were also given. Everything went well until the sixth week, when the droppings 
of the pigs on the heavy ration became dark in color and somewhat hard. However, the appetite was 
not affected. The first pig died fifty-one days after feeding commenced, and a second went the follow- 
ing day. They had been on the heavy ration, but showed no signs of sickness and their gains had been 
steady. . Sixty -three days after the start a pig in the lot receiving 3^ pound of cotton seed meal per head 
daily, died, but not without symptoms of trouble. For a day or two before death he had shown a failing 
appetite and quickened breathing. The rest of the pigs in this lot showed the same symptoms, but 
survived, although their gains were light. The station veterinarian could find no assignable cause of 
death. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



In this experiment the fatal quality of cotton seed meal seemed to depend, to a certain extent, 
on the quantity fed. The first pigs to die were those in the lots receiving the heavier ration of cotton seed 
meal. These pigs also made the better gain. 

The Kansas Station led four small pigs on a ration of one-sixth cotton seed meal and five-sixths 
meal. The meal was stirred in water at feeding time. It was not relished at first, but when it 
once eaten, rapid gains were made. The first pig died twenty-three days after the feeding began, and 
could not have eaten more than live pounds of cotton seed meal altogether, a fact which seems to lessen 
the weight of the theory that the quantity eaten has an influence on the fatal property of the feed. This 
pig weighed about 18 pounds at the time of its death. The last pig died on the forty-sixth day of the 
experiment. 

Two sows weighing respectively 135 and 308 pounds were put on a ration of one-fourth cotton seed 
meal and three-fourths corn meal for forty-five days; they gained 89 pounds each without signs of 
poisoning. 

In a second test, six pigs that had been stunted by exclusive corn meal or ground wheat feeding 
were divided into two lots of three each and put on rations composed of one-fourth cotton seed meal and 
three-fourths corn meal for one lot, and equal parts of these meals for the other lot. The change of con- 
dition is described as magical and immediate. The pigs began to gain in weight at once, and those 
receiving the greater amount of cotton seed meal made the larger gains. No other food was given. The 
first pig died on the forty-fifth day of the experiment, the second on the forty-sixth day, the third on the 
fifty-third day and the fourth on the fifty-sixth day from the beginning of the cotton seed meal feeding. 
Two pigs were left in each lot; they were placed on green oats and then thrived nicely. 

A bulletin from the Kansas Station mentions a lot of pigs that had done poorly in another 
experiment ; they were fed cotton seed meal and were ready for market, well finished, in twenty-two days. 
At the Kansas Station cotton seed meal is very highly regarded to put pigs in high condition, if fed 
for a short time in small quantities. The beginning ration is Y± pound cotton seed meal to each 1,000 
pounds live weight per day, which is increased in ten days to make the amount 3 pounds per 1,000 pounds 
live weight. The meal is mixed with the rest of the grain. 

The Kansas and Iowa results show that a cotton seed meal ration is valuable if the cotton seed 
meal is used in moderate amount and for a limited time. The proportions of cotton seed meal used in 
the Iowa test was about one-eighteenth and one-tenth of the total grain ration at the start, and about 
one-tenth and one-fifth at the close. Up to the time the pigs began to die, the gains of those on the 
heavier cotton seed meal rations were the larger and more economical (1.4 pounds daily gain and 343 
pounds meal and 250 pounds milk per 100 pounds gain). The lighter ration was about equal in results 
to one of corn and cob meal, gluten meal and buttermilk, that stood steady to the heavy cotton seed 
ration. The two lots returned in pounds of gain per 100 pounds of dry matter in the feed (before deaths 
began) 31.1 pounds and 26.4 pounds, respectively, for the pigs on. the heavy and light rations. In 
the Kansas tests the gains before deaths commenced were also very economical; they varied in cost from 
considerably less than 300 pounds grain per 100 pounds gain in the case of the pigs that had been 
previously on the single grain rations to 350 pounds grain per 100 pounds gain in the case of the sows. 

Pigs Following Steers on Cotton Seed Meal. — Evidence of the dangerous properties of cotton seed 

meal for pigs when they are following steers, whose ration is made up wholly or in part of cotton seed 

■meal, is conflicting. In the Iowa tests a lot of three pigs followed steers for seventeen weeks that were 

receiving from 4 to 7 pounds of cotton seed meal daily. They had very little feed except what they picked 

up behind the steers, yet there were no noticeable injurious effects. 

The Kansas Station states that the meal used in their early experiments was shipped in from 
Texas during the previous winter by a local feeder, to be fed to steers. He turned about forty hogs after 
them and all died in the course of six or seven weeks. Considerable evidence that pigs may not suffer 
after steers that are fed on cotton seed meal has recently been presented in the columns of the 
agricultural press. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 133 

The Oklahoma Station has made an extensive study of the possibility of feeding 

Oklahoma this by product so that good results may be obtained with little or no danger 

Experiments. from poisoning. The conditions under which it has been found that cotton seed 

meal may generally be fed safely are (1) where pigs have access to range, and 

plenty of green pasture, and (2) where periods of cotton seed meal feeding of three to four weeks' duration 

without pasture are alternated with a period on pasture or on a ration from which cotton seed meal has 

been omitted. 

Following up this system the Oklahoma Station has conducted three experiments. In the first 
trial, in 1900, the alternating method was tried with seventeen thrifty shoats of various sizes , They 
were put on a ration composed of one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths Kaffir corn meal and had 
the run of a large paddock where they got a little green stuff. The trial began March 22nd. For 
twenty-seven days the cotton seed meal ration was fed ; then for fourteen days Kaffir corn meal alone ; 
next fourteen days on one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths Kaffir corn meal, then seven days without 
the cotton seed meal, closing'with five days on the original ration. None of the pigs had died, and all 
made very fair gains on a moderate amount of grain. At the close of this trial part of the pigs were sold 
and the rest continued on the cotton seed meal ration, with which the trial closed (one-fifth cotton seed 
meal and four-fifths Kaffir corn meal). They were fed on this ration without change until July 14th 
with the loss of one pig only. 

In the second trial of the same year sixteen stunted shoats, about a year old, averaging 79 pounds, 
were used. For twenty-six days from April 12th they were hurdled on wheat and fed a light ration 
of one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths Kaffir corn meal. There was no ill effect from the grain 
ration. The gains averaged 0.96 pound per head daily, and were made economically. On May 8th the 
pigs were taken from the wheat and fed the same grain ration in a lot for twenty-one days with no serious 
results, making an average daily gain of 1 . 71 pounds at the expense of 307 pounds of grain for 100 pounds 
gain. Five of the largest were sold after forty -seven days continuous feeding with cotton seed meal ration. 

The eleven pigs remaining were then given range and green feed and the same grain ration con- 
tinued. The gains made were satisfactory. There were no losses and they were sold on July 14th, 
after ninety-three days continuous feeding on a cotton seed meal ration. 

In 1901, sixteen uniform Poland China shoats, farrowed late in the previous fall, were used. They 
were about eleven weeks old at the beginning of the experiment and averaged 47 pounds in weight. 
The experiment began January 11th. The pigs were divided into four lots of four each. Each lot was 
given an open pen, 9x24 feet, and had a space 8x8 feet in an inclosed piggery. Cob charcoal, wood ashes, 
and salt were always accessible; water only was given to drink, and the grain was mixed with water in 
the form of a thick slop just before feeding. From April 1st to July 14th, 2 pounds of sugar beets were 
allowed each pig daily. The pigs were fed as follows: Lot 1 received corn meal only to April 5th, 
then a mixture of one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths corn meal for four weeks, closing with two 
weeks on corn meal ; lot 2 received one-third corn meal and two-thirds wheat middlings ; lot 3 received 
one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths corn meal ; lot 4 received one-fifth cotton seed meal and four- 
fifths corn meal for four weeks, then corn meal for two weeks, next the cotton seed meal mixture for 
four weeks, then back to corn meal only for two weeks, and alternating in this manner until the 
experiment closed. 

The only signs of the lack of appetite were in lot 1, where exclusive corn meal feeding proved 
rather severe for such young pigs, and in lot 3, where a dullness of appetite was noticed for about two 
weeks. This was only temporary. One pig in lot 4 died on February 15th, one week after it had been 
taken from the cotton seed meal ration and placed on corn meal, and two pigs in lot 3 died on February 
20th, after they had been on a cotton seed meal ration continuous^ for forty days. No further losses 
occurred and the pigs thrived and made good gains. One pig in lot 4 showed symptoms of sickness, 
but recovered. 

After April 5th, lot -1 was given the same management and feed as lot 4, but there were no 
injurious results. On the contrary, their gains increased. This was also noticed with lot 4. During the 
periods that the hogs were on a straight corn meal ration except during the closing period, when their 



134 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND (-RAIN. 



tor maturity enabled them to make use of a more carbonaoeous ration, the gains were light and 
ensive, but when the cotton seed mixture was resumed, the gains were large and economical, 
disregarding the effect of loss by death. 

The following table shows the results of 126 days feeding for the pigs that survived: 

Feeding Pigs on Cotton Seed Meal Rations. 



RATIONS 



Number 
of Tigs 



Lot I. 

Corn meal 

Lot 2. 

Corn meal, one-third ; wheat mid- 
dlings, two-thirds 

Lot 3. 

Cotton seed meal, one-fifth; corn 

meal, four-fifths 

Lot 4. 

Alternate rations 



Average 
Weight at 
Beginning, 
Jan. 11th, 

Pounds 



46 

46 

47 
44 



Average 
Weight at 

Close, 
May 17th, 

Pounds 



125 



Average 

Gain, 

Pounds 



Average 
Daily 
Gain, 

Pounds 



78 



191 146 



182 

178 



135 
134 



.62 

1.15 

1.07 
1.06 



Average 

Amount 

Grain 

Eaten, 

Pounds 



368 



Grain 
per 100 
pounds 

Gain, 
Pounds 



Cost of 

Grain per 

100 pounds 

Gain 



470 



539 370 



483 



493 



357 



368 



$2.61 



2.87 



2.24 



2.14 



Curtis and M alone suggest that had the cotton seed meal lots been running on green pasture from 
the beginning of the experiment, no losses would have occurred. They also suggest the probability 
that a Nation of one-tenth to one-fifth cotton seed meal may be fed for an indefinite time if pigs have 
the run of green pastures. 

In addition to throwing light on the pathological features of cotton seed poison- 
The Arkansas ing, Dinwiddie has corroborated the results of those stations which have shown 
Experiments. that, when properly fed, cotton seed meal is a valuable pig feed if losses can 

be avoided. In the experiments in which all the pigs died, lot 1 received a 
ration of cotton seed meal one part and corn chops three parts; lot 2 received cotton seed meal one part 
and corn meal three parts, with roots; lot 3 received cotton seed meal one part and wheat bran three 
parts, and lot 4 received bran one part and corn chops three parts. There were three pigs in each pen 
and feeding began January 1, 1902. The pigs were confined in pens with an open shed for shelter, 
were watered and fed twice daily and had a mixture of hardwood ashes and salt supplied constantly. 
The results are tabulated as follows: 



Feeding Pigs on Cotton Seed Meal Rations. 



RATIONS 



Lot I. 
Lot 2. 
Lot 3. 

Lot 4. 



Number of 
Days Until 
First Death 



35 

40 
01 



Eaten Per 

Head, 

Pounds 



23 
23 
45 



Eaten Daily 

Per Head, 

Pounds 



.68 
.63 
.80 



Eaten Daily 

to Initial 

Weight, 

Per Cent 



1.6 
1.5 

l.G 



Initial 
Weight, 
Pounds 



41 
42 

48 
47 



Daily Gain 

Per Head, 

Pounds 



1. 

1. 



.9 



Daily Gain to 

Initial 
. Weight, 
Per Cent 



2.2 
2.4 
2.1 
1.9 



Dinwiddie points out particularly that a corn meal and cotton seed ration, which one would natur- 
ally select as giving the proper proportions between nitrogenous and carbohydrate constituents, proved 
the most fatal in his experiments, and that the bran and cotton seed meal ration, the most nitrogenous 
of the three, required the most time for the dangerous property to assert itself. Contrary to what one 
would expect from the Oklahoma result, roots did not have so good an effect as the wheat bran. 

The pigs received from . 64 to . 8 pound of cotton seed per head, daily, which was from 1 . 5 to 1 . 6 
per cent of their initial body weight. The first death occurred in the case of the pigs on corn and cotton 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



135 



seed meal thirty -five days after the feeding commenced, an average of 23 pounds of cotton seed meal 
being eaten per head. In the case of the pigs fed corn, cotton seed meal and roots, the first death was 
forty days after the beginning, an average per head of 25 pounds of cotton seed meal being eaten. The 
first death in the case of the pigs on bran and cotton seed meal occurred sixty-one days after the begin- 
ning, 45 pounds of cotton seed meal being eaten per head. Up to the time of death the gains of the pigs 
on cotton seed meal were as good or better than those of the pigs on corn chops and bran (lot 4). 

Following the experiments in which all the pigs on cotton seed meal died, Dinwiddie fed four 
native pigs, averaging about fifty pounds in weight, on various rations, cotton seed meal being a prom- 
inent factor, constituting one-fourth of the ration. Turnips were fed for eighty days, after which rye, 
oats and alfalfa were given for two months. The pigs were fed from February 26 to November 6, 
1902. Only one received cotton seed meal throughout the experiment, and for a small part of the time 
none was given to it. The other pigs received rations of equal parts of bran and corn meal or ear corn, 
after being taken from the cotton seed meal ration. 

Dinwiddie presents the following tabulation of the results of this experiment: 

Feeding Pigs on Cotton Seed Meal Rations. 



DESIGNATION OF PIG 



A 

B 

C 

D 



Number of Davs 

Fed Cotton Seed 

Meal 



139 
248 
198 
198 



Weight of Cotton 
Seed Meal Eaten, 
Pounds . 



80 
242 
137 
137 



Weight of Cotton 
Seed Meal Eaten 

Daily in First 

Period (80 days), 

Pounds 



58 

58 

58 

.58 



Daily Consump- 
tion of Cotton 
Seed Meal to 
Initial Weight, 
Per Cent 



1.4 
1.4 
1.4 
1.4 



Weight of Cotton 
Seed Meal Eaten 
Daily in Second 
Period (59 days), 
Pounds 



55 
55 
55 

.55 



Weight of Cotton 
Seed Meal Eaten 

Daily for Re- 
mainder of Test, 
Pounds 



b 1.5 
c 1. 
c 1. 



a Decrease probably due to a larger supply of green feed. 
b One hundred days. (Cotton seed meal 1, corn meal 3.) 
c Fifty-nine days. 

A third test was made in which rations of cotton seed meal one part and bran three parts, and 
cotton seed meal one part and wheat chops three parts were fed. The former ration was fed for ninety- 
five days to six pigs, which averaged about 50 pounds in weight. The latter was given for ninety-nine 
days to four Tamworth pigs, averaging about 50 pounds in weight. The following table shows the results : 

Feeding Pigs on Cotton Seed Meal Rations. 

13 



RATIONS 



Cotton seed meal one ; bran three 

Cotton seed meal one ; wheat chops three 







a 


^ 


■^rs 


"3 






60 

s 

o 

CD 

.n 

a 

3 


Time Fed Cotto 
Seed Meal, 
Days 


Average Amouti 

Cotton Seed 

Meal Eaten, 

Pounds 


Average Amou 

Cotton Seed Me 

Eaten During 

First Month, 

Pounds 


Cotton Seed Me 

to Estimated 

Initial Body 

Weight, 

Per Cent 


Average Amour 

Cotton Seed Me 

Eaten Daily Aft 

First Month, 

Pounds 




6 


95 


54 


.4 


.8 


.6 




4 


99 


57 


a .4 


18 


b .7 



o 

o 



.5 
.5 



a First half of period. 
b Last half of period. 

There were no losses from these rations and the pigs made small gains. 

Effect of Cotton Seed Meal on Pregnant Sows. — Dinwiddie fed a native sow carrying her third litter 
on a ration of cotton seed meal one part and bran three parts, for eighty days before farrowing. She 
ate a total amount of 112 pounds of cotton seed meal, which was 1 .39 pounds daily, or 0.8 per cent of 
the estimated initial body weight. The ration agreed with her, and there appeared to be no harmful 
effects on the fetal litter, it being farrowed safely, with no still births. 

Effect of Crude Cotton Oil. — Dinwiddie fed three pigs on a ration of corn meal one part, wheat 
bran two parts and crude cotton oil 0.1 to 0.4 part. The amount of cotton oil fed (estimating the fat 
content of cotton seed meal at 14 per cent) was equivalent to that contained in from . 25 to 1.8 pounds 



- EXPERIMENTS WITH GROU N D AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

otton seed meal, the smaller amount having proved fatal in the Arkansas results, already discussed. 
Those pigs were on the cotton oil ration 1 1 1 days. The amount of oil fed for the entire time to each pig 

21 pounds, equivalent to 150 pounds of cotton seed meal. The average daily amount of oil consumed 
varied from 0.06 pound (meal equivalent, 0.4 pound) to 0.24 pound (meal equivalent 1 .6 pounds). The 
average daily amount of oil fed for the entire test was 0. 14 pound (meal equivalent 1 pound). The pigs 
made an average daily gam of 0.6 pound, and suffered no serious effects from the oil. 

Use of Cotton Seed Meal in the Feed Lot. — The use of cotton seed meal in the feed lot must be 
very carefully guarded, especially until the conditions under which it may be used without danger 
and the circumstances which govern the demonstration of its poisonous properties are more thoroughly 
understood. The feeding of the cotton seed meal which the South produces is one of the greatest prob- 
lems of agriculture in that section yet to be solved satisfactorily. It is not difficult to appreciate what 
may be gained if some of this by product, which has such high feeding and fertilizing value, and which 
is' exported in such enormous quantities, can be converted into pork products, which are now largely 
imported from other states. 

The frugality of the modern meat packer has become almost proverbial. Less 
Packing House than twenty years ago the disposal of the offal of slaughtering was a problem, 
By Products. but at present there is very little waste, and the packer has actually come to 

regard the by products as the principal source of profit in his business. The 
preparation of these by products for use as animal feed is one of the largest developments of this branch 
of industry. Fertilizers have long been prominent in the sales, the material that enters into their com- 
position being meat scraps, blood, bone, hair, intestinal contents, etc. The use of tankage, a by 
product that has had its sale entirely as a fertilizer, is growing among pig feeders and has been 
studied by Plumb and Van Norman, at the Indiana Station, and by Kennedy and Marshall, at the 
Iowa Station. Beef meal is also a packing house by product whose feeding value was studied along with 
that of tankage in the Iowa experiment. 

Character of Packing House By Products. — Plumb and Van Norman state that tankage may con- 
tain meat scraps, intestines and their contents, hair, etc. It is classed as concentrated and crushed tank- 
age. Concentrated tankage is not used for animal food. Crushed tankage is said to be of several grades, 
being graded according to the ammonia and phosphoric acid content, although it is probable that the 
tankage graded as No. 1 is free from the contents of the intestines. 

Kennedy and Marshall used two brands of tankage, made by Chicago packers. One of these 
is described as follows: 

Digester tankage is made from meat scraps, fat trimmings, and scrap bones. These are taken 
up as fast as taken from the animals and put into a large steel tank and cooked under live steam pressure 
of 40 pounds to the square inch, which cooks out the tallow. After the steam is turned off, it is allowed 
to settle, when the grease rises to the top and is drawn off. After the grease is drawn off the tankage 
is kept agitated, and by evaporation the 'water is extracted until the tankage contains about 8 per cent 
moisture It is then taken out of the tank, allowed to cool, is ground, and stored ready for shipment 
The tankage is supposed to contain about 60 per cent protein and 10 per cent fat. 

The Manufacture of the Other Tankage is Thus Described : — This by product, like the one just 
described, is made from meat scraps, scrap bones, etc. Quoting the words of the manufacturer, it is as 
follows: "Tankage is the by product which drops to the bottom in our rendering tanks when we are 
rendering outgrease, tallow, etc., at our various packing houses. It has been thoroughly cooked 
under 40 pounds pressure for several hours, which thoroughly destroys any disease germs which might 
ibly be in the raw meat. This product is pressed and then dried in steam driers at a high 
temperature. It is then ground and shipped in 100 and 200 pound sacks." 

The Beef Meal, Used in the Iowa Test, is Described as Follows : — This by product is made from scraps 
of meat and bone from which the grease has been extracted, and the liquors concentrated by cooking. 
These are then pressed, dried and ground, in preparation for the market. It is claimed to contain from 
40 to 50 per cent protein. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



137 



Analyses of Packing House By Products.— The analysis reported by the Indiana Station is as follows : 

Per Cent 

Moisture 8 . 63 

Protein 49 . 81 

Ether extract -. 15 . 78 

Crude fiber 4 . 78 

Nitrogen free extract 5-. 06 

Ash. ' 15.94 



100 



The Iowa Station analysis, including that of corn meal used, is as follows: 

Analysis of Feedstuffs (Weems). 



RATION 



Corn meal 
Beef meal 
Tankage. . 

Tankage . . 



Water, 
Per Cent 


Ash, 
Per Cent 


Protein, 
Per Cent 


Crude Fiber, 
Per Cent 


Nitrogen Free 
Extract, 
Per Cent 


Ether 

Extract. 
Per Cent. 


1 1 . 05 


1.55 


15.25 


4.85 


63 . 80 


3.50 


6.10 


15.60 


61.10 


5.20 


3.12 


8.88 


6.25 


12.85 


42.15 


6.95 


15.50 


16.30 


9.05 


20.65 


39.10 


10.90 


8.60 


11.70 



Feeding Tankage in a Corn Meal Ration. — In the Indiana experiment sixteen young pigs were fed 
to determine the value of tankage. The pigs were pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires. There were 
four lots, two of each breed in each lot. The tankage was especially prepared by the packers who fur- 
nished it to the experiment station, and was made from bones and meat taken from the cutting room, 
tanked immediately, and pressed and dried. 

The conditions of the experiment were equal for all lots ; all had an opportunity for getting exercise 
and each lot was in a separate enclosure. There was no sickness and lot 3 was the only one showing lack 
of appetite at any time. The pigs were fed as follows : Lot 1 , ten parts corn meal and one part tankage ; 
lot 2, five parts corn meal and one part tankage; lot 3, corn meal; lot 4, ten parts of a mixture of equal 
parts of corn meal and shorts and one part tankage. The feed was weighed out and then mixed with 
tepid water in the proportion of about two parts of water to one part of feed, a slop of medium thinness 
being made. Each lot of pigs had access to ashes and salt. The cost of feed used was as follows: Corn 
meal, $20.00 per ton; shorts, $16.00 per ton; tankage, $30.00 per ton. 

The Iowa test with beef meal seems to show that it, like tankage, is valuable in a pig's ration. The 
corn meal fed lot made an average daily gain of 2.08 pounds, requiring 461 pounds of food for 100 pounds 
gain, and making gains at a cost of $5.10 per 100 pounds. Those fed beef meal made an average daily 
gain of 2.40 pounds, requiring 346 pounds grain and 65 pounds beef meal for 100 pounds gain, at a cost 
of $4.80 per 100 pounds gain. Sixty-five pounds of tankage thus saved 115 pounds of grain, nearly 25 
per cent — surely an eloquent argument that animals need more than the mere grain they usually 
obtain. Davis Digester Tankage is standard. Insist upon it. 



Dairy By 
Products. 



The use of the by prodticts of the dairy and creamery (skim milk, buttermilk, 
and whey) is one of the most interesting subjects of stud}' in pork production. 
The value of milk is known on every farm, although it may not be fully appre- 
ciated, and anyone who has fed pigs knows the keen appetite these animals 
have for milk and its by products. In the neighborhood of many large dairies pork production has 
become a very prominent and lucrative branch of the dairy industry. 

Regarding solely their chemical composition, the by products of the dairy contain most of the 
indispensable feeding constituents of the milk from which they- are produced. 

The residue from the separation of cream (skim milk) and that from churning (buttermilk) leave 
two by products that contain practically all the protein and carbohydrates of the whole milk. In cheese 
making, the whey that is left is the least valuable of the dairy by products, the greater part of the casein 



138 EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

and fat of the milk being retained in the cheese. While whey is by no means worthless for feeding 
pur; can readily be seen that it skim milk and buttermilk have higher feeding values for pigs than 

whey, butter making and pig feeding will more profitably accompany each other than will cheese making 
and pig feeding. These by products supply growing material to young animals and provide an excellent 
nitrogenous balance in the fattening ration. The constituents that remain in the milk after skimming 
and churning are the most expensive ones, considered from the standpoint of feeding and fertilizing 
value, and it is largely due to this fact that dairy farming is so often a profitable business when conducted 
in a thorough manner. 

The value of dairy by products is not alone in their nitrogenous character. Skim milk or butter- 
milk to which Davis Stock Food has been added has an effect on the digestion that brings results out of 
all proportion to the nutritive value and is more valuable than the nitrogenotis grains to balance rations. 
Where pigs have been for a long time on a monotonous ration, such as corn meal alone, they lose appetite, 
become listless and sick, and so make very unsatisfactory gains. If skim milk and Davis Stock Food 
are given, even is very small amounts, an immediate change for the better is noticed — appetite returns and 
the pigs begin to gain rapidly in weight. As already stated, the gain in weight is out of all proportion 
to the actual amount of nutrient material in the milk, and this peculiarity has been remarked upon, not 
only when pigs are fed as indicated above, but also when pigs are fed a varied grain ration and skim 
milk in comparison with others on the grain ration only. Just why dairy by products with Davis Stock 
Food have this effect is not exactly known, but the suggestion has been made that they keep the digestive 
system in better order, and thus enable the animal actually to digest a greater percentage of his feed. 
The same fact has been noticed when roots and green feed are fed. Pasturing of rape, alfalfa, or the 
grasses probably has a similar though less marked effect. 

Snyder's investigations at the Minnesota Experiment Station seem to show that the action of milk 
is to make the feed more digestible. He found that milk rendered soluble from 1 to 3 per cent of the 
total insoluble proteids of wheat flour, and attributed its action to the soluble ferment, or enzym, 
which is normally present in milk. The effect of dairy by products with Davis Stock Food on the carcass 
is one of the most important results of such feeding. It is generally admitted that, while excellent 
hams and bacon may be produced without Davis Stock Food and dairy by products, the use of these 
products will result in pork of a more nearly uniform high quality. 

The economy of Davis Stock Food and skim milk feeding in connection with grain has been repeat- 
edly demonstrated. The average results of the Danish experimenters show that when so fed 600 pounds 
of skim milk has a feeding value about equal to 100 pounds of grain. At the Wisconsin Station the average 
of nineteen trials, with proportions of milk to grain varying from 1 to 9 pounds of milk for each pound of 
grain fed, show a value of 475 pounds of skim milk for 100 pounds of meal. 

Extensive experiments at the Central Experiment Farm of Canada show a value of milk of 
about 600 pounds for 100 pounds of gain. 

The value of milk with grain is also shown when rations of grain alone and of grain and milk are 
compared. The average of a series of experiments at the Utah Station shows that where grain alone was 
fed, in five tests the pigs made an average daily gain of . 90 pound, consuming 421 pounds of dry matter 
per 100 pounds of gain; in eight tests, where a grain and milk ration was fed, the average daily gain was 
1.27 pounds, and the dry matter per 100 pounds of gain 334 pounds. Results at the Tennessee Station 
gave an average daily gain of 1 pound for pigs on a corn meal ration, with 416 pounds dry matter con- 
sumed per 100 pounds gain; when corn meal and skim milk were fed, the average daily gain was 2.3 
pounds and the dry matter per 100 pounds of gain 293 pounds. Two years' additional tests at the same 
station showed an average daily gain of . 50 pound and 410 pounds of gain when corn meal only was fed; 
when corn meal and skim milk were fed, the average daily gain was 1 . 25 pounds, and the feed eaten per 
100 pounds of gain 160 pounds of grain and 1,190 pounds of milk. The cost of 100 pounds of gain was 
$5. HO when no milk was given; when milk was fed it was $4.60. The profit for the group (value of 
manure and cost of care not being considered) was $1.05 for the corn meal fed lots and $4.96 for those 
fed milk. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



139 



Although skim milk is of great value when fed with grain, especially corn meal, it is not a satis- 
factory feed by itself. Where attempts have been made to maintain pigs on skim milk alone, the gains 
were small and the returns from the milk fed less than when grain was fed in connection with it. The 
grain at 75 cents per 100 pounds in field estimates a return for skim milk at 17 cents per 100 pounds 
when grain and milk are fed the pigs, and only 10 cents per 100 pounds when milk is fed alone. 

The quantity of milk may be greater with pigs suckling the dam or newly weaned than with older 
shoats, but young pigs should not be maintained exclusively on skim milk. The Tennessee Station, 
feeding pigs averaging from 75 to 100 pounds on rations composed of mixed grain and milk in varying 
proportions from 1:3 to 1:12, found the best results when the ratio of grain to milk was one to three. 
The rations containing a large amount of milk were found to -be unduly expensive. At the Cornell 
Station, two experiments showed the best results when the ratio was 1:3 and 1:2.5; in two others, 
proportions of 1:6.7 and 1:6.2 showed the best results. 

When an unlimited supply of milk is available, we recommend the following ration for young and 
growing pigs, weighing from 20 to 180 pounds: 

Rations for Growing Pigs. 



Weight of Pigs 



20 to 60 pounds 

60 to 100 pounds 

100 to 180 pounds 



RATION 



3 ounces of corn meal, 1 teaspoonful Davis Stock Food to each quart of milk. 
6 ounces of corn meal, 1 teaspoonful Davis Stock Food to each quart of milk. 
8 ounces of corn meal, 1 teaspoonful Davis Stock Food to each quart of milk. 



The following rations may be used when the milk supply is in limited amounts: 

Rations for Growing Pigs. 



Weight of Pigs 



20 to 180 pounds 
20 to 60 pounds 
60 to 100 pounds 

100 to 180 pounds 
20 to 60 pounds 
60 to 100 pounds 

100 to 180 pounds 



RATION 



3 ounces of corn meal, wheat, rye, or hominy meals, 1 teaspoonful Davis Stock 
Food to each quart of milk, and then gradually increase meal to satisfy appetites. 

Milk at disposal, plus mixture of one-third corn meal, one-third wheat bran, 1 
teaspoonful Davis Stock Food, and one-third gluten meal, to "satisfy appetites. 

Milk at disposal, plus mixture of one-half corn meal, one-fourth wheat bran, 1 
teaspoonful Davis Stock Food, and one-fourth gluten meal, to satisfy appetites. 

Milk at disposal, plus mixture of two-thirds corn meal, one-sixth wheat bran, 1 
teaspoonful Davis Stock Food, and one-sixth gluten meal, to satisfv appetites. 

3 ounces of corn meal to each quart of milk, and 4 ounces of gluten feed, 1 tea- 
spoonful Davis Stock Food,' as a substitute for quart of milk. 

Milk at disposal and mixture of one-half corn meal, one-half gluten feed, 1 tea- 
spoonful Davis Stock Food, to satisfy appetites 

Milk at disposal, and mixture of two-thirds corn meal, one-third ghiten feed, 1 
teaspoonful Davis Stock Food, to satisfy appetites. 



Whey also has great value as an adjunct of the grain ration. The average of four experiments 
at the Ontario Agricultural College gives a feeding value of about one-eleventh of that of corn; that is, 
1,100 pounds of whey are worth 100 pounds of grain, when fed in a grain ration. According to the Ontario 
results souring does not seriousby impair the, feeding value of whey. The four experiments show very 
nearly as good results from sour as from sweet whey. The injurious effects which frequently follow 
whey feeding, and are -manifested by stiffening of the joints and rheumatism, were evident among the 
pigs fed sweet whey, but were entirely absent from those fed sour whey. 

The cost of handling feed and caring for live stock has not been very extensively discussed in the 
literature on that subject. Where only a few pigs are fattened annually the feeder does not notice the 
effect of wasteful methods, but where large numbers are fed, a minimum of waste in feeding and the 



140 EXPERI M E X TS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

highest efficiency of labor arc absolutely essential to profitable results. Dairying and pig feeding are 
ted that Linfield's investigations on this subject are interesting. Correspondence with 
various creameries La Utah, where large numbers of pigs are fed, is summed up as follows: 

One creamery reports that one man would feed 1,000 hogs, clean all the pens each day, and draw 
the gram feed from the mill, two miles distant. Another says that one man does all the work of feeding and 
cleaning out the pens for 500 hogs in five hours each day. The wages paid in each case was about 
S1.00 per day. 

At both creameries the hogs are purchased when weighing from 50 to 100 pounds each, though 
some few are heavier. The hogs are crowded from the start, and, at most, when Davis Stock Food is added 
to keep their digestive organs in good condition, not more than 100 days are required to fit the hogs for 
market, and in this time 100 to 125 pounds have been added to the live weight of each hog. 

By putting all of the above figures together, we find that it costs five hours' labor, or 50 cents, to 
look after 500 hogs for one day, or $50.00 to look after 500 hogs for 100 days. This is 10 cents for one 
hog for 100 days, or for 100 pounds gain, which gives one-tenth of a cent as the labor cost of producing 
1 pound live weight of a hog. It is thus evident from the results of these practical men that, when handled 
in large numbers, as hogs may be at a creamery, the labor is a very small item in growing the hogs. If 
the value of the gain was reckoned at 4 cents per pound, the labor cost of producing the pork was but 
2 ' 2 per cent of its selling price. 

Lest these results be misleading, Linfield calls attention to the fact that the conditions were almost 
ideal for the greatest economy — the hogs were short fed and all feeding appliances and pens were so 
arranged as to have in view the greatest possible saving in labor. At another creamery, where the hogs 
were raised on the place and fed until they were fifteen months old and the accommodations were not 
so good, the cost reported was as large for 300 hogs as the other reported for 1,000 head. It is pointed 
out that on the average farm, where the number of animals is much smaller and milk must usually be 
hauled back to the farm, the labor cost will be very much greater. 

There is a marked similarity between the effect of dairy by products and pas- 
Pasture and ture on the efficiency of the grain ration of pigs, which is generally out of pro- 

Pasture portion to the nutrient value of the amount consumed of these supplementary 

Substitutes. feeds, and is to be accounted for only on the theory that the digestive appa- 

ratus is kept in better order by Davis Stock Food and their use, and made more 
efficient. Except when epidemics are prevalent, and the possibility of contact with contagion 
induces the feeder to keep his pigs confined, an ample range on pasture will keep them in healthy 
condition, and enable an amount of rate of gain which well repays for the use of the pasture. The 
Utah Station has recently published results which confirm previous investigations on the subject. 
Four years' work shows that pigs on grain alone ate 4.05 pounds of feed daily and made an average 
daily gain of 0.94 pound, eating 430 pounds of grain for 100 pounds gain. The pigs on pasture with 
grain ate 4.72 pounds of grain daily, made an average daily gain of 1 .21 pounds, and ate 385 pounds of 
grain for 100 pounds gain. The total gains averaged 33 per cent greater for the pigs on pasture than for 
those on grain alone. The average daily gains were nearly 29 per cent greater, and there was a saving of 
more than 10 per cent in the feed required for 100 pounds gain for the pigs on pasture. The larger 
amount of feed eaten by the pigs on pasture is also noteworthy, for a large consumption of feed gen- 
erally leads to large gains. The earlier tests at the same station by Linfield were designed to compare 
the relative merits of pasture and pen feeding when pigs were fed on milk alone, on grain alone, and on 
milk and grain. The only pigs that showed better results in pens and on pasture were those on grain 
and on milk. Those receiving grain alone on pasture gave very much larger gains, required less feed 
per 100 pounds gain, and ate more feed than those receiving grain alone in pens. Linfield suggests that 
either the exercise or the feed obtained by the run on pasture gave these pigs greater appetite and 
enabled them to digest a greater amount of feed daily. The fact that neither of the other lots shpwed a 
marked advantage from pasture might be explained by the skim milk in the ration. It is perhaps a 
safe proposition that in feeding pigs the best results will follow the use of dairy by products, roots, 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 141 

or pasture, in connection with grain, but that it is superfluous to combine two of these supplementary 
feeds, as their action on the digestive system seems to be similar. When attempts are made to 
prevent disease, however, the advantage of ample exercise must not be overlooked. 

Pasture is hardly, if at all, a maintenance ration, and, as the profits in feeding come from a con- 
tinuous gain until the animals are sold, such a ration should be resorted to only under the pressure of 
extreme necessity, when the saving of grain is imperative. According to Henry, no station has shown 
that pigs can be successfully maintained on pasture alone, if a former test by Mills, at the Utah Station, 
be excepted. Two later tests at this station by Foster and Merrill, for periods of over 100 days, where 
four lots of pigs were pastured on alfalfa, or mixed grasses, showed actual losses with two lots and very 
slight gains with the others, the average daily gain amounting to . 189 pound in one case and . 059 
pound in the other. The effect of this method of feeding on the appearance of the pigs was very marked; 
in the 1898 test it was particularly commented upon. The plump, rounded forms gave place to large, 
coarse frames and large stomachs. At the end of the experiment they looked very much larger than at 
the beginning, but the scales failed to show any gain. What is said above would also apply to the mixed 
pasture set, only in that case the eye was not so badly deceived — small gains were made. In 1899, 
pigs that were receiving small amounts of feed, either milk or grain, in addition to pasture, were found 
to have made gains very nearly in proportion to the amount of extra feed given, which Foster and Merrill 
regarded as evidence that the pasture supplied enough feed for maintenance only. 

Tests at the Oklahoma Station showed a total gain of 68 pounds for four pigs in eight weeks — 17 
pounds each — where pigs were on pasture alone, while four others on pasture with a grain ration gained 
324 pounds in the same time, an average of 81 pounds. 

A sow with a litter of five pigs was in the same lot with the grain fed pigs. The sow gained 61 
pounds in thirty-five days, when she was removed. Her five pigs made a total gain of 146 pounds in the 
first five weeks, and 96 pounds during the succeeding period of three weeks. The grain fed these pigs 
amounted to only 221 pounds per 100 pounds of gain. 

In addition to tests mentioned in a preceding paragraph, experiments by Linfield at the Utah 
Station show that when pigs are receiving a grain ration with dairy by products the addition of pasture 
is unnecessary and adds nothing to the effectiveness of the ration or the gains made. The average of four 
experiments shows average daily gain of 1 . 03 pounds where pasture was allowed ; these pigs consumed 
1,544 pounds of milk and 236 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of gain. The pigs without pasture con- 
sumed 1,827 pounds of milk and 218 pounds of grain per 100 pounds gain, making an average daily gain of 
1 . 06 pounds. The amount of feed consumed daily by the pigs on pasture was somewhat less than in 
the case of those without it. The only advantage noticed from the pasture was in the case of two lots 
which received skim milk only, but no grain. In the experiments where grain was fed no advantage 
accrued to the use of pasture, except that the pasture lots consumed nearly 300 pounds less milk per 100 
pounds gain than those in pens. At 15 cents per 100 pounds this means a difference of 45 cents per 100 
pounds of pork made. The difference in grain fed was nearly 20 pounds per 100 pounds of pork made 
in favor of the pen fed lots. 

These results are evidence in support of the idea that the effect of dairy by products and succulent 
feed in the ration is similar, and that to get the greatest amount of gain at the least expenditure of feed 
only one of the supplementary feeds is necessary ; that the addition of pasture to a ration which already 
contains a large amount of dairy by products is superfluous, and that the only advantage to be gained by 
such a method of feeding is the exercise obtained by the pigs on pasture. 

The lack of a permanent pasture should not deter the prospective pig feeder 

Green from engaging in the business. A prominent feature of the recent development 

Substitutes of the industry has been the increasing use of succulent feeds, such as cereals, 

for Pasture. rape, vetches, cow peas, sorghum, etc., which yield large amounts of feed per 

acre and also enable the feeder to grow his season's pasturage on a small amount 

of land by means of a succession of crops. Not only does this make successful pig feeding Avhen only a 

limited amount of land is available, but, by restricting the amount of grain allowed the hogs, removes 

to a great extent the objection to pasturage when exposure to disease is to be feared, yet permits the 



R I M E N £S W I T [ I GRO UN D AND U NO ROUND GRAIN. 

3 of exercise and succulent feed. Rape has been most generally used for this purpose, and 

riments have been reported recently by the Utah and Alabama Stations and by the Central Experi- 

tal Farm of Canada. The gains at the Canada Station were particularly good, averaging 1.27 

pounds daily, the pigs eating 238 pounds of grain per 100 pounds gain. In the Alabama test the 

average daily gain was 0.56 pound and the feed per 100 pounds of gain was 238 pounds. In the Utah 

ge daily gain was 0.204 pound and the feed per 100 pounds gain 490 pounds. 

Ar the close of the Alabama test the pigs were placed on second growth rape for three weeks. 
They grazed one-sixth acre, eating 168 pounds corn meal and making a gain of 82 pounds, which was an 
average daily gain of 0.98 pound, at a cost of 205 pounds meal per 100 pounds gain. Assuming that 500 
mds of grain alone are required for 100 pounds gain, Duggar estimates the amount of the pork pro- 
duced per acre from the first and second growth rape together at 512 pounds, worth at that time $20.48. 

Seven shoats, averaging 41 pounds in weight, were on rape at the same station for four weeks 
during the late spring. They received some corn meal in addition. During the first two weeks the rape 
was fed to the pigs in the pens; during the remainder of the time they were hurdled. They ate 318 
pounds of corn meal. The total gain in weight for the four weeks was 103 pounds, an average daily gain 
of 0.53 pound, 310 pounds of grain and 4,050 square feet of rape being required to produce 100 pounds of 
gain. Compared with clover, the Wisconsin Station found in two tests that pigs receiving a grain ration 
and hurdled on rape made larger and more economical gains than those on the same grain and hurdled 
on clover. 

The same station fed two lots of pigs on rape alone for two weeks. Two lots of eighteen pigs each 
were taken from rations composed of grain exclusively, grain and clover, and grain and rape. They were 
given nothing but rape. They fed nearly all day, appeared contented, and scoured but little, but twenty- 
five of the thirty-six lost in weight during the two weeks they were on rape, and only four made gains. 
The total loss on thirty-six pigs was 60 pounds, or at the rate of 1 . 66 pounds per pig. The six pigs that 
had been on an exclusive grain diet lost 18 pounds, or 3 pounds each. The eight pigs that had been on 
grain and clover lost 19 pounds, an average of nearly 2. 33 pounds each and the twenty -two pigs that were 
taken from a grain and rape diet lost 33 pounds, or 1 . 5 pounds each. 

One of the most promising features of animal husbandry in the South is the large 
Pasture range of forage crops at command. The hog raiser is particularly benefited by 

Substitutes these crops, many of which may be sown annually and used as substitutes for 

in Southern pasture. The most common Southern grazing crops for pigs are peanuts and 

States. cow peas. Both are very highly nitrogenous and therefore are good crops to 

use as a supplement to a ration composed of corn, rice products, or other car- 
bonaceous feeds. In addition to cow peas and peanuts, chufas, sorghum, soy beans, velvet beans, rape, 
sweet potatoes, etc., are used for pig grazing. The method of grazing is usually that of hurdling; that 
is, the pigs are enclosed on a small part of the field by means of portable fences. These fences are moved 
to ungrazed parts of the field as plants are eaten. Nearly all the efforts of the stations have been con- 
fined to demonstrations of the feasibility of pig feeding in the South and the possibilities of grazing the 
forage crops which are found in that section. The Arkansas Station made pork at the rate of 1,252 
pounds per acre for peanuts, 592 pounds per acre for chufas, and 436 pounds per acre from corn, estimat- 
ing the yield of corn at 30 bushels per acre. The forage crops were hurdled and the corn fed dry in the 
ear. In other tests at the same station both peanuts and chufas gave especially good gains. The Alabama 
Station raised six Poland China pigs on peanuts, with some corn in addition. The lot made a gain of 
380. 7 pounds in six weeks on an area of about one-sixth acre and ate 373 pounds of corn. Estimating 
corn at 49 cents per bushel and pork at 3 cents per pound, this is a return of $18.34 per acre for peanuts 
from this method of feeding. 

On a portion of the field which was not pastured the peanuts were dug and yielded at the rate of 
<>2 .0 bushels (1,565 pounds) of dry nuts per acre. From this the total feed required to produce 100 
nds gain was estimated as 140 pounds of peanuts and 190 pounds of corn, a total of 330 pounds of 
concentrates, with vines eaten not estimated. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 143 



This station estimates the value of return from peanuts in pork at $18.00 per acre, and states that 
the same land with the same fertilizers would not produce over 200 pounds of lint cotton per acre, which 
would be worth $10.00 or $12.00, with cotton at 5 or 6 cents per pound, while the expense of cultivating 
cotton would be much greater. In a latter experiment Duggar penned a litter of nine weeks old pigs 
on a two-thirds stand of Spanish peanuts just after weaning. They were on this pasture from November 
4th to December 23rd, and ate 152 pounds of corn meal for 190 pounds gain, in addition to grazing about 
five-sixths of an acre of peanuts. At 4 cents per pound for pork and making allowances for the grain 
eaten, the return per acre for the peanuts was $10.04. 

In another test the sow and her litter of nine pigs were fed from September 30th to November 4th 
on corn meal, skim milk and Spanish peanuts from one-fourth acre of land. They ate 355 pounds of corn 
meal and 921 pounds of skim milk. The sow and pigs gained a total of 236 pounds. At 4 cents per pound 
for pork, valuing corn meal at $1.00 per 100 pounds and skim milk at 35 cents per 100 pounds, and esti- 
mating 325 pounds of skim milk to be worth 100 pounds of corn meal, the return per acre from the peanuts 
was $17.28. 

In another test seven shoats, averaging nearly 100 pounds, Avere penned on Spanish peanuts from 
October 11th to November 2nd and fed some corn meal. They made a total gain of 225 pounds, eating 
286 pounds of corn meal and grazing the peanuts on 0.47 acre, requiring only 127 pounds of corn meal for 
100 pounds gain. With the usual allowances, the return per acre for peanuts in this test was $18.02. 

In another test seven shoats were taken from corn meal, cow pea meal, and sorghum, and placed 
on Spanish peanuts and corn meal for four weeks. They ate 333 pounds of corn meal and grazed 1,593 
square feet of peanuts, making a gain of 121 pounds, which was at a cost of 273 pounds grain for 100 
pounds gain. The value per acre of the peanut pasture was estimated, by the usual methods, at $9.00. 

Some of these pigs were continued by hurdling on peanut pasture and were given some grain in 
addition for five weeks longer. In this period the return per acre for the peanuts was estimated at $9.88. 

In another test, a litter of seven Poland China pigs, averaging 28 pounds in weight, were hurdled 
on Spanish peanuts just after weaning. The pasturing continued six weeks and no grain was fed. The 
total gain was 157 pounds, an average daily gain of . 53 pound. The area grazed was 13,887 square feet, 
and the return per acre, with pork at 4 cents per pound, was $20.12. 

The Alabama Station fed one lot of pigs on a peanut field which was a poor stand, giving some 
corn meal in addition; another lot had nothing but the peanut pasture, and a third lot corn meal only. 
There were three pigs in each lot and they were of rather ordinary feeding qualities. In four weeks the 
lot on corn meal gained 38 . 6 pounds, those on peanuts alone gained 21 . 1 pounds, and those on corn meal 
lost 5.1 pounds. The lot on peanuts and corn meal ate 206 pounds of corn per 100 pounds gain and 
grazed 2,025 square feet planted in peanuts. This is at the rate of 840 pounds of growth from one acre 
of peanuts (with less than half a stand) and 1,710 pounds (35.6 bushels) of corn meal. With pork at 3 
cents per pound and corn meal at 40 cents per bushel of 48 pounds, this is a gross return of $25.20 and 
a net return (after subtracting the value of the meal) of $10.94 per acre of peanuts. 

The pigs on peanuts only pastured an area of 3,517 square feet, and the gain made was 21.1 
pounds, which is at the rate of 261 pounds of pork per acre. At 3 cents per pound gross for pork, this 
gives a value of $7.83 to the acre of peanuts on which there was only half a stand of plants. 

The Alabama Station estimates the value of peanuts in pork production at $12.00 to $20.00 per 
acre, the higher returns being made where corn meal supplements the peanut pasture. 

In another test at the Alabama Station, pigs grazing peanuts, with a half ration of a mixture of 
corn meal two parts and cow pea meal one part, pigs grazing peanuts alone, and pigs grazing chufas 
with the half grain ration mentioned, were compared with pigs on a full ration of the same grain mixture, 
fed in a bare lot. All lots but those grazing peanuts alone made very good gains. The pigs on peanuts 
and grain made an average daily gain of 1 . 50 pounds, requiring 188 pounds grain for 100 pounds of gain. 
Those on chufas and grain made 1 . 46 pounds average daily gain and ate 192 pounds grain per 100 pounds 
gain. The grain fed pigs gained 1.31 pounds daily per head, eating 431 pounds of grain per 100 pounds 



144 E XPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

The pigs on peanuts only made an average daily gain of . 46 pound, showing that the best results 
may be had when grain is fed with peanuts. The return per acre of peanuts and chufas, with pork at 
1 cents per pound, was estimated, where grain was fed, at $9.56 and $9.62, respectively. The pigs 
on peanut pasture without grain returned only $3.03 per acre for the crop. At the rate of gain made 
in this experiment it is estimated that with these rations one acre of the grazing crop would provide 
teed for a 100-pound shoat as follows: Peanuts and grain ration, 850 days; chufas and grain ration, 
827 days; peanut pasture alone, 4(13 days. 

The value of sorghum and cow peas as grazing crops was investigated by the Alabama Station. 
One lot was hurdled on drilled sorghum which was in the dough and ripening stages and received a half 
grain ration of a mixture, by weight, of corn meal two parts and cow pea meal one part. Another was 
placed in a pen in which sorghum was growing and had, in addition, enough ripe Spanish peanuts to 
constitute a half ration of peanuts. A third was hurdled on drilled Whippoorwill cow peas, on which 
part of the pods were ripe, and received no grain. The fourth was confined in a bare pen and given the 
grain mixture given lot 1 in such amounts as the pigs would eat up clean. 

The results were not very satisfactory for grazing on sorghum or on cow peas without a supple- 
mentary grain ration. The waste of feed in the cow pea lot was very great, large numbers of the ripe 
peas falling to the ground and sprouting. Previous work at the Alabama Station has shown more 
satisfactory results when grain was fed in conjunction with the cow pea pasture. 

Duggar notes another experiment with sorghum grazing, in which there was a large waste of feed, 
although grain was fed. Seven shoats were on the sorghum from June 24 to September 2, 1899, and 
received at the same time about 1.5 pounds per head daily of a mixture of equal parts by weight of 
cow pea meal and corn meal. The pigs grazed 15,374 square feet of sorghum and 8,380 square feet of 
second growth sorghum. They ate 812 pounds of grain, or 360 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of gain. 
Making allowances for the value of the grain fed, the return per acre of sorghum, with pork at 4 cents 
per pound, was estimated at $7.80. The second growth sorghum produced only about one-half as much 
feed as the first growth. Large quantities of the sorghum were trampled under foot, and, when some of 
it was cut and carried to the pigs, a given area lasted much longer than when they were turned in to graze. 
Duggar suggests that when labor is cheap and abundant, or a corn harvester is available, soiling 
sorghum will be the more profitable method of feeding. 

An earlier experiment at the Alabama Station gave more profitable results from a ration of grain 
and cow pea pasture. One lot of pigs had corn only ; another was hurdled on cow peas about half 
matured at the beginning of the experiment, and given corn. The cow peas yielded about 13 bushels 
of peas per acre. The pigs on corn alone made an average daily gain of . 36 pound, eating 586 pounds 
of grain per 100 pounds of gain. Those on cow pea pasture, with corn, made an average daily gain of 
0.97 pound, eating 374 pounds of corn per 100 pounds of gain. 

The pigs were pastured on an area of 7,280 square feet, or about one-sixth of an acre. Valuing 
pork at 3 cents per pound and corn at 40 cents per bushel, the return of cow peas per acre was estimated 
at SI 0.05, not including the value of the manure made. By pasturing, 277 pounds of corn was saved 
per 100 pounds of gain, and therefore an acre of cow peas would replace 1,662 pounds of corn, using this 
test as a basis. . 

The Maryland Station fed a number of pigs. on cow pea pasture and concluded that cow peas 
are well adapted to pigs about three months old. The older pigs that had been highly fed and had 
always been kept in a pen evidently had lost their rustling ability and did not thrive so well on cow peas. 

The abundant variety of forage plants at the command of Southern farmers led Duggar to suggest 
a succession of grazing crops which could be planted in the milder portions of the South, so that pasture 
would be available from January to December. The following table shows the crops suggested, using 
the results of investigation by the Alabama Station as a basis. It is said that other forage crops will 
be added as they are tested, such as alfalfa, pumpkins, artichokes and soy beans. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 145 

Succession of Forage Crops. 



MONTHS TO BE USED 


CROPS 


January and February 


Fall sown rape and chufas. 


March 1 to April 15 . . . 


Fall sown rape, vetches and oats, rye, wheat, etc. 


April 16 to May 1 .... 


Vetches and oats, crimson clover, oats and wheat. 


May 


Spring sown rape, vetches and oats, wheat, and the usual pastures. 


June : 


Spring sown rape, stubble field, turf oats, and the usual pastures. 


July and August 


Sorghum, early variety of cow peas, and the usual pastures. 


September, October and 


/ 


November 


Spanish peanuts, cow peas, sweet potatoes and sorghum. 


December 


Chufas and full sown rape. 



A disadvantage of grazing pigs on peanuts or chufas, the effects of which must be guarded against 
by the Southern feeder, is that the lard from such pigs has a very low melting point; the fat, therefore, 
makes the flesh soft, flabby and undesirable in appearance, especially during the summer months. To 
obviate this difficultv, the common practice of farmers is to use corn in finishing hogs which have had 
peanuts as the principal component of ration. Recently the effect of cotton seed meal on the fat has 
been investigated with good results so far as increased firmness of the pork produced is concerned. 

According to Bennett, if good grade or pure bred pigs are grazed on peanuts or chufas, either alone 
or combined, and if at the same time they are fed on an amount of corn sufficient to full feed exclusively, 
for four weeks, the quality of the pork and lard produced cannot be distinguished in appearance from 
that of pigs fed on corn exclusively. Bennett regards the use of more than this amount of corn as too 
expensive for the results obtained. He also reports that his results have shown that pure bred pigs 
or good grades produced a firmer quality of pork and lard than scrubs. The range of individual varia- 
tion in the melting point of lard from scrtibs was much larger than that of the lard from grades of pure 
breeds. Duggar, however, states that in his experience, even when fed a month exclusively on corn, 
pigs formerly on peanuts made much more oily and soft pork and lard than those fed corn throughout 
the entire feeding period. This condition was noticeable even after cooking. One month of exclusive 
corn feeding increased the firmness of pork made from animals previously fed on peanuts alone, but the 
improvement was not sufficient to make the flesh or the lard as firm as the same articles afforded by ani- 
mals fed entirely on corn. Both Bennett and Duggar state that, while exclusive peanut feeding injures 
the sale of lard and pork by making it soft and oilv, the cooking quality does not seem to be impaired. 

It is also given as the experience of both these stations that feeding exclusively on corn for a month 
after the feeding on peanuts was stopped did not have an effect on the melting point of the lard that 
was appreciably different from that of hogs fed on corn simultaneously with the peanut grazing. The 
melting point is lower in the case of immature pigs than with mature ones. The hardening effect of 
other feeds than corn and of combinations of these feeds with corn has been studied extensively by 
the Alabama Station, where a pig that was fed a ration of one-third ground cow peas and two-thirds corn 
meal was compared with pigs which had grazed sorghum, peanuts or chufas, with and without grain. 
The melting point of the fat of the jowl was found to be 4. 6 degrees Fahrenheit higher than in the case 
of pigs which had the same grain ration but had grazed peanuts and sorghum, and still higher than that 
from pigs which had grazed cow peas. A number of experiments show that a.ration in which cotton seed 
meal entered to the extent of one-fourth had a marked effect on the hardness of the fat. 

Pumpkins and Apples. — Farmers generally regard pumpkins highly as a fall pig feed. They are 
succulent, palatable, and nutritious, and, properly fed, give profitable returns. Experiments at three 
stations, where the utility of cooking pumpkins was studied, show that the practice added little to the 
efficiency of the ration. The gains from feeding were good in all cases and economically produced. 
Pigs fed on raw pumpkins and grain showed gains at a cost of 262 pounds of grain and 376 pounds of 
pumpkins per 100 pounds- of gain where the pumpkins were fed raw, and 222 pounds of grain and 1,150 
pounds of pumpkins for each 100 pounds of gain when they were cooked. 



L46 EXPERIMENTS WITH (GROUND AND CXCROUND GRAIN. 



Throe pigs, averaging 141 pounds at the beginning of the experiment, fed pumpkins alone at the 
New Hampshire Station for twenty-rive days, made an average daily gain of 1.12 pounds, the cost of 
food per 100 pounds of gain being 82. 39. 

Another test at the same station with a ration of cider or wind fall apples and pumpkins, equal 
parts, eooked, showed but expensive gains, the high cost being attributed to the apples. 

Roots and Tubers. — Feeding roots to live stock is comparatively recent in the United States. 
Corn, with hay or ensilage, has been the principal maintenance during the winter months when pasture 
was not available. In hog feeding it is safe to say that, until very recent years, almost the only sub- 
stitutes for pasture were pumpkins, artichoke'-, and clover 'or alfalfa hay in certain sections. In England 
and Canada, however, much dependence is placed on roots, and, while we may never reach the point in 
this country generally of fattening animals almost entirely on a root diet, the peculiar advantages to be 
gained by them, their great palatability, and the good effects on the health and thrift of the animals 
commend roots to the stockman. 

A number of experiments have been reported recently on feeding roots to hogs. 

At the Indiana Station, Plumb and Van Norman conducted two experiments to compare a ration 
composed solely of grain with one where roots were added. In both experiments the grain ration was 
one part corn meal, two parts shorts, fed as slop. No drink other than water was given. In the first 
experiment mangels were fed ; in the second the roots were sugar beets, sliced and fed in the slop, and they 
were relished more than the mangels. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College, Day fed four lots of pigs in pens as follows: 

Lots 1 and 2 were made up of four grade Yorkshire pigs, each from the same litter, about seven 
weeks old; lots 3 and 4 contained five grade Yorkshire pigs, each from the same litter, about nine weeks 
old. Lot 1 received barley and middlings ; lot 2 received barley and middlings with an equal weight of 
raw pulped mangels ; lot 3 received corn and middlings ; lot 4 received corn and middlings with an equal 
weight of raw pulped mangels. The proportion of grain in middlings was 1 :2 in all lots at the beginning 
of the experiment, and was gradually changed as the pigs increased in weight and age until it was 2:1 
toward the close. 

At the Utah Station, Foster and Merrill conducted two experiments to compare the ration of bran 
and sugar beets with rations of corn meal, ground wheat, and corn meal and peas. In the first experiment 
lot 1 received corn meal, lot 2 received ground wheat, and lot 3 received sugar beets with a one-third ration 
of bran. In the second experiment lot 1 received a mixture of equal parts of corn meal and ground peas, 
lots 2 and 3 being fed as in the first test. The pigs were fed in covered pens, and were given all they 
would eat. There were three in each lot. 

At the Montana Station, Shaw fed one lot of hogs on grain only and another on the same grain 
ration with sugar beets added. 

The Indiana results showed larger and more rapid gains in both cases for the pigs receiving no 
roots, but in one test there was a saving of 72 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain by feeding 410 
pounds of roots. The Ontario and Montana results favored root feeding in all respects. The gains were 
larger and more rapid, and less feed per 100 pounds of gain was required when roots were fed. The 
average of these experiments shoAvs that in six out of seven tests where roots were fed there was a saving 
of the grain. 

The average of feed per 100 pounds gain shows that feeding 427 pounds of roots saved 83 pounds 
of grain, or 19 per cent, which is a very high value for roots. 

The feature of root feeding has previously been remarked upon in this book. Attention is called 
to it in nearly every instance where experimenters have fed roots successfully. Plumb and Van Norman 
do not regard their results as showing great value for roots, but think they have an effect on the appetite, 
digestion, and general health that is beneficial, particularly in winter. In the Ontario experiments the 
equivalent for 1 00 pounds of meal was 319 pounds of roots in the first and 564 pounds in the second. Day 
( alls attention to the fact that both figures are very high values for roots, and points out that, according 
to analyses and digestion experiments, there is approximately about nine times as much digestible matter 
in a mixture of corn and middlings as there is in mangels. It is difficult to explain, therefore, how 564 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 147 

pounds of mangels should prove equal to 100 pounds of meal. The pigs receiving mangels showed the 
effects of their feed in more growth and thrift than the others. They had less tendency to become fat, 
and the root ration was reduced for this reason. Day explains this effect of root feeding to be due to a 
beneficial effect on the digestive organs of the animals, causing them to digest their feed better than did 
the others; for there is little doubt that hogs closely confined in pens are likely to suffer from indigestion. 
Shaw explains the marked effect of roots in similar words, stating that the value of sugar beets for pigs is 
derived not so much from the nutrients in the dry matter which they contain as from the influence they 
exert on digestion and assimilation. 

Henry found the results at three American experiment stations to be that about 615 pounds of 
roots saved 100 pounds of grain. The Danish experiments give 600 to 800 pounds of mangels and from 
400 to 800 pounds of fodder beets as the feeding equivalent of 100 pounds of grain. 

The average of the results here given indicates that about 515 pounds of roots saved 100 pounds 
of meal, a somewhat higher value for roots than that given in previously published works. 

More extended experiments by 'other stations showed an average, daily gain for pigs of 1 . 58 
pounds, at a cost of $4.60 per 100 pounds gain, on grain only (9.11 pounds of grain per head daily) ; 
the second lot, on grain and sugar beets (6. 65 pounds grain and 4. 58 pounds sugar beets per head daily), 
made an average daily gain of 1.64 pounds, at a cost of $3.80 per 100 pounds. There were four pigs in 
each lot, and they were fed fifty days. As a side light on the possibilities of pork production in the irri- 
gated Northwest, it is interesting to note that Shaw found his net profits from feeding these eight pigs to 
be $14.12, or 33 per cent on the investment in fifty days. 

In an experiment to compare the feeding value of forage beets, sugar beets, mangels, and turnips, 
at the Central Experiment Farm of Canada, when pigs received a ration of mixed grain, the pigs on 
forage beets made the greatest average daily gains and required the least feed for 100 pounds gain, the 
other lots standing in the order of sugar beets, mangels, and turnips. The results are remarkably low 
in feed requirements, and would seem to show that roots and milk may be more advantageously combined 
than pasture and milk. 

Day, at Guelph, and Shutt, at Ottawa, have found that the effect of roots on the carcass is not 
detrimental, but produces a firm bacon of good quality, a very essential matter to Canadian pig feeders. 
In this experiment neither buyers nor packers criticized adversely the pigs fed on turnips and mangels, 
and the carcasses of the sugar beet pigs were all select (there was no packer's report on this lot) ; but the 
buyer found one carcass too fat in the lot fed on forage beets, and the packer's report was not so favorable 
as on the others. 

An attempt at the Colorado Station to maintain pigs on sugar beets alone was successful only in 
maintaining them without loss. The ration proved expensive and there was difficulty at first in inducing 
the pigs to eat beets, but after they became accustomed to such a diet they took to it readily. At no 
time were they able to eat beets enough to approach the conventional feeding standard; 12.5 pounds 
daily was the greatest amount they would take. 

An experiment at the same station, when sugar beets and sugar beet pulp were compared, showed 
that the whole beets had greater feeding value than the pulp, but both rations were inferior to one of the 
mixture of equal parts of wheat and barley, so far as amount and rate of gain and profits were concerned, 
although the pigs on beets or pulp received the same grain ration as the lots on grain alone. The beet 
and pulp rations required less grain for 100 pounds of gain than the grain ration, and the pulp ration cost 
20 cents less per 100 pounds gain than the grain ration, but the profit on the latter lot was greater. The 
pigs ate pulp with considerable reluctance, and did not seem to relish the beets at first. 

Clinton reports an unsuccessful attempt at Cornell to feed potatoes, raw and cooked. Some 
grain and skim milk were given in addition; but, while over 400 pounds of potatoes were eaten, the pigs 
made no progress and were getting out of condition when the experiment was brought to a close. The 
low temperature while the pigs were being fed, ranging between 29 and 30 degrees Fahrenheit, is 
suggested as a reason for the poor results. 

At the Central Experiment Farm, very satisfactory results were obtained from cooked potatoes, 
but raw potatoes produced little gain. In one experiment the pigs were getting all the raw potatoes 
they would eat, but made no gain, and the tubers were discontinued. In a second test a similar 



1 IS E X PERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

led to a change to cooked potatoes. The opinion of investigators at this station is that raw 
potatoes arc of little value for feeding pigs, but when cooked they are worth about one-fourth as much 
as mixed grain. 

The Alabama. South Carolina, Maryland and Florida Stations have experimented with sweet 
potatoes with somewhat varying results. At the Alabama Station, Duggar fed one lot of pigs on a 
ration of three-fourths sweet potatoes and one-fourth ground cow peas, and another on a ration of equal 
parts of corn meal and cow peas. After four weeks they were put through an intermediate period of one 
week and the rations were reversed, the lot that had formerly been on corn meal and cow peas receiving 
the sweet potato ration. This was continued for four weeks longer, so that in all there were eight weeks 
of feeding on a sweet potato ration. 

The ration of sweet potatoes and cow peas proved very inferior to the ration of corn meal and 
peas. The increase in live weight was nearly twice as great in the case of corn meal and cow peas, 
and the dry matter per 100 pounds of gain was estimated at 600 pounds where sweet potatoes were fed 
to o6t\ pounds where corn meal was fed. Duggar refers to the difficulty of inducing the pigs to eat dry 
matter when sweet potatoes made up so much of the ration, and suggested a ration of equal parts of 
cow peas and sweet potatoes as being more palatable and nutritious. He questions whether sweet pota- 
toes can be profitably grown, stored and fed to hogs unless the feeding value per bushel would be more 
than 10 or 15 cents. Where the pigs do the harvesting, especially on sandy soils, where the yield of 
sweet potatoes is ten or fifteen times that of corn, they may be an economical feed. 

The results at the South Carolina Station were much more favorable to sweet potatoes. Newman 
and Pickett fed a lot of three pigs, averaging 162 pounds in weight, on sweet potatoes only for forty-three 
days, beginning November 23rd. At the same time corn was fed to three pigs averaging 156 pounds in 
weight. Two pigs in each lot were high grade Berkshires and the third was a grade Duroc Jersey. 

Pigs on sweet potatoes ate 26 . 2 pounds per head daily and made an average daily gain of . 86 
pound. They ate 3.247 pounds of sweet potatoes for 100 potvnds of gain. 

The pigs on corn ate an average of 9.2 pounds of grain daily, and made an average daily gain of 
1 . 39 pounds, requiring 602 pounds of corn for 100 pounds of gain. It was estimated that at 200 bushels 
per acre sweet potatoes would produce 369.5 pounds of pork per acre, worth $18.47 when pork is worth 
5 cents per pound. The gain from corn was 139.5 pounds of pork, and the corn }aeld was 15 bushels 
per acre on land similar to that on which the sweet potatoes were grown. At 5 cents per pound for 
pork, the money return for the corn was $6.97 per acre. 

The Maryland Station reports an attempt to maintain pigs exclusively on sweet potatoes. A 
lot of rather mature pigs was put on a ration of small sweet potatoes and strings, which were fed raw 
twice a day for thirty-one days. It required over five tons of these potatoes for 100 pounds of gain, and 
the return from them was only about $1.60 per ton. 

The value of this feed when given with grain was tested with a younger lot of pigs for thirty 
days. With this lot 593 pounds of sweet potatoes, 277 pounds of milk, and about 60 pounds of grain 
re required for 100 pounds of gain, and the value per ton of the potatoes was estimated at $2.40, 
shewing sweet potatoes to be more valuable when fed with grain and milk. 

The Florida Station fed a lot of four native hogs on a ration of equal parts, by weight, of sweet 
potatoes and wheat middlings, the ration being 3.5 pounds of each per 100 pounds live weight of hog. 
They were confined in an open pen and fed twice daily. The hogs averaged 101.5 pounds at the begin- 
ning of the test and increased in weight 31 . 16 per cent, or 126. 5 pounds at a cost of 5. 6 cents per pound 
of gain for feed eaten. 

At the Alabama Station, Duggar penned two shoats, averaging 116 pounds, on sweet potatoes 
for thirty-five flays. They were given, in addition, 2 pounds of ground corn and 1 pound of ground 
peas per head daily. In the time specified they gained 67 pounds, an' average daily gain of 0.93 
pound, thus requiring 315 pounds of grain in addition to the sweet potatoes for each 100 pounds gain. 
Duggar states that the sweet potatoes were not relished greatly and that there was much waste of them, 
due probably to the relatively large amount of grain fed. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 149 

At the Oregon Station, French took six Berkshire pigs from wheat stubble on October 22nd 
and placed them on a field of artichokes that had been planted in April, on deep plowed ground, pre- 
pared as for potatoes, in rows 3 feet apart, with the seed 18 inches apart in the row. The growth was 
vigorous and the yield abundant, the tops growing to a height of 7 feet during the season, and a trial plot 
showing a yield of 740 bushels per acre. The pigs had free access to the field and did all the harvesting. 
An attempt to sustain them entirely on the tubers failing, some shorts were fed in addition. 

At Ottawa, Grisdale sowed a plot of one-sixteenth acre with about 70 pounds of tubers on May 
19th, planting in rows 20 inches apart, 4 inches deep and 20 inches apart in the row. Six pigs were 
turned in October 3rd. Although the tubers were immature at that time, the tops were from 10 to 13 feet 
high. The pigs were allowed a daily grain ration of 1 . 5 pounds of a mixture composed of one-half corn 
meal and one-half of a mixture of equal parts of ground oats, peas and barley. 

In the Oregon experiment the pigs made an average daily gain of . 81 pound for fifty days, eating 
309 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of gain, at a cost of $1.85 ; in the Canadian test the pigs made an aver- 
age daily gain of 1.57 pounds for twenty-one days, eating 96 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of gain, 
which cost $1.80. 

The cost of the meal in the Oregon experiment was estimated at $12.00 per ton; that in the Cana- 
dian at $18.00 per ton. Valuing the meat made at $6.25 per 100 pounds, Grisdale estimates that, 
after deducting the cost of the meal fed, a balance of $10.61 is left for the artichokes fed, and, deducting 
from this the cost of seed, planting, rent of land, etc., the one-sixteenth acre used gave a net return of pork 
worth $8.76. 

Roughage. — Hogs are generally regarded as animals whose particular function is the conversion 
of concentrated feed into meat. Although the capacity of bulky feed that we find in the stomachs of 
cattle and sheep is* lacking in hogs, a reasonable amount of bulk in the form of roots or hay is palatable 
and profitable. In many parts of the country where concentrates are costly feed, stockmen are forced 
to use substitutes for at least a part of the grain ration, both for fattening and maintenance, and over the 
entire country the winter ration is a problem. To solve these problems many Western farmers have 
resorted to the use of alfalfa hay, and outside of alfalfa districts clover hay is iised. Considerable study 
has been devoted to this subject by the experiment stations. 

The Kansas Experiment Station has reported a series of experiments with drouth resistance crops. 
Three of these experiments had to do with alfalfa hay. In the first, the hogs used were of mixed breeding, 
Berkshire and Poland China, representing about the average of Kansas farm hogs. The alfalfa was of 
good quality. 

Two lots were fed, one receiving the hay whole in greater quantity than it would consume, the 
other having ground hay. In the second test the meal fed lot received some cotton seed meal — 0. 16 
pound to each pound of Kaffir corn — which did not affect the hogs seriously. This test was conducted 
during the most severe weather of the winter, the thermometer registering 32 degrees Fahrenheit below 
zero February 12th, ten days after the experiments began. 

In the third test the grain was wet with water at the time of feeding. The alfalfa hay had been cut 
late ' and was rather woody. 

The Utah Station fed one lot of hogs on a mixture of equal parts, by weight, of chopped wheat and 
bran, wet. Another lot had the same grain ration with chopped alfalfa hay added. The alfalfa used 
was well cured and was prepared by running through an ensilage cutter, the blades of which are arranged 
for cutting into half-inch lengths. The pigs were thrifty grade Berkshires. 

The Montana Station fed three lots of hogs to compare the feeding value of a grain ration with 
sugar beets and alfalfa hay as a roughage with a ration of grain only. The lot on grain alone received a 
ration consisting, during the early part of the experiment, of two parts of damaged wheat and one part 
of oats, barley- taking the place of the wheat during the latter partvof the experiment. The hay fed lot 
had the same ration with alfalfa hay added. The alfalfa hay was run through a cutting box, moistened, 
and mixed with meal. The hogs were by a Berkshire boar, out of high grade Poland China sows. 
They had previously had the run of a stubble field with some clover pasture. 



150 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 



The av< i xperiments shows thai 593 pounds of grain were required for 100 pounds 

en no hay was fed, and 505 pounds of grain and 89 pounds of alfalfa hay when hay was fed, 
88 pounds of grain to be credited to the hay fed. 

In all but two instances a considerable saving of feed was found to be effected by its use, but 

the statement that its feeding value is almost equal to that of corn is true only within certain limits. 

Where hogs are confined to an exclusive grain ration, and especially where this is made up of a single grain, 

the addition of Davis Stock Food and a moderate amount of hay to the ration will be relished and less 

:n will be required. 

At the same time better and cheaper gains are usually made by hogs so fed than by those on 
n alone but the value of the grain saved is out of all proportion to the value of the hay fed, and 
the hay in the ration cannot be used economically in more than ver) r moderate amounts. This is a simi- 
lar fact to that which has been found by many investigators with such bulky feeds as green clover, rape, 
roots, and skim milk. That it is bad economy to attempt the maintenance of hogs on alfalfa hay alone 
own by an experiment by McDowell, in Nevada. 

In this experiment two lots of two pigs each were fed on a ration of alfalfa hay. The two lots ate 
in twenty-one days 99.12 pounds and 99.14 pounds, respectively, and lost in weight 33.25 pounds 
and 51 pounds, respectively, an average daily loss of 0.79 pound and 1.21 pounds, respectively. While 
feeding hay alone the pigs spent much time curled up in the bedding, but when about the stalls were 
restless, and even in eating it was done in a ravenous way, unlike that of a hearty, well fed pig. After 
the hay feeding period both lots were given grain and roots and made satisfactory gains. 

A consideration of the approximate proportions of hay to grain fed in these experiments is of 
interest. The greatest proportion of hay to grain was fed at the Canada Station and the ratio was 1 :2. 5.. 
With this ratio the least daily gain was made. The gains were the most expensive of any of the lots, 
and no advantage accrued from the use of hay. The least proportion of hay (1:11) was fed at Utah and 
gave the most economical gains. The greatest daily gain and the greatest amount of grain saved was in 
a Kansas lot fed whole alfalfa hay and dry Kaffir corn meal in the proportion of 1:7. The following table 
shows the effect of these rations in greater detail. The best results seem to come from the use of hay 
in the proportion of from one-seventh to one-fourth of the ration when hay makes up all the roughage. 

Ratio of Hay to Grain in Feeding Hogs. 



RATIO Or HAY TO GRAIN 



Kansas. 



1:2.5 
1:4 . . 
1:4 . . 

1 :7 

1 7 



1 :7 - 
1:11 . 



Montana. 
Utah. 



Average 
Daily 
Feed, 

Pounds 



.88 
1.37 
1.37 
1.44 
1.32 

1.19 



1.19 



Feed per 100 Pounds 
Gain 



Grain, 
Pounds 



538 
501 
516 
515 
538 

486 

455 



Hay, 
Pounds 



214 
131 
123 

72.4 
78.7 

67 

41.7 



Grain 
Saved, 
Pounds 



1.8 
139 
137 
234 
211 

46 



The average of experiments at the Utah and Montana Stations shows sugar beets to be more valu- 
able as a roughage than alfalfa hay. Pigs on hay and grain required 423 pounds of grain and 122 pounds 
of hay for 100 pounds of gain ; those on beets required 358 pounds of grain and 617 pounds of beets for 
100 pounds of gain, a difference of 65 pounds of grain, or 15 per cent, in favor of the sugar beet rations. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 151 



Recent results at the Colorado Station have been unfavorable to either hay or sugar beet feeding 
for pigs. Nine Berkshire pigs, averaging about 150 pounds, were fed. Lot 1 received a mixture of approx- 
imately two parts barley and one part corn, and about one-half pound alfalfa hay daily ; lot 2 had the 
grain ration only ; lot 3 had the grain ration and about 1 pound of sugar beets daily. There was some 
difficulty at first to get the pigs in lot 1 to eat alfalfa, but when it was cut fine and mixed with barley slop 
they would take it. 

The pigs on grain alone made the largest and most rapid gains, and required the least grain for 
100 pounds of gain. These pigs also made the' cheapest gains and the largest profit. The hay fed pigs 
gave nearly as good gains as those fed grain only, but they required more feed and the profit was 21 
cents less per head for the ninety-seven days' feeding. The grain and sugar beet ration was least effective 
and least economical. The proportion of hay to grain fed was approximately 1:11; that of beets to grain 
was a little more than 1:5. 

The Maryland Station has conducted a number of experiments with ground corn fodder, or new 
corn product, as it is otherwise called. This product is the ground residue of corn stalks from which the 
pith has been removed. It was fed to pigs varying in age at the beginning from eight to twelve weeks. 
All rations contained milk, and the fodder was fed in different proportions to note any possible advanta- 
geous results from such a practice. No special advantages could be observed from feeding the com fodder, 
either in lessening the amount of grain required for 100 pounds of gain or in lowering the cost, except after 
the pigs were six months old. For fairly mature pigs the new corn product probably would have an effect 
in a ration somewhat similar to that of alfalfa hay. 

In the foregoing pages attention has been called to the fact that there is very 

Breed Tests. little difference in the standards of excellence for the various breeds of what has 

come to be designated the lard, fat, block, or corn belt hog. Tests of the different 

breeds made in different parts of the country show that there is very little difference in the cost of pork 

production by the best representatives of any of the established breeds. 

One of the most striking facts to be observed in the study of breed tests by the experimental 
stations is the apparent contradiction of the evidence of different experiments. For example, Curtis 
and Craig quote Hayward, of the Pennsylvania Station, to the effect that the results obtained in Maine, 
Massachusetts, and Ontario show the feed eaten per 100 pounds gain by various breeds to be as follows: 
Poland China, 407 pounds; Berkshire, 419 pounds; Tamworth, 420 pounds; Chester White, 500 pounds; 
Duroc Jersey, 522 pounds. 

To ascertain what results might disclose if a broader average were taken, the writer averaged the 
feed per 100 pounds of gain found at eight experiment stations. Only those experiments were used 
where there was a sufficiently exhaustive test and a large enough number of pigs to make the results fairly 
representative. It was found that the least amount of feed for 100 pounds of gain was shown by the Tam- 
worths, 344 pounds, and the greatest by the Duroc Jerseys, 418 pounds, the other of the six leading breeds 
standing in this order: Chester White, Poland China, Berkshire, large Yorkshire. Similarly contra- 
dictory results may be found in almost every breed experiment conducted. In the Iowa test, which 
covered three years, the Yorkshires averaged highest in average daily gains, with 1.04 pounds; the 
Berkshires and Duroc Jerseys being tied for second, with 0.98 pound, and the others following in this 
order: Tamworth, Poland China, Chester White, the lowest being 0.89 pound. In feed requirements 
(estimated by digestible dry matter for 100 pounds gain) the Duroc Jerseys were first in least requirements, 
with 410 pounds, the other breeds standing thus: Poland China, Yorkshire, Chester White, Tamworth, 
the last being 456 pounds. In cost of 100 pounds of gain the Yorkshires were lowest, with $2.15, the other 
breeds taking this order: Poland China, Duroc Jersey, Tamworth, Chester White, the highest being 
$2.46. In the work at the Ontario Agricultural College the results of four tests with the same breeds 
show that the Duroc Jersey averaged first in average daily gains, with 1.01 pounds, the other breeds 
following in this order: Yorkshire, Berkshire, Tamworth, Poland China, and Chester White. There 
was, however, very little difference between the Duroc Jersey, Yorkshire, and Berkshire in respect of 
average daily gains, and the Tamworth, Poland China, and Chester White formed a second group, with 
average daily gains of slightly more than 0.90 pound. In the economy of gain the Berkshire stood first, 



EXPERIMENTS WITH G ROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 

with 379 pounds as the amount of meal required for 100 pounds gain, the other breeds following in this 
r: Tamworth, Yorkshire, Duroc Jersey, Chester White, and Poland China. In this respect the Berk- 
shire was quite a little in the lead. The Yorkshire and Duroc Jersey formed a group around 395 pounds 
ester White and Poland China another group at 400 pounds. The Tamworth required 390 
meal for 100 pounds gain— somewhat less than the Yorkshire and Duroc Jersey. The lowest 
daily gain was 0.90 pound, and the highest amount of feed required for 100 pounds of gain was 
102 pounds. In the Minnesota test, on the other hand, the Tamworth and Yorkshire showed more 

ble results than the Poland China. 

These results undoubtedly show the truth of the rather hackneyed phrase, "There is no best breed." 
Given any of the improved breeds and there seems to be practically no difference in the feeding powers 
between representative animals of any of them. One breed may contain more good feeders than another, 
but the good judge can find among them all animals which will feed rapidly and economically. Not 
only is this true of the hogs of The lard type, but the bacon breeds must be included in the category if 
we accept the figures of the stations as correct. The fact that a pig is a Yorkshire or a Tamworth 
cannot be taken as prima facie evidence that it will make slow or expensive gains. 

Breed influence, however, may be noticed on the carcass. It is notorious that the low prices 
which are paid lor American bacon on the English market are caused by the fact that the type bred in the 
United States does not suit the English taste and that the feed given is not always that which will produce 
a first class carcass. The result of experimental shipments of pork to this market are therefore partic- 
ularly interesting to pig feeders. After each slaughtering of the Iowa pigs some of the pork was shipped 
to Liverpool 'for sale on the English market. Very complete reports were received regarding the 
suitability of these cuts abroad.. 

In 1S97 the opinion of the packers before the shipment was made was that the Berkshire and Tam- 
worth pigs were the most suitable for the making of English meat. The lots of pork that were unsuitable 
on account of feeding were one of the long cut hams from Poland China pigs and one of the long cut hams 
from Chester White pigs, which were too fat and short. One lot of American cut hams from the Berk- 
shires was rendered unsuitable for the English market by cutting. Some of the cuts were criticized as 
soft and spongy, others as somewhat fat, but they were not necessarily condemned on account of fat. 
A tendency in the Yorkshire long cut hams to be rather stout was remarked upon. 

In 1898 a still more complete report was received concerning the cuts that were shipped to England. 
The cuts from theTamworthswere all reported suitable for the English trade, although some were criticized 
as being somewhat too fat. The Berkshire cuts were given second place, only two being condemned 
as being too fat for the British market. The showing of the Yorkshire cuts in this shipment was surprising. 
Out of eight Cumberlands cut from Yorkshire pigs only one was suitable for export, the others being 
much too fat. Out of eight Yorkshire short cut hams four were condemned on account of fat. The 
Yorkshire cuts were the least suitable of the shipment. 

This characteristic of the Yorkshires in this experiment brings up the very miportant question 
regarding the influence of feeds on the carcass. It also shows how individual and family characteristics 
are strong factors in experimental work. In justice to the breed it should be said that it is highly valued 
for its high class pork products and it is emploved in every country where the production of prime bacon 
is a feature of pig feeding. The breed is more extensively used than any other in Denmark, where the 
finest bacon of international trade is produced. Yet in the Iowa tests it was said that the Yorkshires 
were deficient, as the thickness of fat in the back was much greater than the trade desired. The suitability 
of the Yorkshires for the export bacon trade is shown in the resume on the Ontario Agricultural College 
work in the following paragraph: 

Summarizing the results of five years of work with six breeds at Guelph, Day would rank the 
Yorkshires first in suitability for the export trade, placing the Tamworths second and the Berkshires 
third. The showing of the other breeds that were fed (Chester White, Duroc Jersey, and Poland China) 

unsatisfactory in the production of export bacon that they could not be graded. In a breed test 
inaugurated in collaboration with the Dominion Department of Agriculture the Yorkshires and the Berk- 
shir' the only breeds that made a satisfactory showing. There were practically no culls among 
the -is. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN. 153 

The criticism to which our bacon is open when it comes into contact with the 
Feeding for products of other countries in the world's market, would seem to call for more 
Prime Bacon. attention by American feeders than has been given in the past to the production 
of prime bacon for the foreign trade, especially that consumed by England, which 
country is our best customer. The bacon from the United States forms the greater part of all this product 
imported by that country, but it has never equaled the Danish bacon in price, and in this respect 
it has generally been behind that imported from Canada, also. While American bacon is said to 
have a better standing on this market at present than in former years, we can hardly yet claim superi- 
ority for it, and whatever advance in quality has been made must be attributed rather to the enterprise 
of the packers than to increased skill on the part of the breeder or feeder. 

Canadian farmers depend upon their exports of bacon to a very great extent and its maintenance 
is a source of solicitude. Day, at the Ontario Agricultural College, and Grisdale and Schutt, at the 
Central Experimental Farm, have studied the production of export bacon during the past eight years 
to ascertain the best methods of feeding and breeding, and also in prevention of deleterious properties 
in its production. 

Lack of space prevents more than a brief notice here of the studies conducted in Canada to raise 
the standard of the bacon from that country. In meeting the problem the most conspicuous fault found 
with the usual Canadian product was a tendency to softness. This was a different condition from the 
softness which troubles pork curers in the Southern States. It was the development of a flabby condi- 
tion of the sides while they were in salt and did not seem to depend necessarily on the season of the 
year when the pigs were slaughtered, although soft bacon appeared to be more prevalent in May, June 
and July. Soft sides were more common from hogs fed in lower Ontario (Essex and Kent counties), 
where large quantities of corn are fed. 

Investigation showed that those sides were soft which contained relatively large amounts of 
fluid fat, principally olein, and that when the proportion of palmitin and sterin in the fat was relatively 
large the sides were firm. The soft tendency was also found to be more marked when immature and 
unfinished pigs were slaughtered than when pigs were mature and fed to a finish. The principal trouble, 
however, was soon traced to the large amount of corn, and rations were devised to counteract the mani- 
festly injurious effects of this feed, a condition readily overcome when Davis Stock Food is fed. After 
considerable experimenting, the grain which was found to be a bacon producing feed par excellence was 
barley. Not only did it produce the highest quality of bacon, but when fed in combination with corn 
and Davis Stock Food in various ways the softening effect of the corn was prevented to a great extent. 
In one series of experiments the bacon which showed the lowest percentage of olein was fed on rations 
of equal parts of oats, peas and barley, with 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to each 10 pounds 
of grain. Bacon fed on a ration of one-half corn meal and one-half of a mixture of equal parts of oats, 
peas and barley compared very favorably with it. The rations which produced bacon with the highest 
olein content and the lowest melting point were those made up largely of beans or consisting entirely 
of corn meal. 

In the second series of experiments the best results came from a grade ration, half of which was 
corn meal, the other half being a mixture of equal parts of oats, peas and barley, with skim milk and sugar 
beets in addition. A ration of peas alone gave nearlv as good results. The poorest results came from 
corn meal alone and beans alone. 

In the work of Day, at Guelph, the effect of skim milk was strikingly shown. One of the best lots 
of bacon in the second series at Ottawa was fed on a ration of corn meal and skim milk. This shows 
that the American farmer has it in his power to produce a grade of bacon which will be unsurpassed. In 
those sections of the country where corn cannot be produced, but where barley is an abundant crop, he 
has the best bacon producing grain known. In the cprn belt, where the most abundant crops of corn are 
at his command, he can neutralize the injurious effects of this grain on the carcass by the use of skim milk. 

It is not idle fancy to urge American farmers to consider the taste which the English wish to 
gratify with regard to the bacon they buy. The American bacon commands the English market by reason 
of its overwhelming quantity, not by its quality. It is entirely outclassed by the Danish bacon and 
sells below the Canadian product. 



1 54 EXPE RIM I • NTS WITH GROUND AND UNGRO UND G R A 1 N . 

During the fifteen years lor which we have figures regarding the Danish bacon, the valuation per 
100 pounds has boon loss than SI 1.00 in three years only (1895, 1896, and 1S99), and in one year only 
(1896) has it fallen below $10.00, when a valuation of $9.93 was reached. In the years 1893 and 1901 
it was more than $13.00. On the other hand, in the years 1893, 1901, and 1902 only has bacon from the 
United States had a valuation of more than $9.00 for 100 pounds, and in the years 1883 and 1902 only, 
when extremely high prices wore recorded in this country for live hogs, has the valuation been in the 
neighborhood of SI 1.00 per 100 pounds, being $11.02 and $10.90, respectively, in these years. In no 
year has it sold up to the average valuation per 100 pounds of the total import of bacon into the United 
Kingdom. In three years, 1888, 1893, and 1902, years of high prices in this country, the differ- 
ence in the value per 100 pounds between the Danish and the United States bacon has been less than 
SO, as follows: 1888, $2.48; 1893, $2.09; 1902, $2 07. In 1895, the difference was less than $3.50, 
but in all of the years it was more than $3.50, a difference of more than $4.00 being noticed in the years 
1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1S97, and 1898, and a difference of over $5.00 in the years 1890 and 1897. The 
greatest difference was in 1890, when the Danish bacon averaged $5.20 per 100 pounds more than that 
from this country. The average valuation per 100 pounds of all bacon imported into the United King- 
dom for the entire period from 1888 to 1902 was $8.94, that of the United States bacon was $8.07, and 
that of the Danish bacon $11.83, a difference of $3.76 in favor of the Danish bacon. 

Further evidence of the fact that the Danish bacon stands higher in the esteem of the English 
people than that produced in the United States is that there is less fluctuation in its value on that market 
in periods of greatest supply. In other words, when a shortage in the American supply sends prices 
up and diminishes exports from this country, the price of the Danish bacon, while rising somewhat, 
does not increase in so great a proportion as that from the United States. On the other hand, when 
supplies increase in this country, causing prices to fall and exports to increase, the American product 
decreases in price on the English market to a greater extent than the Danish. The Danish bacon, there- 
fore, seems to supply a trade that buys it more steadily and, to a certain extent, regardless of price, 
whereas the American product goes to the trade that buys it in largest amounts when the price is low 
and curtails purchases when the price rises. 

The Arkansas Station noted the effect .which the grazing of pigs and the growth 

TT-Pf f TJ T> * °^ l e g um i nous crops had on the soil and the cotton yield per acre. Cotton 

° m t was grown on the plats where pigs had grazed peanuts, chufas or soy beans, 

Ulg on tne .fertility an( j a f our th plat, which had been in corn which had been cut and the stover 

OI the Land, removed therefrom, was used as a check. The yield of seed cotton per acre 

was as follows: On the peanut grazed plat, 1,771 pounds; on the chufas grazed 
plat, 1,200 pounds; on the soy bean grazed plat, 1,588 pounds; on the corn plat, 1,005 pounds. During the 
succeeding year the cotton yield was noted on the same plats, no fertilizers having been applied. Some 
decrease of yield was caused by unfavorable climatic conditions. The yields were: On the peanut grazed 
plat, 1,134 pounds; on the chufas grazed plat, 981 pounds; on the soy bean grazed plat, 1,020 pounds; 
on the corn plat, 798 pounds. 

These figures show that during the first year after grazing on peanuts, soy beans and chufas 
the manure left by the pigs, supplemented by the fertilizing properties of the plants themselves, increased 
the yield of cotton from nearly 20 to more than 76 per cent per acre over the yield from the plat where 
corn had been grown, and that during the second year the yield in favor of the grazed plats was still 
apparent, ranging from 22 per cent to over 42 per cent more on the grazed than on the ungrazed plats. 
Naturally some of the increased yield must be attributed to the fertilizing values of the peanuts and soy 
beans; but as chufas are not leguminous plants, and therefore are not equipped with the nitrogen gather- 
ing bacteria, the figures, where they were used, show quite accurately the manurial effects of grazing. 
The increased yield of the chufas grazed plats was nearly 20 per cent the first year after grazing and 
over 22 per cent the second year. 

The Tennessee Station calculated the value of the manure made by pigs in experiments at Knox- 
ville. In the experiment of 1902-03 the available manure was estimated at 75 per cent of the excrement 
voided by the animals and its value was calculated by estimating nitrogen at 15 cents per pound, 



EXPERIMENTS WITH GROUND AND UNGROUND GRAIN 



155 



potash at 5 cents, and phosphoric acid at 5 cents. The following table shows the estimated value of 
the manure made. There were three pigs in each lot in the test of 1902, and four in each lot in 1903. 
They were fed sixty days in 1902 and seventy -seven days in 1903. 

Value of Manure from Pig Feeding. 



RATION 



Wheat meal, corn meal and skim milk. 
Wheat meal, corn meal and skim milk . 
Wheat meal, corn meal and skim milk . . 
Wheat meal, corn meal and skim milk. . . 
Wheat meal, corn meal and skim milk. . . 
Soy bean meal, corn meal and skim milk 

Corn meal and skim milk 

Corn meal 



VALUE OF 
MANURE 

$3 . 43 
4.34 
5.00 
5.23 
4.18 
4.91 
4.04 
1.20 



The high fertilizing value of rations composed to a considerable extent of nitrogenous feeds, 
such as the skim milk rations and the soy bean meal ration, is apparent. 

The value of manure as a by product of animal husbandry cannot be too strongly emphasized, 
especially in those sections of the country like the South, where the first history of the land has, to a 
certain extent, been lost. The South supports the greater part of the business of the country in com- 
mercial fertilizers and, while paying enormous sums annually in this manner, cannot look forward to 
anything but greater impoverishment of the soil unless the production of live stock is increased and 
the manure carefully utilized, 




WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 




The value of good blood has been demonstrated beyond all question of a doubt. Not all the animals 

belonging to any of the improved breeds, however, are possessed of a high degree of excellence and no 

graver error can be made than the 
assumption of uniform excellence 
in the stock constituting any breed, 
■ no matter how much promim 
it may have attained. Individual 
animals always differ more than 
breeds; and there art relatively 
few really good animals in any 
breed. This seems to be strikingly 
true of the mutton sheep. The 
chief trouble in mutton production 
is and always has been the scarcity 
of stock sheep, particularly sires, 
that have sufficient merit to fill 
the standard of excellence for a 
strictly prime carcass. Until we 
reach this higher degree of excel- 
lence the mutton sheep will not 
assume its rightful place in Ameri- 
can agriculture. The American 
market has become the most dis- 
criminating in the world on beef 
products, and it will demand a 

corresponding superiority in mutton. With this in view a brief consideration of what constitutes 

a good mutton sheep may be of interest. 

First, let there be pronounced masculinity in the male and femininity in the 
The Ram. female. Sheep should be neither sexless nor characterless. They should bear 

the stamp and character of the breed they 

represent. This breed character is a mark of good blood, and it 

should be manifest in no unmistakable manner. The sire should be 

impressive, resolute and of noble bearing. He should be distinctly 

the head of the flock in every sense of the word. To meet these 

requirements he must have good constitutional and vital powers. 

Without these no animal is fit to head a herd or flock. In selecting 

a sire look first at the head. If deficient there, look no further, 

but reject at once. Insist upon a head that faces you boldly, with a 

v:ide face, a clear, prominent eye, and a robust character through- 
out. The head should be joined to a well filled, round, muscular 

ner-k, wide at the poll and back of the ears and gradually enlarging 
all lines to a strong, full junction at the shoulder, as seen from 

top. sides and bottom. This should be accompanied by a wide 

prominent, well filled brisket, and a full heart girth, giving 

ren lines from the shoulders back. A depression either 

in front or behind the shoulders, whether at the top, side or bottom line, is an indication of weakness. 

The back should be strong, wide and well meated from shoulder point to tail. The hind quarters 

— 1 56'— 



Champion Flock of Shropshires. 
Owned by CLOVER HILL FARM, 
Chandler Bros., Proprietors, 
Kellerton. Iowa. 




Merino Ram. 

LICKING COUNTY WONDER, No. 201. 

Owned by J. J. DEEDS, 

Pataskala, Ohio. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



157 




Essentials of 
a Good Fleece. 



Prize Winning Flock of Hampshire Down Sheep 

Owned by GEORGE W. GRIM, 

Fremont, Ind. 



should be full and well let down in the leg and flank, in order to yield well of high priced meat. The 
legs should be placed wide apart and stand straight. Sickle shaped hocks and weak, sloping pasterns 

afford sufficient reason for condemning an other- 
wise good sheep. 

The modern mutton sheep 
must also be a wool pro- 
ducer. Our future wool 
supply must come largely 
from sheep grown primarily for mutton. It is 
essential, then, that mutton sheep have a good fleece 
as well as a good carcass. This combination is both 
practicable and profitable; and it is no longer 
regarded essential to grow one sheep for a fleece, 
another for a carcass, and another for a lamb. 
The intelligent flock master combines them all in 
one class. Some of the best mutton sheep are 
producing as profitable fleeces as those kept exclu- 
sively for wool, and their lambs are decidedly 
superior. One of the first essentials in a good 
fleece is compactness or density. This quality 
does not only insure a better yield of wool, but it 
affords better protection against storm and indi- 
cates a hardier animal, better able to withstand exposure. A close, even, dense fleece, with no breaks, 
should cover all parts of the body, including the head, limbs and under parts. The tendency in improve- 
ment of the wool producing qualities of all modern breeds has been toward carrying the fleece more 
completely over the head, face, limbs, and lower line. The advantage is not so much in the increased 
yield of wool grown on these parts, as that is of little consequence, but in the accompanying 
tendency to a larger and better 
yield of wool in all parts. 

A bare faced and bare legged 
sheep is always a relatively light 
shearer, and in contrast with this 
the sheep wooled from the eyes to 
the toes always yields a heavy 
fleece, and the wool is generally 
of a better quality than from those 
having a scanty covering. 

Fineness, length and strength 
of fiber are essential qualities in 
a good fleece that should always 
have prominent consideration in 
the selection of breeding stock, 
as these qualities largely deter- 
mine the market value. Neglect 
or undue exposure of the flock, a 
period of sickness, or anything that 
induces unthrift and impaired 
vitality invariably results in 
diminishing both the length and 
strength of the fiber. Well fed 
sheep always produce the most 
correspond in degree with fineness. 




Imported Shropshires Yearling Rams. 

Winners in England and America, 1905. 

Owned by CLOVER HILL FARM, 

Chandler Bros., Proprietors, 

Kellerton, Iowa. 

and the best wool. Softness and pliancy of wool usually 
Harshness and dryness are always detrimental to the quality, even 



158 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 




Champion Shropshire Sheep at 

Wisconsin State Fair, 1900. 

Owned by A. J. KLEIN, Lomira, Wis. 



if the liber is otherwise good. As a rule this condition may be taken as an indication of poor breed- 

. lit hough it may be due to disease, old age, or improper 
treatment. Generally a ileeee commences to decrease in 
value and yield after a sheep becomes tour years old. Soft- 
ness and pliancy are to a large extent due to the secretions 
of the skin. A clear, pink or yellowish skin is an indication 
of a good quality of wool, while a pale or bluish skin is 
generally accompanied by an inferior fleece. The yolk is the 
oily secretion which gives color, softness, pliancy and luster 
to the fleece. The composition of the yolk consists of a 
soapy matter, principally animal oil and potash, which pro- 
motes the growth of the fleece and prevents friction, wearing 
of the fibers and cotting. Good feeding, care, shelter and 
Davis Stock Food promote liberal secretion of yolk, while 
exposure and alkaline soils result in injury to wool by 
diminishing the yolk. The secretions are always more abun- 
dant under high temperature, hence blanketing and confinement in close, warm quarters will stimulate 

the production and insure a finer fiber. A liberal secretion of yolk is 
favorable to the production of a good fleece, but the yolk should be 
clear and transparent and not too thick and gummy. In addition to 
these qualities, a fleece should possess the properties of evenness and 
uniformity (this refers to covering, density and quality). A good 
fleece should be as nearly uniform in all parts as practicable. Avoid 
the fleeces that run to coarse, kempy fibers at the thighs and along 
the lower line. The best grade and quality of wool is found on the 
rear part of the 'shoulder ; and the nearer all other parts of the fleece 
measure up to this standard in length and fineness of fiber the higher 
will be its value. Wrinkles or folds of the skin about the neck or 
other parts of the body are detrimental, as the wool that grows 
within these folds is unlike the other parts of the fleece, and there 
is a consequent lack of uniformity. 




Grand Champion Cheviot Ewe, 

At St. Louis Exposition. 

Owned by WM. CURRY & SON, 

Hartwick, N. Y. 



The range lambs that are driven or shipped eastward to be finished on grain 
General Notes on feeds are largely divided into two general classes — the northern, coming mainly 
Sheep Feeding, from Wyoming and Montana, and the southern, from New Mexico and Arizona. 

Besides these there are a good many 

that are annually grazed in Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and other 

states. Large numbers, mainly from the southern ranges, 

are fed annually in the vicinity of Fort Collins and Rocky 

Ford, Colorado; and at New Brighton and St. Paul, Minnesota, 

northern range lambs are fed extensively each winter, being 

fattened principally upon screenings from the large mills in 

the vicinity of St. Paul and Minneapolis. About 200,000 head 

of sheep and lambs are fed there during the winter. The 

feeders in the vicinity of Fort Collins handle about an equal 

number, and Rocky Ford somewhat less, although this point 

is rapidly increasing the capacity for furnishing good mutton 

lambs in large numbers. During the winter of 1897-98 the 

feeders of Nebraska handled nearly 1,000,000 head; this 

winter (1898-99) the number is estimated at a little more 

than half that amount. Iowa, Illinois and other states annually finish for market large numbers of 

western sheep. A total of about 2,000,000 head in all is now annually finished for market in the feed 




Oxford Down Ram, 

KELMSCOTIAN, No. 61. 

1st Prize, World's Fair, St. Louis. 

Owned by GEO. McKERROW & SONS, 

Pewaukee, Wis. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



159 



lots of the middle and western states. Alight grade of screenings, containing less grain and more bulky, 
coarse material, is considered best at the beginning when sheep are being put on feed, and a heavier and 
richer grade is used for finishing. Davis Stock Food will be found invaluable in sheep feeding and will 
increase the gains 15 to 25 per cent from the same amount of feed, at the same time keeping the sheep 
in a healthy condition. 

The self feeder is extensively employed where screenings are used At other 
The Self Feeder, points, however, where corn constitutes the chief grain ration, the self feeder 

is not in favor, and its use is not to be recommended for sheep feeding under 
farm conditions, though it is recommended by some successful cattle feeders. The economy of the self 
fee derconstituted the subject of an experiment by Professor F. B. Mumford, of Michigan, with the 
following results: 

Results of Feeding Experiment. 



METHOD OF FEEDING 


Lots 


Grain, 
Pounds 


Hay, 
Pounds 


Water, 
Pounds 


Cost of 

Feed 


Total 

Gain Per 

Lamb, 

Pounds 


Average 

Weekly 

Gain, 

Pounds 


Dry Mat- 
ter to 

1 Pound 
Gain, 

Pounds 


Ordinary 

Self feed 


2 
7 


1,164 
1,460 


1,173 
924 


2,073 
2,547 


$14.24 
15.47 


23. 
29.6 


1.77 
1.58 


8.77 
10.94 













LORD MILTON, 

Imported Oxford Down Ram. 

Champion at International. Chicago, 1904. 

Sold for $200.00. 

Owned by GEO. McKERROW & SONS, 

Fewaukee. Wis. 



The conclusions drawn concerning the use of the 
self feeder at the Michigan Experiment Station are stated 
as follows: "Feeding by means of a self feeder is an 
expensive method of fattening, and it is not to be recom- 
mended either from the standpoint of total gains made or 
the amount of dry matter required to produce a given gain. " 
In Nebraska and other states, where large numbers 
are fed, a liberal supply of hay of good quality and at a 
moderate price con- 
stitutes an important 
factor. For this pur- 
pose perhaps nothing 
is superior or quite 
equal to properly 

cured alfalfa. Many large feeders have been buying extensive 

areas of alfalfa in Nebraska during recent years, and at other 

points accessible for corn feeding. Millet hay and straw are also 

used to a considerable extent in fattening sheep, but they are 

less desirable. A dry, keen winter atmosphere is favorable to 

sheep feeding and conducive to general thrift of the flock and 

large gains; on the other hand, damp, murky weather always 

means unsatisfactory results. 

Many of the largest feeders in Nebraska, Colorado, 
Minnesota and elsewhere have no shelter, and considerable diffi- 
culty and loss are experienced in severe winters. It is generally conceded that properly constructed 
sheds are an advantage, though they are somewhat expensive for large feeding yards. Where the 
sheep are handled in smaller numbers, however, shelter is generally provided and considered profitable, 
A constant and liberal supply of bedding is of even greater importance than shelter, and water and 
salt should be accessible to fattening sheep at all times. The water supply constitutes an important 
factor, and any irregularity concerning it always entails loss. 




Liecester Ram SANFORD. 

Grand Champion at St. Louis World's Fair, 

Chicago International, Lewis & Clark 

Exposition, and numerous others. 

Owned by A. W. SMITH, 

Maple Lodge, Ontario, Canada. 



1 oo 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



ing Essential. 



Regularity and uniformity in feeding are of prime importance. Some of the 
Regular Feed- most successful feeders manage a large feeding establishment with absolute 

regularity and precision. The system generally consists in having a feeding 
yard separate from all other quarters. One feeding yard serves for five to 
ten lots of sheep, ranging from three to five hundred in number. The grain ration is placed in the 
troughs, and the sheep admitted and returned to their regular quarters in ten or fifteen minutes after 
in is eaten. The sheep themselves become wonderfully punctual and regular in their habits. 
When properly managed, the feeding begins at precisely the same time and proceeds in regular order 
each' day. This procedure becomes so well understood by the sheep that they always expect their 
ration promptly on time, and they will take their place at the gate admitting them to the feed yard in 
regular order by lots. For instance, lot 1, at its feeding time, will be waiting for admittance, while lot 2, 
in the pen adjoining, five minutes before feeding time will be lying contentedly and taking no notice of 
what is going on outside ; a few minutes later, however, they will be crowded at the gate and eagerly 
waiting their turn. When the feeder is a quarter of an hour late, every animal in the lot seems to 
recognize and resent his tardiness. 




Carload of Grand Champion Wethers. 
Fed and Exhibited by 
G. H. HOXIE, President Mallory Commission Company, Chicago. 
They averaged 185 pounds and sold to the White Star Line for 5 cents per pound. 

Attention to these and numerous other minor details has a great 'deal to do with the profits 
resulting from extensive feeding operations. The loss from indigestion and other troubles frequently 
reaches 4 or 5 per cent under negligent methods, but in careful, judicious handling and the regular use 
of Davis Stock Food this can be reduced to less than 1 per cent. 

On one of the largest and most successful feeding ranches in the west, near 
Feeding Three Hansen, Nebraska, 2,500 head, in lots of about 300 each, were being fattened 
Times a Day. on a grain ration consisting of \J4 pounds of shelled corn and l,s pound of 

oil meal per head daily, at the time of the writer's visit there. They were 
being fed grain three times a day in separate feeding yards adjoining their other quarters. The 
manager of the sheep at this farm recommends feeding three times a day, although it is not common to 
feed more than twice. Those who have practiced feeding three times a day claim as an advantage 
for this method that larger quantities of grain may be consumed with less danger of injury than by 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



161 



feeding only twice, unless Davis Stock Food is fed, which will keep the appetite keen. One feeder 
who has recently introduced this method stated that he was able to feed safely .300 pounds or more 
of grain per day to 2,500 head of sheep. 

A striking illustration in favor of careful methods is furnished in the following record: Three lots, 
ranging from 500 to 1,500 each, all selected from the same large bunch shipped in from trie range together, 
went into the hands of different feeders. One, the largest lot, made an average gain of 20 pounds in 
five months, another 13, and the third 9. They went to market at about the same time and sold for 
$4.55, $4.40, and $4.35, respectively. The difference in gain and value of the sheep on the market 
when finished Was enough to return a liberal profit on the best lot, while it was with difficulty that the 
others were able to balance accounts. These differences prevail in other localities', and demonstrate 
the advantage and increased profit that always result where right methods are applied. Careful feed- 
ers, who feed Davis Stock Food and give strict attention to all essentials, are able to make average gains 
of 8 to 10 pounds per head monthly on range lambs and 10 to 15 pounds on well bred mutton lambs. 

A flock of sheep cannot 



Requisites of a 
Good Shepherd. 




A Flock of Representative Dorset Sheep. 

Bred by W. R. FOWLER, 

West Stafford, England. 

Photo, courtesy Wing Bros., Proprietors of Woodland Farm 
Breeders of Dorset Sheep, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. 



be handled or fattened 

successfully without a 

close observation of their 
habits and peculiarities. There are a great many 
little things that -enter into the attention and 
management by a successful shepherd that may 
seem trivial, yet they have much to do with the 
comfort, thrift and profit of the flock. The axiom 
that ''The eye of the master fattens" is nowhere 
more applicable than in the sheep fold. The 
competent feeder acquires a trained eye that 
detects at a glance any evidence of disorder that 
will be manifest if a single animal is off its feed 
or out of condition. To the unobserving or inex- 
perienced feeder sheep all look alike, but when 
rightly studied no class of stock presents more 
marked peculiarities or so clearlymanifest evidences 
of thrift and well doing, or the reverse. Attention 

to these little details, accompanied by regular habits and a quiet manner, and the regular use of a 
good stock food, constitutes the keynote of successful sheep feeding. Nothing contributes more to 
good results than contentment and quiet surroundings. The feeder who disturbs the quiet and com- 
fort of the flock every time he goes about it should quit the sheep business at once. Rough manners 
and harsh treatment absolutely disqualify any man for success in this work. The natural timidity 
and nervous temperament of the sheep necessitate gentle treatment. Their dainty habits about 
eating and drinking must also be indulged as fully as practicable. No animal naturally selects 
a wider variety of feed, particularly of rough forage and vegetation; but two essentials arc always 
exacted, namely, cleanliness and palatability, and Davis Stock Food should always be added to the 
ration, for this if no other reason. Never give a sheep any stale or undesirable feed, nor expect it to 
eat any .feed left over from a previous meal. The ration should be always wholesome and tempting to 
the appetite. The barn or stable quarters should never be without fresh, pure atmosphere and an 
ample supply of dry bedding. Sheep rarely suffer from cold if kept dry and protected from direct 
drafts. The open air is better than a poorly kept shed or barn. 

It is important that the practical feeder be able to determine when lambs are 
When is a properly finished and in the most satisfactory and profitable condition for the 

Lamb Fat? market. This is not always an easy task; experienced feeders are sometimes 

deceived. As an aid in studying this matter, the following directions prepared 
by Professor John A. Craig, of the animal husbandry department of the Iowa Agricultural College, for 
the instruction of students, are of interest: 



Sig:. li 



1 62 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



7*Tt^frM!W' 



'^sntir'-^ih 



When put into the food lot under proper conditions the lambs will usually begin to show the 
influence of good feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During this time they seem to be simply 
getting Into good condition to put on flesh, though it appears that some flesh is being deposited inter- 
nally. Toward the end of that time many lambs may be noticed standing leisurely in the sun in a 
partially stretched posture. This pose in the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening process 
as to extend from the internal regions, and is first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along 
the back over the shoulder and reaches the neck. From this line it seems to extend down the sides 
and over the breast in front. There arc six main points at which its extension seems most in evi- 
dence — at the tail, middle of the back, the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast. Judges of 
condition handle these different points, and seem to arrive at the same conclusions from continued 

practice in observing the develop- 
ment in any one of them, although 
a critical examination will reveal 
that lambs sometimes fatten un- 
evenly and may be good in one or 
more of these points and deficient 
in others. By feeling, the tail 
head soYne will form their opin- 
ions as to the degree to which the 
lamb is fat. Others are satisfied 
with feeling the back. Many after 
feeling the tail grasp the neck and 
base their opinion on the fulness 
of that part. The flank and breast 
are often used for further assist- 
ance, and some butchers estimate 
conditions from the fulness of the 
purse. At any of these points, more 
especially the back, the covering 
should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling the sharp projections of the backbone. In fact, 
it can hardly be said that a lamb is.really prime unless instead of a projection of backbone there is a dis- 
tinct trough or groove running from the tail to the shoulders, and this covering should extend well down 
over the sides without softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do not fatten as smoothly 
or as uniformly as herein indicated. In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of the loin 
and lightness in the hind quarters. With these parts well covered and fully developed, a rather sharp 
shoulder and peaked brisket may be overlooked. Not only should the flesh be thick over the valuable 
cuts, but it should be firm. Very often it will be found that soft, rough patches will be present about the 
head of the tail, owing to the depositing of too much soft flesh on the back, which may slip from there 
on the overripe lamb and gather at the flank or along the sides in long, soft rolls. 

The American people have been characterized as a nation of pork eaters and 
pork producers, with little or no appreciation of good mutton. However true 
this may have been in the past, the conditions are rapidly changing. Perhaps 
the recent depression in the price of wool is largely accountable for the readjust- 
ment and changed condition ; at any rate, there is a constantly increasing 
demand for good mutton in the United States. 

The production of prime mutton for American and European markets is rapidly 
becoming a permanently established industry of vast proportions in the United 
States. Our rich lands and abundant, feeds are well suited to the economical 
production of superior mutton, and it has been clearly demonstrated that 
mutton sheep properly selected can grow a large part, if not all, of the wool 
emanded for American manufacturing. The erroneous impression has pre- 
vailed that sheep are only suited for inferior lands. No greater error can be imagined. ' While it is true 




K'l N.G CSQ MWEL 1, NQ 1 14Z 
OWNED BY P.CJOHNSTON, LAWRENCE,$AS. 



Increasing 
Demand for 
Good Mutton. 



Sheep Produc- 
tion as a Feature 
of American 
Agriculture. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



163 



that sheep are well adapted to scanty vegetation and capable of profitably grazing semiarid lands, they 
also render as large returns for a liberal ration of good feeds as any domestic animal, with the possible 
exception of the hog. The high priced agricultural lands of Great Britain sustain 680 sheep per 
thousand acres, and Scotland in 1893 had even as high as 1,380 sheep per thousand acres of agricultural 
lands. The leading agricultural states of the Union have not to exceed twenty-five sheep per 
thousand acres of land. 

The 'seven states constituting the corn belt area of the United States produced over a billion 
bushels of corn and 237,000,000 bushels of oats in 1896. The annual production of these crops ranges 
nearly as great; in 1897 the average corn product was about the same, and the oat crop amounted to 
372,000,000 bushels. A large part of this product is obliged to seek a market abroad, and there is not 
always a profitable cash market for these surplus grains. This has been particularly true during the 
recent years of low priced corn, but 
during all that time there has been a 
possibility of realizing returns equiva- 
lent to 40 or 50 cents a bushel for corn 
fed to good mutton sheep. There are 
also some other considerations worth 
noting. The sale" of $1,000.00 worth 
of, corn at present prices takes from 
the soil producing the crop about 
$300.00 worth of fertility; that is, ' 
takes material for which the owner of 
the land would have to pay this 
amount if he were obliged to purchase 
commercial fertilizers at the rates 
usually prevailing in the market, but 
the same amount of corn can be 
converted into good mutton and sold 
at an advanced price and it will take 
from the land not to exceed $50.00 
worth of fertility, or if sold in the form 




Flock of Dorset Sheep. 
Owned by FILLMORE FARMS, Bennington, Vt. 

Photo, Courtesy Wing Bros., Breeders Dorset Sheep, 
Mechanicsburg, Ohio. 



of wool it will not take from the land over $2.00 or $3.00 worth of fertility. It will be incomparably 
better for American farming and for our system of agriculture to convert the surplus grain products into 
prime meats to the extent of at least supplying home demands, and then find foreign markets for the 
condensed and high priced meat products rather than export the corn and other grains as such. 

During the recent years of contraction, as indicated by the figures already quoted, the market for 
good mutton has been continually expanding, and the experience of every successful sheep raiser in any 
part of the United States emphatically refutes the doctrine that any of our lands are too valuable for 
mutton production. 

Notwithstanding the apparent contraction of our herds the sheep industry has 
Mutton the Pri- made substantial progress. It has been established on a more permanent and 
mary Consideration, lasting basis by making mutton the primary consideration and wool incidental, 

instead of the reverse, as has generally been the case heretofore. On this basis 
sheep raising will return satisfactory profits one year with another, independent of the price of wool, or 
nearly so, as it has been clearly demonstrated that it does not cost any more, if even as much, to produce 
a pound of mutton from good mutton sheep under average' farm conditions than to produce a pound of 
beef, when the wool is left entirely out of the consideration. And the wool always has some value: it 
seldom goes so low that well bred -mutton sheep will not yield a fleece worth from 75 cents to $1.50. 

Large numbers of sheep have been fattened annually in the grain producing states the past few 
years, and many important truths and fundamental facts pertaining to this industry have been estab- 
lished. These all tend to place sheep raising on a more permanent basis. Practical feeders and farmers 



1(1-4 WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



and that there is no more profitable outlet for surplus grain products, particularly after the country 
suffered front the ravages of hog cholera, than in mutton production, and the advent of good, reliable 
ve feeds of known content has assisted materially in the profitable production of mutton. 

Exhaustive and careful investigations by the Iowa Experiment Station in 1S99, to determine the 
of production, of mutton, may he summed up as follows: One hundred and nine head of sheep 
consumed 34,501 pounds of feed in ninety days and made a gain of 4,678 pounds. 

en special mutton breeds consumed 23,792 pounds of feed and gained 3,281 pounds: 
This gain is at the rate of 1 pound of increase in live weight for each 7 . 37 pounds of dry matter 
of feed for all breeds and 1 pound of gain for each 7 . 25 pounds of dry matter of feed by the special mutton 
breeds. While this is a very good showing, the gain- could have been increased materially by the judi- 
cious use of a good digester and tonic, making the feed more palatable and thus inducing the sheep 
to eat a greater quantity. One tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food added to each 10 pounds of grain 
will prove very beneficial and satisfactory. A full ration of hay may be given, and bran or other com- 
paratively bulky feeds are well suited to start sheep on feed, for the same reason that oats are safer 
to use in starting a bunch of feeders than corn. During the primary stage of the feeding period, when 
the sheep are being brought on to full feed, an allowance of 1 pound of grain a day is sufficient. Following 
this the grain ration may be increased 34 to ^ pound a day, or possibly % of a pound, if Davis Stock 
Food is used in proportion of 1 tablespoonful to each 10 pounds of grain. This keeps the digestive 
system in a perfectly normal condition. Unless Davis Stock Food is used we do not advise, increasing 
the daily allowance over 34 pound per head for the first thirty days. It is a very serious mistake to 
attempt to put lambs or sheep on a heavy grain ration suddenly, and this practice, if attempted, will 
not infrequently cause serious loss and permanent injury. To avoid this trouble we earnestly advise 
the use of a good tonic and digester; the farmer or feeder may select his own special kind, but Davis 
Stock Food is the best by far that is now upon the market. There is no question regarding this, and 
it has the additional feature of being of known quantity and quality to recommend it, for the 
manufacturers place the formula in plain letters on every package. 

During the latter part of the feeding period the daily allowance can be increased to at least 2 pounds 
per head; that is, if no digester or tonic is used. By the use of Davis Stock Food the amount can 
safely be increased to 2}/% to 2% pounds per day. The sheep will have no trouble in taking care of this 
quantity. If these methods are followed the feeder will have no difficulty, at the present price of grain, 
in obtaining mutton at an average of 2 x / 2 cents a pound; and, when the market price of good mutton is 
taken into consideration, it can readily be seen that the operation is an extremely profitable one. 
Exhaustive investigations and experiments in the United States have served to indicate beyond all 
question of a doubt that a pound of gain on lambs can be made at much less expenditure for feed than 
is required to produce a pound of beef on cattle. 

It is sometimes asserted that cattle and sheep require the same amount of feed per thousand 
pounds of live weight. This statement does not seem well founded. To sum up the experiments con- 
ducted in the United States, cattle consumed approximately 20 pounds of dry matter per thousand 
pounds of live weight, while sheep consumed approximately 30 pounds. This refers to both cattle and 
sheep being on full feed. Under such conditions the sheep have made a daily gain of approximately 
4 pounds per thousand pounds live weight, and the cattle approximately 2}.{ pounds gain per thousand 
pounds live weight. Thus we find that, while the sheep ate 50 per cent more than the cattle, they also 
gained 75 per cent more. 

With mature sheep a larger amount of feed is required in proportion to the increase in live weight. 
This has been thoroughly demonstrated in experiments conducted at the Iowa Station, in which the cost 
of producing gains on pure bred Shropshires and lambs under same conditions and on the same ration 
were compared. It was found that it cost 56 per cent more to produce gain on yearlings than on lambs 
of the same breed. Perhaps this difference is somewhat greater than would ordinarily occur, on account 
of the wethers being somewhat fatter at the beginning of the experiment than the lambs; although the 
comparisons from month to month showed a wide difference in each case. It always costs proportion- 
ately less to make gains on young, animals than on old ones. 



- WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 165 

The market also favors the young animal, and there is usually a marked difference in price in 
favor of the lambs. 

England, Scotland and Ireland have stood high from time immemorial in the breeding and 
raising of sheep, and in the following pages we present a few facts regarding the methods of these 
countries. They can doubtless be followed and a great many valuable points gained from them by the 
American breeder and raiser of stock. 

Sheep are raised in all parts of England regardless of the quality or rent of 
Sheep Feeding the land, and the greater part of the feed used is produced on the farms. In 
and Management the southern and central parts of the country more use is made of pasture and 
in England, forage crops for fall and winter grazing than is possible in northern England, 

where feeding must be done under cover. In some parts of the country forage 
crops are used during the summer and fall to supplement pasture, and cotton seed and linseed cake are 
very generally fed at this time. 

Feeding the Ram. — The feeding and management of the ram during the breeding 
Breeding Sheep. season varies according to the time of the year, the condition of the ram, and 

the methods of handling him during the mating season. 

Dorset breeders turn the rams with the ewes in June ; with other breeds the usual season is from 
September 1st to October 20th. To produce show lambs some breed in August; and some Hampshire 
and Suffolk breeders breed all their ewes during this month. 

The ram may be allowed to run with the ewes (a 
quite common practice); he may be housed during the 
day and allowed to run with them at night, or the ewes 
• may be brought to him for service. Rams which are 
carrying an unusual amount of flesh are always condi- 
tioned for a few weeks before being used by being given 
regular and abundant exercise and very light rations. In 
addition, the best breeders usually give a good stock food 
regularly. 

Rams which run with the ewes usually receive 

about 1 pound per day of a mixture of bran and oats, 

and 1 teaspoonful of stock food. Feeds rich in protein are 

used, and starchy feeds or those rich in oil avoided, as 

. they are inclined to heat the system and produce flabby 

Champion Hampshire Ram at International flesh Ramg which arg housed during t he day and allowed 

An American Bred Ram that Won Against the to run with the ewes at night are nearly always fed green 

oJT^VSVT.l*?™*. feed - and from x to x p° und of oats or bran - When a 

Nottawa, Mich. ram stands for service the best breeders prefer giving him 

the run of a grass lot at night for exercise. Rams are 
liberally fed during the breeding season, but are never kept fat or in a soft, flabby condition. At 
other seasons of the year than mating time grass, forage and root crops are used, and as much 
feeding as possible is done out of doors. Regular exercise is regarded as necessary. 

As soon as the breeding season is over the rams are separated from the rest of the flock and 
given a small grass lot of their own. Young rams, or mature ones which have done a heavy season's 
service, are usually given from J^j to \y 2 pounds of grain per day depending on age and condition. 
As winter comes on the rams are kept on pasture as much as possible. 

In the northern part of the country rams are kept out of doors a great deal, but the feeding 
is more liberal. Mangels are very seldom fed to rams, turnips being the chief source of succulent feed. 
During spring and summer rams are at pasture the greater portion of the time, but have green forage 
as needed in addition to grass. Grain is fed on some farms just before the breeding season. Davis 




1 66 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



Conditioning 
the Ewes 
for Mating. 




k Pood should be used regularly, as it keeps the sheep in perfect physical condition, increases the 
energy and virile powers, thus getting more and better lambs. 

A. great deal of attention is given to the proper conditioning of the ewe previous 
to mating her with the ram, and practically all successful breeders flush 
their ewes for a few weeks before mating. This is done by increasing the feed 
and feeding Davis Stock Food. Ewes so treated will fake the ram sooner than 
others, which is a decided advantage on those farms where early lambs are 

desired, and the entire number of ewes will come in 

heat within a shorter period, thus enabling the owner to 

have his lambs dropped within a few weeks' time, a 

factor which is often very beneficial when they are to 

be marketed. Furthermore, on account of the increase 

in the vigor and condition of the ewes, a larger percent- 
age of twin lambs is obtained and they are much stronger. 
Various feeds are used, and for convenience the 

discussion is arranged according to breeds. 

Dorsets. — A successful breeder in Dorset, who is 
also an exhibitor and exporter, gives his ewes about x /i 
pound per head per day of either corn or beans, with 
stock food. They are mated in June. 

Hampshires. — A most successful breeder of Hamp- 
shires uses cabbage, rape, and a small allowance of 
stock food for about two weeks previous to mating. 
His ewes are -turned with the ram about the 7th of 
August. 

Leicesters — A successful breeder uses good pas- 
ture or folds his ewes on thousand headed kale, rape 
or cabbage. 

Lincolns. — A breeder who has a most enviable reputation as a breeder of high class sheep for 
show and export uses clover aftermath, kale or rape. > 

Oxfords. — A leading breeder and exhibitor of Oxfords grazes his ewes on second crop clover for 
about two weeks previous to running them with the ram. 

Shropshires. — One of the most successful breeders of Shropshires folds his ewes on rape, turnips 
and stock food. 

Suffolks. — A prominent Suffolk breeder gives his ewes the best pasture on the farm and \p. addi- 
tion folds them on rape, cabbage, kale, mustard, or any other green feed available. 

Wensleydales. — A successful breeder in Yorkshire uses rape or barley stubble which has been 
seeded to clover. 

After some experimenting, shepherds found that if kept on a rather scanty ration, to which a good 
stock food had been added, after breeding the ewes will settle, as a rule, with the first service. The 
majority of the breeders smear the breast of the ram with some retentive color, which marks each ewe 
as soon as bred, and she may then be removed from the flock. The short rations are maintained for 
about a month. As a safeguard all ewes are returned to the ram about the time the second heat is due. 

The methods of feeding the pregnant ewe up to within three weeks of lambing 
Feeding the show rather surprising diversity, especially as to the use of roots. Some men 
Pregnant Ewe. deem it a most dangerous practice to feed roots to ewes, especially during the 

last three months of gestation, while others, who are equally successful, even feed 

pregnant ewes on tutnips, the regular exercise probably overcoming the troublesome effects of the feed. 

Practically all breeders graze ewes at all times when the weather is favorable. Ewes in good 

condition seldom get any grain or cake until a couple of weeks before lambing. Thin ewes are generally 



Grand World's Fair Champion Oxford Down Ram, 

BRYAN'S No. 9, No. 31747. 

Owned by R. J. STONE, Stonington, 111. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



167 



separated from the remainder of the fiock and given ]/% pound of grain per head daily. The 

following brief outline conveys a general idea of the management of the ewes at this time: 

An unusually successful Dorset breeder allows his ewes to run on pasture until September, when 

they are folded on cabbage and fed plenty of good clover hay. 

A noted breeder of Hampshires allows his ewes the run of stubble fields and grass land during 

the day and folds them on turnips at night. From the middle of November till the 1st of December 

they are out four or five hours each day on grass, and are folded in a dry lot. 

A noted breeder of Leicesters simply pas- 
tures his ewes. As winter comes on they receive 
in addition a small allowance of roots, generally 
turnips, and a liberal allowance of cut sheaf oats. 
A famous breeder of Lincoln sheep allows 
his ewes the run of the grass lots up to the 1st of 
December. He then puts them on turnips until 
about three weeks before lambing. While on tur- 
nips they <get cut clover hay, oats, stock food and 
linseed cake in addition. They are fed what hay 
they will eat up clean and from Yi to 1 pound 
of grain per head per day. 

A well known Oxford breeder divides his 
ewes into flocks of about thirty in each, and allows 
them the run of the pasture lots with frequent 
changes. In open weather no additional feed is 
given. This breeder does not use any turnips or 
other roots until a few days before the lambs are 
expected. 

A successful breeder of Shropshire sheep 
allows his eWes the run of a grass lot and a liberal 

allowance of dry feed, to which stock food has been added,. They are given all the clover hay they 

will eat and about % of a pound per head daily of a mixture of oats and bran. He is a strong 

advocate of feeding plenty of dry feed, but no roots until the lambs arrive. 

A breeder of Suffolks uses grass, and in addition feeds the ewes for a few hours each day on rape, 
cabbage, kale or mustard, up to about the 20th of October. After that they are allowed the run of stub- 
ble fields and grass land during the day and are folded on cabbage at night. This is followed by folding 
on white turnips and giving several hours each day on grass and stubble. 

The methods used at this time are very much the same on all sheep farms, 
Feeding Ewes at whether breeding stock or market mutton is the object. Hay is usually cut or 
Lambing Time. chaffed. From 8 to 18 pounds of roots per head are given daily. Common 

grain rations are: Equal parts by weight of oats, bran and linseed cake; one 
part oats, one part bran and two parts linseed cake; or equal parts of cotton seed cake and oats. The 
amount fed varies from Y^ pound to 1 or 1J^ pounds per ewe per day. A good digester in the way 
of some first class stock food of known content should be mixed with the grain, such as 1 table- 
spoonful of Davis Stock Food to each 10 pounds of grain. Davis Stock Food is the only reliable stock 
food with a' published formula, and should therefore be favored. 




Noted Angora Buck, 

CAPETOWN. 

Owned by 

C. P. BAILEY & SONS COMPANY, 

San Jose, Cal. 



Feeding the Ewes 
and Lambs 
Before Weaning. 



Ewes suckling lambs have liberal rations of grain, cake, stock food and abun- 
dant forage on temporary pasture, so that as little risk as possible is run by 
the lambs contracting parasitic troubles. As is well known, one means to com- 
bat stomach worms is to keep lambs off of old pastures. On many farms 
the ewes are divided, those with twin lambs being placed in one lot and those 



with singles in another, ewes with twin lambs being fed more heavily. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



A brief outline of methods of feeding is given below: A breeder of Dorset 
Feeding Methods sheep who produces October lambs, the majority of which are marketed for the 
of Successful Christmas trade, feeds as follows : Ewes with twin lambs get 2 pounds per head 
Breeders, per day, and ewes with single lambs 1 pound of a mixture of equal parts by weight 

of oats and cotton seed cake, to each 10 pounds of which 1 tablespoonful of a 
good stock food has been added, in addition to grass and green forage. As soon as they will eat, the lambs 
are fed a mixture of oats, bran and linseed cake, equal parts by weight, with Davis Stock Food added, 
and arc finished off with beans or peas and linseed cake. The amount fed depends on what the lambs 
will eat, commencing with about ^ pound per lamb per day and finishing with from % to 1 pound or 
more. The finishing feed is given during the last three or four weeks previous to marketing. 

A breeder of Lcicesters gives his ewes a mixture of ..nseed cake, cracked peas, bran, dried 
brewers' grains, and Davis Stock Food. Ewes with single lambs get % pound per ewe per day of & 
mixture, while those with twin lambs get 134 pounds per ewe per day. All of his lambs are fed a small 
allowance, seldom exceeding J^ pound per day, of a mixture of equal parts of linseed cake, cracked 
corn and crushed oats, with Davis Stock Food. 

A noted Lincoln breeder gives his ewes no other feed than soiling crops and pasture. Single 
lambs are not fed any concentrated feeds, but all twin lambs receive a daily allowance of Davis Stock 
Food with oats and linseed cake. 

A prominent breeder of Suffolk sheep feeds his ewes with single lambs % pound of a mixture 
of equal parts of oats, linseed cake and bran per ewe per day, and his ewes with twin lambs 1 pound per 
ewe per day of the same mixture. His ewes are divided: those with single lambs have no additional 
feed, but all with twins have grain feed from the time the lambs are two and a half weeks old. 

Some breeders of pure bred sheep divide the ram and ewe lambs when a few weeks old and feed 
liberally on grain. On some farms all ewe lambs intended for breeding purposes are fed very sparingly 
on grain, only oats and bran being given, with Davis Stock Food in small quantities, especially when 
they are to be detained on the farm. At weaning time the grain rations are withheld from the ewes, 
and they are placed on a short pasture. This is done for the twofold purpose of drying off the milk 
and to keep them in a moderate condition until it is time to prepare them for the mating season. 
They are taken from the short grass lot and fed on such rations as have been previously described for 
conditioning ewes. 

Lambs are weaned at the age of three or four months, and the greatest care 

Feeding the is taken to prevent any setback or standstill at. this time. The general tend- 

Lambs After ency is v to wean as early as possible, so that if the ewes are on permanent pas- 

Weaning. ture the lambs can be taken away before parasites make themselves known. 

Breeders usually give Davis Stock Food at this time, so that the growth 

of the lambs will not be retarded. When the weaning season ^occurs, about the same time the 

grain fields are being cleared of their crops, many farmers run the lambs on the stubble fields, with 

green feed and grain in addition. Frequent changes of grazing grounds are desired. 

Although some. breeders feed their lambs on green feed, the practice is not a good one in the opinion 
of the most successful breeders. This is especially true where they are fed on small areas at a time, 
as they then do not get sufficient exercise and take on fat too rapidly. The most highly commended 
practice is to allow the lambs to run on stubble fields the greater portion of the day, with but a few 
hours in the forage lot, or to cut a small amount of forage from time to time and give the lambs free 
access to it from the stubble fields. 

One of the first things done at weaning time is to divide the lambs into two or three bunches. 

Wether lambs or ewe lambs, not fed for breeding, are separated and put in a bunch by themselves and 

given different feed from those intended for breeding purposes. Ram and ewe lambs intended for breed- 

' ing are separated, the rams to be more liberally fed than the ewes. Davis Stock Food should be given 

to all of them. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 



169 



Many breeders sell their ram lambs in the fall of the year, but others prefer keeping them 
over and selling them as yearlings. Those intended for immediate sale are, as a rule, given better 
care, better feed and more Davis Stock Food than those to be carried over the winter. 

The following illustrates the method of feeding from weaning time until the following spring: 

A breeder of Hampshires who weans his lambs about June 1st, when they are four months 
old, folds his ram lambs on vetches and sainfoin each day during June, in addition to giving them the 

run of a grass lot which has not been previously pastured with 
sheep, and a grain ration of oats, bran, and linseed cake. During 
July and the early part of August, until sale, time, they are fed on 
cabbage and rape, with about 1 pound of grain. The ewe lambs are 
fed on vetches, cabbages and rape, with no grain, unless the green 
;jjfij9 feed is scarce, when }■$ or Y 2 pound per day is given. From Septem- 

ber until the 1st of May they are folded on turnips, swedes, and 
kale, with ]/ 2 pound per day of grain and straw, chaff, or clover 
hay, and a due allowance of Davis Stock Food. 

A famous breeder of Lincoln sheep advocates liberal feeding 
of Davis Stock Food and very frequent changes of pasture for lambs 
from weaning time until the following spring. He divides his lambs 
according to sex, but feeds all alike. The principal feeds used are 
green clover, tares, rape, and turnips. During the fall and winter 
they are fed on turnips, and fed all they will eat up clean of cut 
clover hay in which is mixed about x /2 pound per head per day of 
linseed cake. 




Mrs. M. Armer and her Prize Winning 

Angora Buck, 

PASHA COLUMBIA. 

Owned by 

MRS. M. ARMER, 

Kingston, N. M. 



■ A Shropshire breeder feeds as follows : At weaning time, which 
is about the 1st of June, when the lambs are three months old, they 
are divided into two flocks, the rams in one and the ewes in another, 
and are given the best green crops available. Vetches are preferred, 
then clover, rape, kale, cabbages, early turnips, and swedes, in 
the order named. The lambs are always allowed the run of a new 
grass lot during the day for several hours, and when the crops are harvested they are changed to the 
stubble fields. When old mangels are available they are given for a few weeks, sliced. Some grain is 
fed, about }/g pound per day at the beginning, and gradually increased, so that when the lambs are six 
months old they are eating about }^~ pound each per day, Davis Stock Food being used the entire period. 
During the fall and winter they are pastured on turnips and have the same grain allowance, with as 
much good clover hay as they will eat at all times. This man always keeps rock salt in the troughs 
and sprinkles about 1 pound per day of common salt on the feed of each seventy-five lambs. 

A breeder of Suffolk sheep who weans his lambs about the middle of June, when they are four 
and one-half months old, feeds as follows : The ram lambs are separated from the ewes and fed on white 
clover, cabbages, rape, and kohlrabi, cut and fed in troughs. In addition they have from y 2 to 1 pound 
each of grain per day and Davis Stock Food, the object being to push them ahead rapidly so that they 
will be of good size at sale time, in August or September. The ewe lambs are put on trifolium 
and vetches, which are followed by rape, cabbage and mustard, with the run of the stubble fields 
when ready. If in good condition no grain allowance is given, but if not, about ^3 pound per day 
is fed. During the fall and winter they are fed on white turnips and swedes, with about x / 2 pound 
per head daily of grain and a liberal allowance of pea straw or clover hay. When the turnip 
supply is not sufficient, cut mangels are given in the spring. 

The methods of feeding practiced on other farms are very similar to the foregoing. Green feed 
is always given during the summer and fall until the turnip crop is ready, then the turnips are the chief 
feed, with some form of roughage, usually clover hay, and. a small allowance of grain and cake, which 
in nearly every instance is a mixture of oats, wheat* bran, linseed cake and Davis Stock Food. 



170 WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 

In the feeding and fattening of lambs for market rather distinct methods are 
Fattening Lambs pursued. Those who rear early lambs aim to grow them rapidly, so that they 
for Market, will be ready for the market in June or the early part of July. The advantages 

claimed for this method are that it yields quick returns, that the lambs are sold 

>re -parasites becomes troublesome, and that it gives an opportunity to purchase a bunch of sheep 

r fall feeding, thus increasing the sheep carrying capacity of the farm and bringing in larger 

returns. Those who prefer late lambs believe that they do not require the same amount of attention 

arly lambs, that the ewes do not require so much special feeding, that warm sheds are not a necessity, 

That the lambs can utilize the waste of the farm during the summer and fall, especially that of 

the stubble fields. Where late lambs are reared much care is necessary during the summer months, and 

old pastures must not be used as grazing grounds, as in them the parasites are almost sure to attack 

the flock and cause serious losses. 

In rearing early lambs the mothers are very liberally fed on clover hay, grain, succulent feed and 
Davis Stock Food. The amount of roots fed is surprising, in some instances as much as 20 pounds per 
day per ewe, but from 10 to 15 pounds daily is considered very liberal feeding. Winter rye, winter 
barley, and kale are utilized before the grass comes. The lambs are taught to eat grain at a very early 
age, most of them eating well at three or four weeks. Special lamb pens or feeding creeps are provided 
for this purpose. In some instances a self feeder is used, but the majority of farmers prefer such feed 
fresh every day. The amount of grain fed is gradually increased until the lambs are eating from % to 
1 ! 4 pounds per day each, at three or three and one-half months of age. This method of feeding is main- 
tained even when the grass is abundant. The lambs are marketed when from three to four months 
old, weighing from 60 to 100 pounds each. 

The more prevalent custom in feeding late lambs is to withhold all grain and utilize the pastures 
and stubble fields, with perhaps some green crops in emergencies, until after weaning time, which occurs 
in September. At that time lambs are generally fed on rape, kale, cabbage, or more often turnips. 
In addition to the succulent feeds supplied in the folds, the lambs are given a grain allowance of from 
*i to 1^4 pounds each day and a good stock food. Cotton seed or linseed cake or a combination of the 
two usually forms one-half to two-thirds of the concentrated feed. The remainder of the grain ration 
is oats, barley, beans, peas or corn, depending on the market prices. As a rule not much roughage is 
used in the fattening of lambs during the fall, but those who do furnish such feed use either clover hay 
or straw chaff. The chief reliance is placed on the use of green crops and roots, especially turnips. 

The general tendency is to market lambs, but a considerable amount of sheep 
Fattening Sheep, feeding still exists in all parts of the country. Some of these animals are natives, 

but a considerable number come from Ireland and Scotland, especially from 
the Scotch Highlands. The fall and winter method of feeding is much the same as that practiced in 
the lamb feeding. Feeding on green crops or on the root crops is the general custom. In addition 
grain and cake are given to the extent of from 1 to 2 pounds per head per day, with a fair allowance of 
Davis Stock Food. In some instances dried brewers' grains are fed with cake. • 

Where yard or shed feeding is practiced during the winter the ration usually consists of from 
% pound to 2 pounds per head per day of clover hay, mixed hay or straw chaff, from 12 to 20 pounds 
of roots, and from % to 1 Yi or possibly 2 pounds' of grain, cake, and Davis Stock Food. Some farmers 
fatten their sheep on grass alone, feeding in addition cotton seed or linseed cake, or a combination of 
the two, to the extent of from 1 to 13^ pounds per sheep per day. 

Sheep, either as a specialty or as an important adjunct to the regular farming 
Sheep Raising operations, are raised in all parts of Scotland. In the farming country, where 
in Scotland. the rent values are from $5.00 to $15.00 per acre, sheep are considered indispen- 
sable, as they not only generally give handsome returns in mutton and wool 
for the feed consumed and labor expended, but also increase the fertility of the soil. The Scotch farmer 
values sheep A^ery highly as soil improvers. Although the use of commercial fertilizers is very common 
in all parts of the country, the farmer who 1;akes possession of a worn out farm invariably resorts to 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 171 

sheep feeding as the surest and quickest method of enriching his land. On the hill and mountain land 
sheep are grown in large numbers. With high and well drained land the conditions in Scotland are well 
suited to the production of sheep, as many parasitic troubles which so often cause heavy losses among 
the flocks of England are almost unknown in Scotland. The climatic conditions are favorable to the 
growing of roots, especiallv turnips, which form the basis of practically all sheep feeding. The fall and 
winter months are generally open and permit the grazing of the turnip crop, eliminating a great deal 
of labor in harvesting and saving the labor of handling the manure. 

Sheep folded on turnips are always fed from 3^ to 1 34 pounds each per day of grain and cake, 
this feeding being relied upon to enrich the manure. The influence of sheep husbandry on the fertility 
of the soil is generally recognized as of sufficient value to compensate for the labor expended and for 
one-third of the total cost of the grain and cake fed. In some sections of the country the terms of the 
lease entitle a farmer who is giving up a farm to reimbursement for one-third of the total cost of all cake 
fed on turnip ground during the year. The influence of sheep feeding on the soil is so great that many 
farmers claim that they cannot afford to be without sheep. Two and three year old wethers are 
considered the most valuable and ewes in lamb the least valuable to improve the soil fertility 

The tendency now is to use younger sheep in feeding than in former years. The lambs grown 
on the arable farms are nearly all marketed under one year of age, while in former years they were fat- 
tened as yearlings and two year olds. The hill and mountain sheep are also finding an earlier market. 
The change in the age of feeding sheep has been brought about by the demand of the retail dealers for 
smaller carcasses to supply smaller cuts. Furthermore, mutton from young sheep can be sold at once, 
as it does not require several weeks to ripen, as is the case of that from two and three year old wethers. 

In the management of pure bred flocks Scotch farmers, as a class, use more 
Feeding Pure simple methods than those of England, and there is not the same tendency to 
Bred Flocks. force young sheep. The lambing season is later, both on account of the colder 
climate and because the absence of danger from parasites obviates the neces- 
sity of getting lambs off the pastures early. March and April are the usual months. In the manage- 
ment of breeding flocks breeders give plenty of natural feeds, outdoor exercise and fresh air. 

During the breeding season most of the breeding rams are allowed to run with the 

Feeding ewes night and day, and, as a rule, they receive no other feed than that obtained 

Breeding in the grass, lot. Young and growing rams or old thin ones are often given 

Rams. a good stock food and some additional feed. The feed us'ed varies on different 

farms, in some instances a mixture of linseed cake, oats and bran is given, 

while on other farms oats alone or oats and cabbage are fed; about 1 pound per head daily of the 

grain mixture is fed. Outside the breeding season rams are fed moderately. During fall and winter 

they are on good pasture when the weather is favorable, and are given hay (clover preferred) and 

turnips or cabbage. Up to the opening of the breeding season rams are allowed the run of a grass lot, 

with no additional feed. 

In the feeding of breeding ewes good care and feed are given just previous 

Feeding to and at lambing time. Breeders, especially those who breed Leicesters, 

Breeding do not, as a rule, flush their ewes to the same extent as the English breeders. 

Ewes. Those who handle the Down breeds give more attention to this point using 

meadow aftermath, stubble, cabbage, rape or grain. After the ewes are safe in 

lamb they are not given additional feed to that obtained on pasture until the winter, when the best 

breeders allow ewes the run of a grass lot, feeding hay and cabbage or turnips in addition, without 

grain, until two or three weeks previous, to lambing time. 

Where early lambs are produced the ewes are fed very liberal rations just before lambing, being 
given a daily ration of clover hay to the extent of 1}^ to 2 pounds, turnips 14 pounds, from 1 to 13^ 
pounds of a mixture of equal parts of linseed cake, crushed oats and bran, and a reliable stock food. 
In some instances dried brewers' grains are given with linseed cake, instead of oats and bran, on account 
of the lower cost. The heaviest grain rations are always given to the ewes with twin lambs. The 
lambs are also taught to eat oatmeal or rolled oats, to which some linseed cake is added later on. After 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 

good start neither ewes nor lambs are given grain and cake until weaning. Ewes with 
>, during the latter part of March and early in April, are usually given some grain and cake for a 
few weeks, especially if the grass is backward in growth. 

After the lambs are weaned the ewes are usually put on short pasture until the flow of milk has 
completely stopped, and in many instances remain there until the next breeding season. 

The majority of lambs are weaned during August and September. In some 

Feeding the instances they are allowed to run together until the middle of October, when 

Lambs After the rams and ewes are divided. On other farms this division is made at weaning 

Weaning. time. Grain is fed to all lambs, regardless of sex, for five or six weeks 

after weaning, so that they may have a good start and not lose the flesh made 

while suckling. The following methods prevail on the most successful farms: 

A breeder of Leicesters weans his lambs in August. After weaning the lambs all run 
together until the middle of October, have a good grass lot, usually meadow aftermath, and receive about 
ouud each per day of oats and linseed cake. When the ewes and rams are separated, the rams are 
put on cabbage or turnips and are carried in this way all winter, but the grain is increased to 1 or 1 y± 
pounds per day and a due allowance of a good stock food given. When the weather is open no hay is 
given, but in stormy weather or when the snow is on the ground some clover hay or mixed hay is fed each 
ckjy. The ewe lambs are allowed the run of a grass lot all fall and winter and have some turnips in addi- 
tion fed on the grass. In some instances they are folded on a turnip patch for a few hours each day, but 
a is never given. This breeder aims at having his rams well forward as shearlings at sale time, 
which is about the first of September. With the ewe lambs growth and a robust constitution are the 
points sought for. 

On one of the largest and most successful Shropshire farms, located in East Lothian, near'Edinburgh, 
the manager weans his lambs during the first week in August, when the ewes and rams are separated. 
The ewes are put on second crop clover until turnips are ready, when they are fed turnips on grass and 
have some hay in addition until the following spring. The ram lambs are better fed. They are grazed 
on second growth clover, are fed on cabbages or turnips, and have in addition from Y% to 1 pound of lin- 
seed cake and crushed oats each per day. Louring cold and stormy weather they are fed some clover hay. 

In the south and southeast of Scotland the Cheviot is the popular hill sheep, 
Production Of while in the western, central, and northern portions of the country, the hardy 
Sheep on the Blackfaced Highland sheep are used. They furnish the chief source from 
Hills and which the farmers in the arable districts secure their feeding sheep. 
Mountains. The mountain and hill sheep are bred and grown for feeders, and the 

allowance of feed is only sufficient to maintain the older animals and furnish a 
rather scanty diet for the growing ones. Therefore, the sheep require considerable time to reach maturity'. 
In former years the} 7 were practically all retained on the hills until three- and one-half years of age. 
They are now generally sold between two and one-half and three years of age. Many of them are fed 
as lambs and are ready for the butcher before nine months of age, and this system is growing in favor, 
but the great majority are sent down into the arable districts as lambs to be wintered, and are returned 
to the hills with the opening of spring to be sold as feeders the following year. If it were not for this 
practice, yearling wethers would be fed generally, but the majority of hill sheepmen consider it too soon- 
to send their sheep back in six months' time, and therefore retain them until two and one-half years of 
age before marketing. 

In some instances the lambs sent to the arable farms in the fall are not returned to the hills the 
following spring, but are either sold for immediate feeding or are grazed during the succeeding winter 
and summer to be sold later as yearling store wethers. 

Grass, shrubs, and heather furnish the feed throughout the various seasons of the year. The 
ewes drop their lambs about the latter part of April or early in May, by which time the weather is usually 
favorable and there is sufficient grass to insure a good supply of milk. Neither ewes nor lambs get any 
other feed than grass during the summer and fall, and at weaning time the lambs are sent down 
to the arable districts to be wintered, so that they are not compelled to endure the hardships of the 
Highland winter. All other sheep, as a rule, are grazed on the hills and mountains throughout the entire 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 173 



year. The average period of usefulness of the ewes is about five years. When five years old they are 
generally taken from the flock and sent to the arable districts, where they are fattened or, what is a more 
common and profitable practice, bred to a first class mutton sire. In the latter case they rear one crop 
of lambs. Both ewes and lambs are fattened for the early summer market. Young ewes, not needed 
for breeding purposes, are sold in the fall to feeders or to Irish hill farmers, who breed them to high 
class mutton sires to produce feeding sheep. 

The feeding of sheep and lambs for market is the most important branch of 

Fattening Scotch sheep industry. The great bulk of the work is done during the fall and 

for Market. winter. Many farmers feed at this time of the year who do not keep any sheep 

on their farms throughout the remainder of the year, especially where very 

intensive farming prevails. In such cases the sheep or lambs are folded on the turnip fields.- Where the 

land is not so valuable and the rents are low, many farmers keep a large portion of the land under grass 

and feed sheep during spring and summer. There are a great many farmers who breed "practically 

all of their own feeders, but these men either have cheap grazing land or they raise early lambs, which 

are grain fed from the time they will eat until they are marketed, and others raise one crop of lambs 

from cast off hill ewes, as already mentioned. 

In certain parts of Scotland considerable attention is given to the production 
Producing of lambs for the early summer market. Those farmers who are making a suc- 
Lambs for cess of this have warm pens for the ewes and lambs, and give the ewes very 
Early Summer liberal rations, and the lambs are fed grain and cake as soon as they will eat. 
Market. The lambs are dropped during the latter part of January and February and 

are forced until May or June, when they are marketed. The ewes are fed 
from \}/2 to 2 pounds each per day of clover hay, from 12 to 16 pounds of turnips, and from 1 to \% 
pounds of a mixture of wheat bran, crushed oats and linseed cake; the larger allowances are fed to those 
with twin lambs. The lambs are fed in creeps, and given all they will eat of oatmeal and rolled oats at 
first, and later on crushed oats, cracked corn, and either linseed or cotton seed cake; a good stock 
food being used regularly. Lambs at four weeks old will eat about }/§ pound each day, while at three 
months old they will take from % to 1 pound each. When fed in this manner they make very rapid 
growth and are always well fleshed. 

When hill and mountain ewes are brought to be bred to a mutton sire for one 
Fattening Hill and crop of lambs, they are bred to drop their lambs in March, and during pregnancy 
Mountain Ewes are given the run of grass or stubble land, with some turnips, so as to be in fair 
and Lambs, condition at lambing time. A few weeks previous to lambing they are fed oats 

and linseed cake, or brewers'" grains and linseed cake. From lambing time they 
are fed well until marketed, the lambs having the same ration as soon as they are old enough to eat it. 
Grain and cake are given until the grass is good, but after that time cake alone is fed, the amount varying 
from x /i\o z A pound per lamb per day, and from % to 1% pounds per ewe per day. The lambs are mar- 
keted when from three to four months of age, and if ready the ewes go at the same time, but generally 
they require about four weeks more liberal feeding on cake to finish them. 

Lambs for fall or winter feeding are usually purchased in the month of September, 
Fattening Lambs or if home bred are wearied at that time. They are first given the run of the 
for M a f k'e t . stubble land for a few weeks and are. gradually taught to eat turnips, and later 

are folded on the turnip land. In addition they are fed cut hay and a liberal 
allowance of grain and cake — largely cake. When the lambs are on common turnips, many successful 
feeders feed cotton seed cake and dried brewers' grains, equal parts by weight, to the extent of from }4 to 
% pound per lamb per day. Should the root be changed to swede turnips the grain ration is changed to 
two parts linseed cake, one part cotton seed cake, and one part dried brewers' grains. Swede turnips 
are thought by sheepmen to be more difficult to digest than common turnips, and the addition of linseed 
cake is supposed to assist digestion. The grain allowance is increased during the finishing period, and 
may be changed to eliminate the brewers' grains, but cake is practically always used as a part of the 
ration. Some farmers do not put their lambs on the turnip fields so soon, but first graze them for two 
or three months. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 

The tall ami winter methods of fattening sheep are very similar to those described for lambs. 
They are usually fed on roots, with a grain and hay ration in addition. Roots are usually sliced for 
which are teething. The amount of hay and grain is not large, but as much as 25 pounds of 
ts per head is fed daily Practically all feedin^ is done in the open. 

With an abundance of grass and a temperate climate, the conditions of Ireland 
Sheep Production are very favorable to sheep raising For years Irish farmers have given most 
in Ireland, attention to the production of sheep for feeding and the finishing of sheep on 

grass alone for market, but recently the breeding of pure bred sheep and the 
fattening of sheep for mutton have increased, and it has resulted in the adoption of improved methods 
.c\iing. 

The methods of feeding pure bred sheep resemble those of England in some 

Feeding Pure respects, but as a rule fewer forage crops are grown and a much more liberal 

Bred Flocks. use is made of grass, and smaller amounts of grain, hay, and succulent feeds 

are used. Throughout a great deal of the country grass alone in its season is 

principal feed for breeding sheep. 

The production of feeding sheep is an important industry in Ireland. The ten- 
The Production ant farmers, especially in the western and southern portions, grow some feeders 
of Feeders- each year, and although the number kept by each individual is generally small 

the total production is large. These sheep do not receive a great deal of care, but 
when the pastures are not too heavily stocked they do well. Winter feeding is not resorted to except 
in the case of a prolonged period of severe weather, which seldom happens. 

In the mountains and hilly districts feeders are raised in rather systematic manner. Large num- 
bers of Blackfaced Highland ewes are annually purchased in Scotland and bred to high class mutton sires. 
The Scotch ewes drop their lambs about the latter part of April or the first part of May, when the weather 
is warm and the grass abundant. They run on pasture at all seasons of the year, and are thus maintained 
very cheaply. The feeders are generally sold when one and one-half years old. 

In central Ireland the fattening of sheep for mutton is receiving considerable 
Fattening Sheep attention. On good land nothing but grass is given, but where the soil is not 
for Market, so good and the yield of grass per acre less some additional feed is usually sup- 
plied. The principles are practically the same as those of the English feeders, 
smaller amounts usually being fed. One very successful ration is equal parts of cotton seed cake, linseed 
cake, and cracked corn. The length of the feeding period varies from sixty to one hundred and fifty 
days, depending on the condition and age of the sheep and the condition of the markets. 



•*Wp" 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure I. 

Implement House Transformed 

Into Poultry House. 




Figure 2. 

Implement House Transformed Into 

Poultry House. 



The barnyard fowls are regarded by most farmers as a very 
insignificant part of their live stock; and yet, though so often 
neglected and forced to shift for themselves, the poultry and egg 
crops constitute in the aggregate one of the most important and 
valuable products of American agriculture. The conditions in this 
country are such that the poultry industry is capable of indefinite 
expansion, and therefore able to meet any demands that may be made 
upon it either by home or foreign markets. 

Importance of High Grade 
Product. — In order to secure a 
larger consumption of poultry products per capita in the United 
States, it is of prime importance that there should always be an 
abundant supply of strictly fresh eggs and of the best grades of 
table poultry This condition is also a necessary factor in the 
development of the export trade. When he markets are filled 
with eggs which have lost their quality and flavor by long 
keeping, and many of which have acquired an offensive taste ; when the broilers and the roasters offered 
to the consumer are thin, tasteless, tough, and altogether unfit for the table, it is not surprising that 

they are passed by and beef, mutton, or 
pork taken in their stead. So, also, when 
the exporter is buying for consignment to 
foreign markets, he must be able to find at 
all times a good quality of eggs or poultry 
in sufficient quantity or he cannot continue 
to buy our products. All of which should 
emphasize the necessity of the proper selec- 
tion of feeds and their use. 

Possibility of Increased Consumption. — 
An increased supply of poultry products of 
the highest class would unquestionably lead 
to an. increased consumption. There is 
no more staple and popular article of 
food, and consequently we may confidently 
expect the demand to develop in propor- 
tion to the 

increase of 
Figure 8. 
A Lean-to Poultry House. our P°P U " 

lation and 

to the care and intelligence with which the market is supplied. 

Increase of Product. — There is no stock on the farm that 

yields a better relative return to the feed consumed than do the 

hens, and consequently it is well worth while to consider in what 

manner their product may be increased without disproportionately increasing expenses. 

The fowls must have comfortable and healthful quarters; they must have proper feed and 
nesting facilities, but it is not at all necessary that there should be extravagant expenditures in 
supplying these. 

— 175 — 





Figure 4. 
Simple Form of Poultry House 






POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



The Kind of 
Fowls to Keep. 






tor 



those have 
CROU/VD 



The kind of chickens to be kept upon a farm depends almost as much upon 

the kind of man who manages them as upon any other condition. There 

are no birds which stand neglect better than the common, mongrel barnyard 

lived and developed under unfavorable conditions, and are accustomed to 



PLAN 



ROOST *no H£STS 



Q 




shift for themselves. They are generally hardy and vigorous" 
and yield a fair return in eggs or as table poultry; they respond 
fairly well to generous treatment, and, if selected with some care, 
are by no means to be despised, even when their product 
compared with that of the standard breeds. 



is 




W I /V o ow 

Figure 5. Ground Plan of Simple Form 

of Poultry House, Shown in Figure 4. 



Figure 6. 
Poultry House with Scratching Shed. 



Improvement The improvement of the common poultry should begin in most cases by 
of Breeds. breeding from birds selected for their shape, size and productiveness, and by 

bettering the condition of life under which they are kept. If the owner is will- 
ing to go a little further, and to bestow somewhat more attention upon his birds, he may cross them 

with males of a standard breed or 
replace them entirely by pure bred 



G R O U N D 



PLAN 



ROOST AN0NE5TS 



PEN 
SHED 



Figure 7. Ground Plan of Poultry House with Scratching Shed, 
Shown in Figure 6. 



males and females. 




Figure 8. Construction of Roosts. 



Care of Fowls. 



The standard breeds have been brought to a higher plane of development by 
extra care and a more skilful management, and if they are to maintain this 
improvement they must be continued under 
the conditions which brought it about. They 
suffer more from neglect and unhealthful sur- 
roundings than do the common fowls, because 
accustomed to these conditions. The 
standard breeds, for these reasons, may not 
- give satisfaction, if Iheir characteristics 
i requirements are not understood. If, how- 
r, the poultryman expects adequate results, 
is willing to give that care and skillful management necessary, then a breed of fowls should be adopted 
h has been bred for generations for a special purpose and in that line developed to the highest degree. 

















ROOST POLL 1 




\ [ 

P L A T F R M 








-> •- 






W£ ST 5 




NESTS 




/VESTS 




1 i 





Figure 9. Sectional View of Platform and Nests. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



177 



The most popular fowls in the United States are the American breeds known 

Popular as the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes. They are of medium size, good 

Varieties. as broilers, good as roasters, good egg producers; the hens are good sitters and 

good mothers; and for these reasons they are known as general purpose fowls. 

In the Barred, Buff, and White Plymouth Rocks, and the White, Buff, Silver, Golden, Black, and 

Partridge Wyandottes, there is a sufficient range of color to meet almost any taste. 

For farmers who desire fowls more particu- 
Egg Production. larly for egg production, the Mediterranean 

breeds, particularly the Leghorns, Minorcas, 
and Spanish, are to be recommended. The birds of these breeds 
are smaller, more active and greater foragers than the Plymouth 
Rocks or Wyandottes, and as layers they are unsurpassed. Should 
it be desired, on the other hand, to raise heavier birds than the Ply- 
mouth Rocks, we should naturally turn to the Asiatic breeds, which 
include the Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans. 
The Standard Weights of These Different Classes are as Follows : 




BREEDS 



Plymouth Rocks. 

Wyandottes 

Light Brahmas. . . 
Dark Brahmas. . . 

Cochins 

Langshans 

Minorcas 

Spanish 




Heirs, 
Pounds 







^2 

7 



rv 






Figure 10. Sectional View of Concealed 
or Darkened Nest. 



Selection of 
Stock for 
Breeding. 



The Leghorns are smaller than the Minorcas and Spanish, 
and have not been given standard weights. The Rhode Island Red 
is a promising general purpose breed, resembling in size and 
form the Plymouth Rock. It has been developed by crossing 
and selection, but has not yet been admitted as a standard breed. 

Having in mind the size and peculiarities of the varieties of fowls to which 
reference has been made, it would not appear to be a difficult matter to select 
one which will satisfy the requirements of any farm. In purchasing breeding 
stock it is important to purchase from reliable breeders only, and to ascertain 
that the stock is in healthy condition and that it has been bred for early matur- 
ity, size, shape and egg producing qualities, rather than for perfection in feathering. For the show room 
the feathering cannot be neglected, as the judges often place it ahead of all other features of the bird's 

make up ; but for the farm the color and marking of feathers must be 
held subordinate to the utilitarian qualities. The feathers should 
not, however, be entirely neglected, as their perfection is an indi- 
cation of the purity of blood and carefulness of breeding. 

It is very desirable that poultry should be 
provided with a house somewhat separated 
from the other farm buildings, but near 
enough to the barnyard so that they can spend a part of their time 
in scratching for and gathering up the many seeds and grains which 
otherwise might not be utilized. On farms where no poultry house 
is provided the hens are compelled to seek roosting places wherever they can find them — sometimes 
in fruit trees;, sometimes on feed racks; sometimes on the farm machinery, or even the wagons and 
carriages. The result is not only untidiness, but fruit, feed, implements and wagons are soiled and 




Poultry Houses. 



Figure 11. Concealed or Darkened Nest. 



178 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



injured by the droppings, and sometinies vermin swarm in the roosting places to such a degree that 
the hens are voted a nuisance rather than a desirable part of the stock. farm. If the.se vermin infested 
es are near the horse stable the mites may attack the horses, causing itching and a mangy 
dition oi the skin, the origin of which is not always suspected. 



Selection of the 
Site for Build- 
ing and Yard. 







Figure 12. Scratching Boom under Poultry House. 



Too often the location of the poultry house is thought to be of minor importance, 
and consequently is given less consideration than that of any other farm build- 
ing. The other buildings are frequently located first, and the poultry house 
then placed on whatever space may have been left, when it ought to have had 
due consideration before the other buildings were located. -In caring for the 

various classes of live stock the question of labor 

has always been an important item. The class that 

requires the closest attention to detail, as a rule, 

requires the greatest amount of labor; and, as poultry 

keeping is wholly a business of details, the economy 

in performing the necessary work is of great impor- 
tance. If the poultry house is not conveniently 

located and arranged, it becomes expensive on 

account of unnecessary labor As it is necessary to 
it poultry houses several times each day in the 

A"ear, their arrangement is of more importance than 

in the case of any other farm building. The opera- 
tions must be performed frequently, so that any 

little inconvenience in the arrangement will cause 

not only extra expense and care, but, in many cases, 

more or less neglect of the operations that should be 

performed each day. Again, poultry houses are likely 

to be infested with rats and mice unless some means are provided to exclude them. And all this should 

be given due consideration in the selection of the location. Taken all in all, it is usually best to locate 

the poultry house at some distance from the other farm buildings, especially if grain is kept in the latter. 

A dry, porous soil is always to be preferred as a site for poultry buildings and yards. Clean- 
liness and freedom from moisture must be secured. Without any doubt, filth and moisture are the 
causes, either directly or indirectly, of the majority of diseases among the poultry. They form 
the stumbling block which brings discouragement and failure to many raisers. It must not, however, 
be inferred from the above that poultry cannot be successfully reared and profitably kept on any soil, for 

abundant proof to the contrary is liberally 
furnished by the phenomenal success of some 
of our largest poultrymeri. The necessity 
for cleanliness, however, is not disputed by 
those who have had any extended experi- 
ence in the poultry business. That an open, 
porous soil can be kept comparatively clean 
with much less labor than a clay soil will be 

Figure 13. Double Poultry House with Scratching Sheds. -j , , ,, , , „ , 

evident to those who are at all acquainted 
with the habits of domestic fowls. When the fowls are confined in buildings and yards the part of , 
the yard next the building will become more or less filthy from the droppings and continual tramping to 
which it is subjected A heavy or clay soil not only retains all the manure on the surface, but by 
retarding percolation in times of frequent showers it will give the whole surface a complete coating of filth. 
If a knoll or ridge can be selected, where natural drainage is perfect, the ideal location will be nearly 
approached. Where naturally favorable conditions of drainage do not exist, thorough draining will go 
a long way toward furnishing the necessary surroundings to insure success. We do not mean by this 
that elaborate and expensive structures and surroundings are necessary. 




1 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



179 



Sometimes there is already a small 
building on the farm which has been used for 
implements or animals and which is no longer 
required for these purposes. Such a build- 
ing can easily be fitted for poultry by cut- 
ting a small door in one side and placing roosts 
and nests in the interior, and the drainage, 
etc., can easily be arranged. 



OROUHD 



PLAN 



ffOOST <"° NCSTS 



1 P 



OPEN 
SHED 



OPEN 
SHED 



H005T <mH£SrS 



\ 



Figure 14. Ground Plan of Double Poultry House with Scratching Sheds. 




Inexpensive 
Structures. 

building constructed. 



Figure 15. 



Common A-shaped Coop with 
Sliding Slab. 




Figure 16. A Common Form of 
Chicken Coop. 



In case. there is no building suitable for 
remodeling into a poultry house, an inex- 
pensive lean-to may be built, although we 
do not advise it (Figure 3), or a new 
A house for this purpose should be planned 
with a view to simplicity, economy and convenience, while 
supplying the conditions proper for successful poultry feeding. 

One of the simplest forms 
of poultry houses is shown in Fig- 
ure 4, and ground plan for the 
same in Figure 5. A scratching 
shed may be attached to the side of this house, as in Figures 6 and 
7, which, if desired, may be enclosed in front with poultry wire, so 
as to keep the birds confined. 

Roosts. — The details of construction of roosts 
Fittings. are seen in Figure 8. The important points 

are a nearly flat or slightly rounded surface on the upper side and as few cracks 
and crevices as possible in which vermin may hide. The roosts may be made of 2x3-inch scantling 
and should be so put in that they can easily be removed at an}- time for cleaning and disinfection. 

A platform is often placed under the roosts to catch the drop- 
pings, and the nests are placed under this platform. In a house, such 
as Figure 9, a manure platform may be dispensed with and the nest 
boxes placed along the front or sides of the building, sand being placed 
under the roosts for the droppings. 

Nests. — The sim- 
plest form of nest is a 
box placed upon the 
floor of the poultry 
house. With heavy fowls, which are apt to break their 
eggs in fighting with other hens that try to enter their 
^nests when they are laying and thus acquire the habit of 
egg eating, a more concealed or dark nest may be necessary. 

(Figures 10 and 11.) 

Floor. — One of the most troublesome parts of the 
poultry house to make satisfactory is the floor. Many 
use earth floors, but these are often damp, especially 
in cold weather, and they induce rheumatism, colds, 
roup, digestive disorders, and various other diseases. 
Some have put in cement floors, but have found these 
cold and also more or less damp. Probably a good 
cement floor, laid in broken stone and covered with a few 
inches of earth, sand preferably, would be satisfactory 
and ratproof, if not too expensive. A board floor, 6 or S inches above the earth, with good 
ventilation under it, is dry, but too cold, except in the South. 




Figure 17. A Common Form of 
Chicken Coop. 




Figure 18. 



Chicken Coop with Enclosed and 
Covered Bun. 





Figure 19. Chicken Coop with Enclosed Run. 






POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 




Figure 20. Chicken Coop with Enclosed and Covered Run. 



Space to be 
Allowed. 



A double flooring, laid tightly with 
building paper between, or a good single floor- 

1 with a low inches of dry earth, is 
probably the best. In all eases of board floors 
there should be a sufficient space beneath for 

and to guard against the lodgment 

Good Plans. — A good style of poultry 
se, with scratching room under it, is shown 
gure 12. In ease more than one flock is 
to be kept, the plans shown in Figures 13 and 
14 have been found satisfactory and ma)' be 
multiplied to any extent by adding to the ends. With such houses there may be fenced runs at the 
back or front, or both sides, so that the birds may be kept confined. 

The amount of 
space to be allowed 
for each bird de- 
pends upon the 
size of the bird, whether a shed is attached 
to the house or whether the fowls have the 
free run of the open fields. For birds in 
confinement there should be from 6 to 15 
square feet for each adult bird in case there 
is no shed attached to the house ; and with a shed this space may be reduced about one-half. The 
yards should be large enough to allow exercise in the open air, and to furnish more grass than the birds 
will eat. This will vary from 60 to 150 square feet for every adult bird. 

The open shed facing the south, where the birds can be 
jnduced to hunt for their feed and take exercise in all seasons 
of the year, and wdiere they can enjoy the pleasure of scratching 
and dusting themselves in the sunshine, even during the winter 
months, is of great assistance in maintaining the health and 
productiveness of the flock. The roosting space allowed should 
be to 8 inches for the smaller breeds, 8 to 18 inches for the 
medium breeds, and 10 to 12 inches for the larger breeds. 




Figure 21. Chicken Coop with Enclosed and Partly Covered Run. 




Figure 22. Chicken Coop with Enclosed Run. 




Ventilation. 



Poultry houses should 
be well ventilated, but 
so arranged that the 
drafts of air will not strike the birds. Win- 
dows and doors should be provided in such 
locations that the sun may shine into the build- 
ing during a considerable part of the day. 
Sunshine is required both to keep the houses 
dry and to destroy various forms of infection. 

A liberal supply of 
Poultry Coops. coops should be pro- 
vided for the confine- 
ment of hens with broods of small chicks, and 
for those hens which insist upon sitting at 
inconvenient times a few days in solitary 
confinement will usually break up the desire to 
sit, and the hen will soon after resume laying. 
The common- A-shaped coop is one of the most easily constructed and convenient forms in use. 
e disadvantage connected with it is the difficulty of removing the feeding and drinking vessels 



Figure 23. Chicken Coop with Barred and Enclosed 
Hawkproof and Catproof Run. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



181 



cleaning or of catching the bird in it without danger of some of the birds escaping. To obviate this one 
of the slabs may be made to slide, as shown in Figure 15. The opening made by sliding this slab is suffi- 
cient to admit the hand and arm so that any part of the coop 
may be reached without leaving an avenue of escape unguarded. 
Other forms of coops for the same purpose are illustrated by 
Figures 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 23. For early hatched 
chicks, which come out when the atmospheric temperature is so 
low as to be injurious to them, a combination of coop and glass 

Figure 24. coop with Glass covered run, as shown in Figure 24, has been found very useful. 

Covered Bun. ■ ' ° ' J 




Feed Troughs 
and Drinking 
Fountains. 




Figure 25. Two Forms of Feed Troughs. 



Two forms of 
feed troughs Kgi: 
are represent- 
ed in Figure 
25. For small 
chicks the troughs must be very 
shallow, or, for the first few days, the 

feed may be placed upon a square piece of board. Numerous forms of drinking fountains have been 
devised, two of which are represented in Figures 26 and 27. A good fountain is easily made by 
cutting a small aperture in a tin can, as is shown in Figure 28, filling the can with water, 
covering with a shallow pan oc vessel of an}- ' kind, and then inverting the ' whole. The shallow 
vessel will remain filled with water as high as the top of the aperture until the can is exhausted. It is 
important that fresh, pure water should always be accessible to fowls, and the drinking fountains 
should be cleaned and filled two or three times a day, if possible, and under no circumstances less 
frequently than once a day. 

Poultry may be raised with the greatest economy on the 
Ranging of Fowls, large farms of the country, where there is unlimited range, 

an exhaustless supply of insects and worms, and an 
abundance of seeds and grains going to waste which poultry alone can utilize. 
Under such circumstances fowls take care of themselves so well and are so ener- 
getic in seeking their feed that they are either forgotten and allowed, to shift for 
themselves when they really need attention and assistance, or they are regarded 
as a nuisance because they sometimes do a little damage. When fenced away 
from the gardens and flower beds, fowls do little damage and cause scarcely any 
- annoyance on a farm. On the other "hand, they do an immense amount of good 
in the protection of crops by the destruction of injurious insects, larvas and worms. 

Sometimes it is advisable to divide the farm flock into colonies 
Colonies. and place these at different points upon the farm in order to 

secure additional range, to remove the birds temporarily to a 
distance from certain crops, or for other purposes. In this case a cheap, light, and 
easily handled colony house (Figure 29), may be constructed and placed where 
the fowls are desired to range. After being confined in these houses a few nights the 
birds will adapt themselves to their habitations and return to them. 




Figure 26. A Form of 
Drinking Fountain. 




Figure 27. 

A Form of 

Drinking 

Fountain. 



Poultry in Com- 
bination With 
S p ecialties 
in Farming. 



There are certain special lines of agricultural operations with which poultry 
raising may be advantageously connected. In dairying there is usually a 
large quantity of skim milk or buttermilk which may be utilized to furnish a 
considerable part of the poultry ration. There is also much feed to be gathered 
by fowls about the stables, manure piles, and pastures which would otherwise 
go to waste. 



1 VJ 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



Advantages on 
Fruit Farms. 




Figure 28. A Drinking 
Fountain Made of a Can. 



Upon the fruit farm fowls are also of advantage. 
They keep down the insect pests, and they may ha 
a free range the greater part of the season without 
the possibility of doing any damage. Plum growers 
have found poultry especially helpful in keeping down the curculio, and 
even apples have been considerably benefited. If small fruits are injured, 
they may. of course, be protected by confining the fowls for the limited 
son when the fruit is ripening. The waste fruits, either in winter or 
summer, are a welcome and valuable addition to the poultry ration. 

The market garden also furnishes a large, amount 
Poultry and the of waste products which may be utilized for poultry 

Market Garden. Iced. There is the waste lettuce, the small heads of cabbage, the unsold beets, 

carrots and potatoes, the peas and corn which cannot be marketed for any 
reason, the waste of the small fruits, etc. If properly cared for the hens will bring a steady and 
reliable income during the winter months. Dried clover and other green feed, roots and tubers should 
be saved for them during the summer. These should be steamed and fed with Davis Poultry Food ir. 
the mash, or cabbages and beets may be fed raw. A catch crop of buckwheat or oats and peas will 
furnish much feed at little expense. Bran, Davis Meat Meal, wheat screenings, and oats purchased 
for poultry will bring good returns in eggs and will also add materially to the fertilizer supply. 

Dairymen who have 




Opportunities 
Afforded b y 
the Dairy. 



Figure 29. Colony House. 



town or city milk 

routes, and market 

gardeners who retail 

their produce, have 

exceptional opportunities for marketing 

fresh eggs and poultry at the highest prices. 

They become well acquainted with many 

of their customers by their daily visits, and 

they are looked upon as a direct channel of 

communication between the country and 

the city. 

They should by all means make the 

most of this advantage, for any class of 

agricultural producers who can reach the 

consumer without the intervention of the 

middleman is indeed fortunate. 

In the following pages we give a brief description, together with illustrations, of the various 

varieties of chickens. Each of them is described fully, thus enabling the starter in the poultry business 

to familiarize himself thoroughly with the various breeds. 

1 . American Class. — Barred, Buff, Pea Comb Barred, and White Plymouth Rocks ; Silver, Golden, 
White, Buff, and Black Wyandottes; Black, Mottled, and White Javas; American Dominiques; and 
Jersey Blues. 

2. Asiatic Class. — Light and Dark Brahmas; Buff, Partridge, White, and Black Cochins; Black 
and White Langshans. 

3. Mediterranean Class. — Brown, Rose Comb Brown, White, Rose Comb White, Black, Domi- 
nique, Buff, and Silver Duckwing Leghorns; Black and White Minorcas; Andalusians; and Black Spanish. 

4. Polish Class. — White Crested Black, Golden, Silver, White, Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, 
Bearded White, and Buff Laced. 

5. Hamburg Class. — Golden Spangled, Silver Spangled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White, 
and Black Ilarnburgs; Redcaps; Silver and Golden Campines. 

6. French Class. — Houdans, Crevecocurs, and La Fleche. 

7. English Class. — White, Silver Gray, and Colored Dorkings. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



183 



2. 
3. 
4. 



8. Game and Game Bantam Class. — Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duck-wing, 
Silver Duckwing, Red Pyle, White, Black, and Birchen Games; the same varieties for Game Bantams, 
Cornish and White Indian Games; Malays and Black Sumatra Games. 

9. Bantam Class Other than Game. — Golden and Silver Sebrights ; White and Black Rose Comb ; 
Booted White; Buff, Partridge, White, and Black Cochins; Black Tailed, White, and Black Japanese; 
and White Crested White Polish. 

10. Miscellaneous Class. — Russians, Silkies, Sultans, Frizzles, and Rumpless. 

For practical purposes the above ten classes may be grouped into four general classes, as follows: 
I. The General Purpose Breeds: The American class. 
The Meat or Table Breeds: The Asiatic class. 
The Egg Breeds: The Mediterranean class. 

The Ornamental Breeds: The Polish, Exhibition Games, Miscellaneous, and Bantam classes. 
The Plymouth Rock is the most popular of all varieties of poultry as a general 
Plymouth Rocks, purpose fowl. Its medium size, hardy growth and good laying qualities make 

it a practical fowl for the farm. The Barred variety is the most generally known 
of the Plymouth Rocks, and its history dates back a little over a quarter of a century. Various bloods 

were used in its making, the belief being general that it originallv 
came from a cross between the American Dominique and the 
Black Java. It has also been shown that the Light Brahma, 
Dark Brahma, and. Pit Game have been used in its making. 
The Barred Plymouth Rock (Figure 1) is of a grayish 
white color, regularly .crossed with parallel bars of blue black 
running in straight, distinct lines throughout the entire 
length of the feather, and showing on the down or under 
color of the feathers. 

The barring is somewhat smaller on the hackle and 
saddle feathers than on other portions of the body. The bird 
is of medium size, with 
broad neck, flat at the 
shoulders; the breast is full 
and the body broad and 
compact; 'medium sized 
wings that fold gracefully, the points being we'll covered with 
breast and saddle feathers; a medium sized head, ornamented 
with upright, bright red comb and wattles; a large, bright eye; 
and yellow beak, legs and toes, places the picture before us in its 
entirety. The difference between the Barred and the Pea Comb 
Barred is that the latter have a small, firm and even pea comb 
instead of a single comb. 

For the farmer or market poultryman they are favorites, 
being of medium size, well proportioned, with a deep, full 
breast, making a most admirable bird for market purposes. 
They are hardy ^ mature early and make excellent broilers, 
from eight to twelve weeks old. They are good layers the year 
around, and in winter they lay exceptionally well. Their eggs are 
brown in color and average eight to a pound. They are good 
sitters and excellent mothers. 

The Barred Plymouth Rock, besides being a practical fowl, 
is also one of the most sought after by fanciers. No class is better 
filled at the average poultry show than is this. 

The graceful figure, upright carriage, and active nature endear it to all as a fancier's fowl. 
There is a fascination in breeding it for plumage — the more regular and even the barring the better. 




Figure 1. 
Fair of Barred Plymouth Rocks. 




Figure 2. 
Feathers of Barred Plymouth Bocks. 



184 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure 3. 
Silver Laced Wyandotte Cockerel and Hen. 



(figure 2.) It requires much skill to breed for color, and two matings are generally used. An 
iblished rule for mating for cockerels is to use a standard color male with a medium dark female, 

and for pulldts use light male and dark female. The double mating 
is resorted to by many, yet the writer has seen rare specimens 
produced from single matings. 

The characteristics of the Barred Plymouth Rocks are 
noticeable in the other varieties of Plymouth Rocks, except that 
of color The sides, shape, general outlines, and qualities are 
the same in the other varieties as in the Barred. The White 
Plymouth 'Rock is pure white in plumage throughout, and the 
Buff variety is a clear buff, uniform in shape, except the tail, which 
is deep buff or copperish yellow brown. The buff should extend to 
the under color as much as possible — the deeper the better. 

The standard 

weight of cocks is 9}^ 

pounds; hens, 7^ pounds; 

cockerels, 8 pounds; and 

pullets 6H pounds. 

The Wyandotte (Figure 3) is another 

Wyandottes. of the general purpose fowls and is rated 

next to the Plymouth Rock. From the, 

first it sprang into popular favor and has continued so to the 

.present time. Its origin is comparatively recent, dating back 

less than twenty-five years. . It came originally from the Dark 

Brahma, Silver Spangled Hamburg, and the Breda, a French 

fowl. Not a few authorities say that the Wyandottes have 

Cochin blood in them, from the fact that their ancestors pro- 
duced single combs and feathered legs. 

For general pur- 
poses the Wyandottes have 
proved a success, being of 
medium size, weighing on 
an average a pound less 
than the Plymouth Rocks, 
hardy of constitution and 

prolific layers. They are easily cared for and bear confinement 
well. For table purposes they are of superior worth; their flesh 
is sweet, juicy and tender, making them excellent broilers and 
roasters. As layers they are among the best, averaging from 
twelve to fourteen dozen a year, and as winter layers they do 
well under ordinary circumstances. There are five varieties of 
the Wyandotte breed, and it is only a matter of opinion as 
regards a choice of the best. The general characteristics are the 
same in all, the difference in color of plumage being the only dis- 
tinguishing mark. 

The Silver Laced Wyandotte is of a silvery wrjite plumage, 
with regularly marked white lacing on the breast and a generous distribution of white and black 
throughout the entire body. The cock has a silver white head, rose comb, silver hackle, with a black 
stri: n the center of each feather, as shown in Figure 4; silver white back; saddle same as hackle; 

breast black, with white center (see Figure 4); tail black; wings half black and half white, or, rather, 
black edged v/ith white; shanks and toes rich yellow, free from feathering. The hen of the Silver Laced 
variety is marked similarly to the male, except the" back and wing, which are whiter in males 





Figure 4. 
Feathers of Silver Laced Wyandotte. 



Figure 6. 
Pair of White Wyandottes. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



185 




Figure 7. 
Pair of Black Javas. 



than in females. Breast of the female is of much importance in breeding good birds; the lacing 
should be large and distinct, and the white center of each feather free from black or brown penciling. 
The Golden Wyandotte is marked like the Silver, except that the color is golden bay and black 
instead of white and black. The white variety is perhaps the favorite, from the fact that it is not 
so difficult to breed to feather, the' plumage being pure white throughout. It is for this reason 
the more practical fowl for the farmer or those who keep poultry for market. The Buff Wyan- 
dotte is in color a rich, deep, clear buff, uniform in shape throughout, except the tail, which is of a 
deeper buff or copperish brown color. Blacks are of a rich, 
glossy black, with greenish sheen, except breast primaries, 
secondaries, tail and fluff, which are pure black. 

The standard weight of cocks is~8i/2 pounds; hens, 6J/^ 
pounds; cockerels, IY2 pounds; and pullets, 5 3^ pounds. 

This variety is the oldest of the Amer- 
Javas. ican class, and at one time was con- 

sidered the most profitable of all breeds. 
At present Javas are not raised extensively; the more modern 
or newer breeds have seemingly supplanted them in popularity. 
There is no reason why this should be so, as they are practical 
and general purpose fowls. In size they are about like the 
Plymouth Rocks, but differ in general symmetry and appear- 
ance. They are good layers and do well in winter, and for 
table purposes they make nice eating. They mature early, are 
good sitters and mothers, and are easily kept in confinement. 
There are three varieties of Javas: Black, Mottled, and 
White. The Black (Figure 7) is more generally seen than the other, though the Mottled has of late 
years been very numerously represented at the shows. 

The plumage of the Blacks is glossy black throughout ; the Mottled (Figure 8) is of broken black 
and white in wings, tail, and sickles, and the balance of the plumage is evenly intermixed with white 
and black; the White Java is, as the name implies, pure white throughout. It has a small single comb, 
standing upright on the head in both male and female. The shanks and toes are free from feathers, 

3-ellow in color, with the bottom of the feet yellow. 

The standard weight of the cocks is 9J4 pounds; hens, 
• 73^2 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; and pullets, 6}^ pounds. 

Similarity in plumage of the American 
Dominiques. Dominique and Barred Plymouth Rock 

has been the price of the former's pop- 
ularity. The color is grayish white, each feather regularly 
crossed with parallel bars of blue black, producing the effect 
of a bluish tinged plumage, the color being the same through- 
out. The illustration of Barred Plymouth Rock feathers shown 
in Figure 2 will do equally as well for the markings of the 
feathers of the Dominiques. They have rose colored combs, 
in both males and females, and bright yellow legs. Those who 
are partial to their color of plumage will find the Dominiques 
good birds to keep. They are good layers, hardy, mature 
early, and dress well for the table. 

The standard weight of cocks is 83^ pounds; hens, 6}<$ 

pounds; cockerels, 7J^ pounds; and pullets, 5}4 pounds. 

The least known variety of the American class is the Jersey Blue. It is one of the 

Jersey Blues. largest breeds of poultry, being in size between the Plymouth Rock and the 

Light Brahma. Their plumage resembles that of the Andalusian, being blue 

thrcfcighout. Their breast and fluff are light blue, hackles and sickles very dark blue, approaching 




Figure 8. 
Mottled Java Hen. 



186 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 







ck, shanks and toes dark blue, the lower surface of toes lighter in shade, and the nails white. 
They are not as good layers as are the others of their class, but are hardy and easily kept in confinement. 
They are not popular for table purposes, preference being given to yellow skin and yellow leg birds. 
andard weight of cocks is 10 pounds; hens, 8 pounds; cockerels, 7 pounds; pullets, 5 pounds. 
The leading variety of the Asiatic class is the Light Brahma (Figure 9). This fowl 
Brahmas. has a history that would fill pages were it recorded. These are the fowls that 

caused the hen fever of the Fifties, about which so much has been written in late 
Their early history is a matter of controversy, the best authorities differing as to their origin. 
They were first known as the Brahma Pootras, Gray Shanghays, Shittagongs, Cochin Chinas, 
and what not'. The early breeder named them according to his fancy for high sounding and sensa- 
tional names to sell his stock. Fabulous prices were paid for them Avhen the craze for fine poultry was 
at its height in the early days of the last half of the Nineteenth Century. The standard of the present 
Brahmas was fixed in 1869, and no deviation from the type then adopted has been made. They have 
stood high in popular favor since then without abatement. The vast number of breeders who are raising 
them fully attest their worth as practical birds to the industry. The Brahma is a characteristic fowl; 
it is unlike other varieties, and it should not be confounded in shape with the Cochins. 

The average Light Brahma male is, in height, 26 inches; back from the ground, 16 inches; keel 
from the ground, 8 inches; length of body, front of breast to rear of fluff, 14 inches; height of tail, a trifle 

over 21 inches; saddle hangers to rear of fluff, 2}4 inches; eve, 
from tip of beak, 2 1-6 inches; length of bead and beak, i! 1 ^ 
inches; breast to rear of a drop line from point of beak, ?4 to 
134 inches. As specimens depart from this proportion they 
become awkward and valueless as exhibition stock, and often 
also as egg producers. In 'shape, oblong, with full, broad, and 
round breast carried well forward. The fullness and oblong 
shape is typical of the Brahma and is characteristic of 
prolific birds. -The curves of -the neck and back are similar to 
j. ' iiKp f| those of the outlines of an egg. 

^| A Vj ' 'T In plumage the male is pure white, except hackle, tail 

^^ * / and flights, which are black and white striped with black. 

^^C_-> Any other color but white and black is against the standard 

bred bird. The hackle is white with a black stripe extending 
down the center of each feather and tapering to a point near 
the extremity (see Figure 10). The tail feathers are black, and 
sickles are glossy greenish black. 

The shanks are well feathered, with the feathering extend- 
ing down the middle toe; the toe feathering may be white or white sprinkled with black, pure white 
preferred. A small pea comb (see Figure 9), broad crown, projects over the eyes; bright red face, wattles 
and ear lobes are essential to a good head. Shanks and toes are bright yellow. The Brahma female is 
much like the male in head qualities, having broad comb, projecting well over the eyes, and small pea comb. 
The head of the female should be masculine in appearance. The head is white; hackle, white striped 
with blacky as i n male; cape, white and black, but is completely covered by hackle when the bird stands 
erect ; tail, black, except the two highest main tail feathers, which may be edged with white ; tail coverts — 
one or more rows distinctly covering a part of both sides of the main tail, two rows being preferable — 
are black edged with white. 

The Light Brahmas are valuable birds for the farm. They have always been made to pay for their 
keep and have seldom been set aside by any who have bred them. They are the largest of domestic poultry 
and do as well in confinement in small runs as on free range. As layers they will average from twelve 
to thirteen dozen eggs a year and lay exceptionally well in winter. Their eggs are large, about seven 
to a pound, of a rich brown color, and excellent flavor. For table purposes^the birds are good. They 
do not mature as early as do the varieties of the American class, yet they are hardy, and can be 
raised with as much ease as any of the earlier maturing varieties. As sitters and mothers they are fair. 




Figure 9. 

Pair of Light Brahmas. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



187 




The Dark Brahmas are not so popular as the Light, the difficulty being in breeding them 

true to feather. Their delicately marked plumage is extremely pretty when bred to standard 

requirements, but if not so bred it becomes most disagree- 
able and unsatisfactory to the breeder. 

The head and neck of the Dark Brahma male are similar 

to those of the Light, the head being white and the hackle 

rather more striped. The back is nearly white, a little black 

appearing here and there. The black should dominate between 

the shoulders, but it is nearly hidden by the hackle flowing over 

it. The saddle feathers are, like the hackle, silvery white, striped 

with black, which should be distinct. As the feathers approach 

the tail the stripes become broader till they merge into the tail 

coverts, which are rich, glossy green black, with a margin or 

lacing of white. The tail is pure black, with green gloss. The 

wing coverts are black, forming a distinct black .bar across the 

middle of the wings, while the ends of the secondaries have a 

large black spot on the end, making the two edges of the wing 

appear almost black. The remainder of the secondaries is white 

on the lower half and black on the other. The flights are all 

black except a narrow fringe of white on the lower edge. The 

breast is black; the thighs and fluff either black, or black very 

slightly modeled with white. The shank feathering should cor- 
respond with the breast, being black if the latter is black, and 

slightly modeled with white if not. The shanks are deep yel- 
low, inclining to orange. The color of females is a white ground, 

closely penciled with dark steel gray, producing a beautiful 

effect, frosted or silver gray in appearance. There should be no 

show of pure white in the plumage except in the margins of the hackles. Unless extreme care be taken 

in mating, the hens are likely to have dingy color, and the pullets are apt to have necks almost white for 

some distance down. These light neck birds generally breed to 
worse, but the evil may be remedied by choosing birds for breed- 
ing whose heads are distinctly marked. The shape and character 
of the markings of the Dark Brahma pullets also vary. 

They should be medium sized, so that the pencilings can 
be clearly discerned at a short distance. A great point with 
regard to color aftd marking in Brahma pullets is that they 
should be uniform over the body, and the hackle should be 
silvery white, heavily striped with rich black, and the shank 
feathering penciled same as body. 

For practical purposes the Dark Brahmas are not to be 
commended as highly as the Light. The close breeding for 
points in feathers is likely to interfere with their productive- 
ness, yet with proper attention and care they can be bred 
profitably as well as for their beauty. N 

The standard weight of the Light Brahma cock is 12 

pounds; hens, 9% pounds; cockerels, 10 pounds; and pullets, 8 pounds. The standard weight of Dark 

Brahma cocks is 11 pounds; hens, 8% pounds; cockerels, 9 pounds; and pullets, 7 pounds. 

The four varieties of Cochins" are very*popular with breeders. They are second 

Cochins. to the Brahmas in meat breeds, weighing but- a pound lighter than the Light 

Brahma. Old and experienced breeders of Cochins are pronounced in praise 

of their qualities as profitable fowls. They are hardy, good winter layers of rich, brown, medium sized 

eggs, and fairly good table fowls. The chicks grow well and develop rapidly under proper care. 



Figure 10. 
Hackle Feather of Light Brahma Cock. 




Figure 11. 
Pair of Buff Cochins. 






POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure 12. 

Back View of Buff Cochin Cock, Showing 

Full Feathering 



The Buff variety (Figure LI) is the most generally bred; the color tone offers an attraction to 
- that is hard to resist. Both male and female are of a rich, deep, clear buff, uniform in shape 
bout, except the tail, which should be a deeper buff or copperish bronze, under color same as 

surface color, but of lighter shade, and should extend to the skin In breeding select females as near as 
sible to the desired shade of buff, as free from dark or white 

in wing and tail, and of as even a color as can be. To such 

females mate a cock of deeper shade, with some little black in 

wing, and tail of deep buff of a coppery luster. This mating 

will produce good results in cockerels and pullets. 

The heavy leg and foot feathering so characteristic of 

the breed should have constant care and attention. While the 

feathering should be abundant, all semblance to the vulture 

hock or stiff feathering should be avoided. 

The Partridge Cochin (Figure 13) is a beautiful fowl, yet 

difficult to breed, and in plumage is much after the pattern of 

the Dark Brahma, the color being red and brown, instead of 

the steel gray effect of the latter. The head of male, in color, 

is bright red; hackle, bright red or orange red, with a distinct 

black stripe down the center of each feather; saddle feathers, 

same as hackle; breast and body, rich, deep black; wing bows, 

red ; primaries, black on the inside web, with a bay edging on 

the outside web; secondaries, black on the inside web and rich 

bay on the outside web, terminating with greenish black at the 

end of each feather; wing coverts, greenish black, forming a 

well denned bar of that color across the wing when folded; tail, 

black; sickles, coverts, and lesser coverts, glossy greenish black; the latter may be edged with red; 

thighs, black ; shanks, yellow, and well covered with black or brownish feathers; the middle toes being 

also feathered. 

The female is the prettier of the two. The head is small and of a rich, dark brown plumage, 
a stout, well curved beak, yellow in color. The eyes are bay and mild in expression. The head 

is ornamented with a small, single comb, set perfectly straight 
upon the head and bright red in color. The wattles are small, 
well rounded and fine in texture. The ear lobes are well 
developed and are also fine in texture. 

The neck is neatly curved, with abundant hackle flowing 
well over the shoulders. The plumage is bright red or orange 
red, with a broad black stripe down the middle of each feather. 
The black stripe in a good feather should run to a point near 
the end of the feather. This stripe should be free from pencil- 
ing, but the standard permits a slight penciling of the back. 
(See Figure 14.) 

A good back and cushion help to make the bird. The 
back should be broad and flat, the broader the better, and the 
cushion should rise with a gentle convex curve and partially 
cover the tail. The plumage of the back and cushion is a red- 
dish brown in color. Each feather is penciled with a darker 
bro,wn; the outlines of the penciling conform to the shape of 
the feathers. The breast is one of the most important points 
of a good hen, and should be broad and massive. The 

plumage is of the same reddish brown color as the back. The penciling on the breast is perhaps 

a little more distinct and open than on the back; the outlines of the penciling should be sharp 

and conform to the shape of the feather. 



with 



i IM 





Figure 13. 
Partridge Cochin Hen. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



189 




Figure 14. 
Feathers of Partridge Cochin Hen. 



The body is broad and deep behind and of the same plumage as the breast. The fluff is very- 
abundant, covering the posterior portion of the bird and standing out about the sides. The wings 
are small and the primaries fold closely under the secondaries ; 
the bows are covered by the breast feathers and the fluff con- 
ceals the points. The primaries are very dark brown or blackish 
brown in color; the inner web of the secondaries is a blackish 
brown and the outer web is a blackish brown penciled with a 
lighter brown. The coverts are similar in color and penciling to 
the plumage of the breast. 

The tail is small and short, is carried almost horizontally, 
and is partly concealed by the cushion. In color it is black, 
except the two main tail feathers, which are penciled. The tail 
coverts are penciled same as breast and body. Thighs are large 
and well covered with soft feathers; the feathers on the lower 
part curve inward around the hock and hide the joint on the out- 
side. The feathering of the thighs is of the same shade and color 
as that of the body. Shanks are soft and yellow, and heavily cov- 
ered with feathers of same color as thighs. The toes are well 
spread and yellow, the outer and middle toes being feathered 
throughout their entire length. 

Black Cochins (Figure 15) are much more easily raised 
than either of the varieties thus far described. Being of one color, the care bestowed in breeding 
party colored or penciled birds is not necessary, and the time may be spent in furthering their general 
utility in egg production. A one colored bird is the more practical bird for the farmer and markel 

poultryman. The Black Cochin is of a rich, glossy black plumage 
throughout. The White Cochin is pure white in plumage. 

The standard weight of Buff, Partridge and White Cochin 
cocks is 11 pounds; hens, 8^ pounds; cockerels, 9 pounds; and 
pullets, 7 pounds. Black Cochins are of the same weight, 
except cocks, which should weigh 103^ pounds. 

Langshans are the smallest and most 
Lan.gsh.anS. active of the Asiatic class. They are 

practical in more senses than one, and 
their prolific laying and other excellent qualities make them 
profitable for the farmer and market poultryman. They con- 
stitute one of the oldest breeds of poultry and have always 
been held in popular esteem. The shape of the Langshan is 
distinct from that of the Brahma or Cochin, and should not be 
confused with either of the last named breeds. Figure 16 
shows the accepted contour of the Langshans, and a compari- 
son with the birds in Figures 9 and 11 shows at a glance the 
characteristics of the Langshans as compared with the other 
Asiatics. Langshans have white flesh and dark legs, while the 
others are yellow skinned and yellow legged. The quality of the flesh of the Langshan is excellent, 
being fine grained, tender, and nicely flavored. As layers they rank among the best, averaging from 
twelve to thirteen dozen a year, and as winter layers they are to be recommended. The chicks are 
hardy and mature early. Langshans are good sitters and mothers, being of gentle disposition ; they 
are easily kept, either in confinement or on free range. Being excellent foragers, they are ideal fowls 
for the farm, and will gather during the year a considerable portion of their feed. 

The Langshan is a stylish, medium sized bird, not overgrown or bulky in appearance, of active 
nature and lively disposition. Many confound the Black Langshan with the Black Cochin. 




Figure 15. 
Pair of Black Cochins. 



100 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure IS. 
Fail Oi Black Langshans. 



This need not bo, as the following comparison between the two varieties shows: The Black 
bin is square in shape, with heavy looking neck and legs, plenty of fluff and leg feathering, cushion 
rising from middle of back to tail, tail short, small, and almost 

aled by cushion; neck, breast, cushion, and tail all 
represented by convex lines. Langshan head small for size 
of body, comb medium sized, well up in front, and arched 

I : Cochin head larger than that of the Langshan and not 
so arched over the eye; comb smaller, low in front, and 
almost straight on top of serrations. Langshan back short 
and concave; that* of the Cochin medium length, slightly 
convex, and large convex cushion. Langshan fluff moderate ' 
and close; that of Cochin extremely full and loose. Langshan - 
wings somewhat large and inclined downward, quite prominent 
at shoulders; the Cochin wings smaller and almost hidden by ' 
the fluffy plumage of cushion and fluff. Langshan breast full, 
deep, and carried well forward; Cochin breast not so full and 
deep, but broader. Langshan legs medium in length, small 
bone, long, tapering toes, color of shank, bluish black, showing 
pink between scales, which are nearly black; Cochin legs 
shorter, stouter, larger bone, toes shorter and stouter, color of 
shanks, black or yellowish black. 

There are two varieties of Langshans, the Black and 
the White. The Black, in the plumage of neck, back, saddle, 
sickles, a glossy metallic black, with greenish sheen; breast, primaries, secondaries, tail, fluff, shank, 
and toe feathers, black. The under color is black or dark slate. The White Langshan is pure white 
throughout. 

The standard weight of cocks for both varieties is 10 pounds; hens, 7 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; 
and pullets, 6 pounds. 

Leghorns are the best known of the egg producing varieties of the Mediter- 

LeghoniS. ranean class. They are the premiers in laying and the standard by which the 

prolificacy of other breeds is judged. As to the origin of the Leghorns, there 
are differences of opinion, and there is but little information to be found anywhere concerning their early 
history. It is generally conceded that a race of fowls bearing a close resemblance in many respects to 
the Leghorn has existed in Italy and other parts of Europe for a long period. That this race has 
been widely disseminated admits also of little doubt, inasmuch as at the present day it is known in 
Denmark and other countries as the Italian. There seems to be good ground for the statement that 
Leghorns were first introduced into America from Italy. The story goes that as early as 1834 a vessel 
from Leghorn brought to this country as a part of its cargo a small shipment of fowls, which were at' 
once named Leghorns. They immediately became popular, their prolific laying and nonsitting qualities 
being recognized at this early date. 

White and Brown Leghorns were the first varieties known. Modern breeders are responsible 
for some of the subvarieties of the breed ; an*d, in point of color at least, exhibition birds of today, even 
of the older varieties, vary considerably from those seen at the present time in Italy. 

The Leghorn fowl holds the same place among poultry that the Jersey holds among cattle. The 
question of profit in poultry has been decided in favor of egg producing breeds. Leghorns are lively, 
active, and of a restless disposition, the best of foragers, and will pick up a good part of their living during 
the year. They are light eaters and the cost of raising them to maturity is about one-half that of the 
Asiatic varieties. They mature early, feather quickly, the pullets often begin to lay when four months old, 
and cockerels crow at the same age. They are the best layers, averaging between 150 and 200 eggs per 
year. Their eggs are pure white in color, and weigh about ten to the pound. As table fowls they are 
fairly good. By many they are considered excellent. The only thing that can be said against them is 
that they are small in size. Altogether, they are one of the most profitable breeds of poultry that can 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



191 




Figure 17. Single Comb White Leghorn Cock. 



be kept upon the farm, and the cheapness of their keeping will allow the raising of two Leghorns for the 
cost of one Asiatic. They must be warmly housed in winter to lay well and to protect their pendulous 

wattles from frost bite. 

In shape a Leghorn cock (Figure 17) should be graceful; 
body round and plump, broad at the shoulders, and tapering 
toward the tail. The tail should be well balanced on a fair 
length of shank and thigh, the length of leg giving the bird its 
sprightly and proud carriage. Closeness of feathering adds to 
the general shape and secures a freedom from angles which 
always proclaims the pure bred, typical specimen. The breast 
should be full, beautifully curved, rather prominent, and carried 
well forward. Neck long, well arched, and carried erect; back 
of medium length, with saddle rising in a sharp concave sweep 
to the tail; tail large, full, carried upright; the full, flowing tail 
and long, well curved sickles are characteristics of the birds most 
thought of. The wing is long, well folded, and tightly carried. 
Hackle and saddle feathers long and abundant, and flowing 
well over the shoulder and saddle. The legs are bright yellow 
and free from feathers; toes also yellow, -but a dark shade is 
allowable. The head is the prettiest portion of the bird, being 
short and deep ; yellow beak, full, bright red eyes, and bright red 
face. The comb is single, of medium size, perfectly straight and 
upright upon the head, free from side sprigs, deeply serrated with five or six points, and bright red. The 
comb should extend well back over the head, with no tendency to follow the shape of the neck. Ear 
lobes are white or creamy white. 

The Leghorn hen in many respects resembles the cock, except in the carriage of comb and sexual 
differences. In 3hape and carriage the hen is even more graceful and sprightly than the cock, very 
close in feather, and rather small in body, though somewhat long in back. Her breast is full, very round, 
and carried high; legs fairly long, and shanks thin; tail carried closely and well up. The general carriage 
should be upright. Her comb is the marvel of her beauty; it is single and falls gracefully to one side 
but not in a limp manner, or so as to obscure the sight. Figure 
18 shows an idealcomb of Leghorn female. Legs, comb, and face 
are the same color as in the male, but the ear lobe is much smaller. 

There are six standard 
varieties of Leghorns : Black, 
Brown, Buff, Dominique, Sil- 
ver Duckwing, and White. 

The Black Leghorn is 
a popular bird, and a favorite 
with those who are partial to 
its color of plumage. The 
Black Leghorn is mistaken by 
many for the Black Minorca, 
but it is quite different in 
type. The Minorca is larger 
in size, has a longer body, 
•larger comb, and dark slate or 
nearly black shanks and toes. 
The plumage of the Black 
Leghorn is a rich, glossy black 
throughout. Comb, face and wattles bright red; ear lobes white; and shank yellow, or yellowish black. 





Figure 18. 
Head of Single Comb Brown Leghorn Hen. 



FiGure 19. 
Head of Single Comb Brown Leghorn Cock. 



192 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure 20. 
Single Comb Brown Leghorn Cock. 



The Brown Leghorns (Figure 20) are one of the prettiest, as well as the most commonly bred, of 
the Leghorn varieties. They are the most difficult of all to breed to feather. 

They have merited the confidence of poultry lovers for a long time and their hardy constitutions 
have thwarted rough usage and promiscuous interbreeding to efface their characteristics. They are a 
d their merits are noticeable from the newly hatched chick to the oldest specimen; they 
d with the indelible mark of royalty only to be found in a thoroughbred. 

In mating Brown Leghorns opposites must be considered. 
Should the male be fine in all points except comb or leg, select 
females strong in this point to mate with him. The most suc- 
cessful breeders use a double mating, one pen to produce 
exhibition birds of each sex. Fine birds, both cockerels and 
pullets, can be bred from the same pen by using slightly different 
types of females. The same male often will breed the finest 
of both exhibition cockerels and pullets, but it is a rare case to 
have a female breed both sexes of a remarkable quality. 

When two pens are used, at the head of the pen mated 
to produce the cockerels place a fully developed cock with no 
serious fault, standard color, especially strong in comb, lobe, 
hackle, and saddle, a dark undercolor preferred. To him mate 
hens of a shade darker than standard, standing combs; a trifle 
brick color on wings is no objection, as it will give a brighter 
color on wing bows of the cockerels. Shafting on the back will 
also help the black strpe in the saddles. The pullets raised 
from this pen will be too dark for exhibition, but they will be a 
great help for breeding cockerels the next season. The male at 

the head of the pen mated to produce the pullets should be from a pullet strain, and bred directly from 

an exhibition hen. His color should be a trifle light; comb 

large, but evenly serrated, if thin near the top, all the better; 

hackle well striped (see Figure 21), but none in saddle; under 

color of saddle or hackle may be light gray or white ; wing bows 

should show more purple than red, as too much red shows signs 

of being bred from a bricky hen. To him mate exhibition 

females having light brown, penciled with darker brown on 

back and wings, all one shade, free from shafting on back and 

brick color on wings. These hens should have a large comb, 

lying over, but firm and strong on the head, so it does not lie 

close to the eye and face. The cockerels raised from this mating 

are the birds to use for breeding females the next year. By 

breeding Brown Leghorns in this manner we have two distinct 

lines of blood, and they should never be crossed. 

The Buff Leghorn (Figure 22) is the most recent acquisi- 
tion to the Mediterranean class. It is a beautiful bird and one 
that will win its way wherever bred. Buff colored birds have 
many admirers, and those who have bred them are pronounced 
in their praise of their qualities. Besides having the general 
characteristics of the Leghorn type, the Buff Leghorn cock has 
rich buff colored hackle and saddle, in shade from lemon to cinnamon, but of even, solid color, in* 
keeping with the rest of the plumage; the back and the wing bow exactly match the plumage; tail 
of the same general tint, but richer, deeper buff is preferable; the standard given for tail is a rich, deep 
buff of copperish bronze. The remainder of the plumage is of slightly lighter shade, but even in , 
r throughout, with no semblance of a patchy or mottled plumage. White and black feathers in 



V 





I V- 



Figure 21. Feathers 01 Brown Leghorns. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



193 




Figure 22. Leghorn Cockerel. 



plumage are objectionable; solid white or solid black feathers will disqualify the bird. The hen is of 

the same color as the cock. 

Dominique Leghorns are not so generally known. Their color is much like that of the American 

Dominique and Barred Plymouth Rock, and is what is known as Cucko by English breeders. The 

body color is grayish white, each feather regularly crossed with parallel bars of blue black, producing the 

effect of a bluish tinged plumage. This color is the same throughout. The ground color of each 

feather is a clear, light bluish gray. The shanks and toes are bright yellow and eyes bright red. 

Silver Duckwing Leghorns are not generally bred in this 
country, though they are frequently seen in the show rooms. They 
are considered as profitable as any of the older Leghorn varieties, and 
in point of beauty they are interesting and fascinating. They take 
the name Duckwing from the similarity of the steel blue wing bar 
to that of the Mallard or wild duck, the name being first given to a 
variety of games — the Silver Duckwing Game. The hackle and saddle 
feathers of a Silver Duckwing Leghorn cock are pure silvery white, 
'• without the slightest straw or creamy tinge, with a narrow black 
stripe along the center of the lower hackle feathers. Back, saddle, 
wing bow and wing bay, pure white; breast, under parts, wing bar, 
and tail, dense, lustrous black. The Silver Duckwing Leghorn hen has 
a silvery gray hackle, with a narrow black stripe through the center 
of .each feather. The breast is light salmon, shading off to gray 
toward the sides. The body color, when viewed at a short distance, 
should appear gray, with a faint bluish tint all over. A tendency 

to ruddy gray, either in ground color or penciling, is objectionable. The tail is black or dark brown, 

except the two upper feathers, which are light gray. The penciling or marking is irregular or wavy. 
The White Leghorn, like the Brown, is one of the most generally bred of the Leghorn varieties. 

It is, no doubt, the most advantageous to breed for profit, and the easiest to raise on the farm. Being 

of one color in plumage, these birds are more successfully raised and cared for than the pure colored vari- 
eties. Their plumage is pure white throughout, and feathers other 

than white will disqualify them. It has been a matter of much 

speculation as to which variety of Leghorn is most prolific in egg 

production. This is a difficult question to adjust properly to the 

satisfaction of the specialty breeders, but from a conservative 

standpoint it is generally considered that the Whites have slightly 

the advantage over the others. Phenomenal individual egg records 

have been made by almost all varieties, but the above opinion is 

advanced from the general results obtained from various sources. 
There are subvarieties both in Brown and White Leghorns 

■ — the Rose Comb Brown and the Rose Comb White. The only 

distinguishing difference between the last named and the other 

varieties is the comb. The Rose Comb White and Rose Comb 

Brown Leghorns have a small rose comb (see Figure 23), square in 

front, firm and even upon the head, tapering evenly from front to 

rear, without inclining to one side, the top comparatively flat and 

covered with small points, or corrugations, terminating in a well 

developed spike in the rear. There is no standard weight given 

in Leghorns. 

The Minorcas belong to the Mediterranean 
Minorcas. class, and they are placed next to the Leghorn in laying qualities. They are 

in appearance very similar to the Leghorns. Their general outline is, in fact, 

that of the latter, but of more length of body and heavier in mold, Indeed, they are the only 

variety of. the Mediterranean class that has a given weight which approaches that of the Wyandotte, 




Figure 23. 



Rose Comb White Leghorn 
Cockerel. 



Slg. 13 



194 POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



1 _. pound lighter. The origin of the Minorcas, like that of so many others of our 

le poultry, is much in doubt. Some are of the opinion that they originally came from Minorca, 

one of the Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean Sea, while others contend that they are a variety of the 

Black Spanish. Be that as it may, they are one of the most profitable breeds of poultry for the farm. 

The Minorcas are good for table purposes, the flesh being white, of light color, and fine grained. 
.Their chief advantage is their egg production. They are nonsitters and year around layers. As winter 
layers they are exceptionally good, when kept under fairly favorable circumstances. While the 
i hem in the number of eggs laid, the Minorcas' eggs are larger and equal the output in 
bulk. Their eggs are white and average eight to the pound. They lay from twelve to fifteen dozen 
a year. Being of an active, restless disposition, they keep in splendid condition and make good 
foragers. For suburban poultry keeping they are very practical birds, and net good results to the 
keeper. They are hard}-, easily raised, and mature quickly. 

The Minorca fowl is large in outline, good body; stands well upon its legs, has a broad chest 
and a long, flat back, with tail carried upright. Many breeders dispute as to the carriage of the tail. 
The standard says upright, while the preference is almost universally expressed by breeders that it 
should be carried well back. The upright position gives the tail the Leghorn type (see Figure 17), 
while the typical Minorca differs somewhat from it, being more horizontal, as shown in Figure 24. The 
body of the Minorca male is long, square in front, tapering from front to rear. When stariding erect 
the body of the male is at an angle of nearly 45 degrees. Thighs are stout ; shanks medium in 
length, stout in bone, and in color dark slate or nearly black; comb single, large, perfectly straight 
and upright, evenly serrated, and extending well over back of head. 
The comb of the Minorca is larger and more bulky than .that of the 
Leghorn. Wattles are thin and pendulous, corresponding with size 
of comb ; ear lobes pure white. The female is in body of the 
same general appearance as the male — rather long, broad and deep. 
Her comb is single, large and drooping to one side; like comb of 
male, her comb is perceptibly larger than that of the Leghorn 
female. Black Minorcas are in plumage a rich", glossy black 
throughout, and gray tips are considered serious defects. The 
White Minorca is as popular as the Black, and takes the same 
position as does the White Leghorn in its class. The standard 
qualifications are equal for the two except in color, and that must 
be pure white throughout; feathers other than white disqualifying. 
The other qualities are equal as to profitableness between the two 
varieties. The comb, face and wattles are bright red, free from Fi e ure 24 - Black Minorca cockerel, 
white in face. Eyes are dark hazel or red. 

Before concluding with regard to the Minorcas it is worthy of note that the latest acquisition 
to the breed is the Rose Comb Black Minorca. The only objection that has ever been raised against 
the varieties of the Mediterranean class is their susceptibility to frost bite of the comb. Their combs 
are so large that continued cold or exposure is sure to result in this injury. To obviate this one defect, 
if it may be so termed, in this valuable class of birds, has been the purpose of breeders in producing a 
bird that possesses the other qualifications and with low rose comb. There are two standard varieties 
of Minorcas — the Black and the White. The Rose Comb Black Minorca is not recognized as a stand- 
ard variety as yet, but indications point to its admission as such in the near future. Many good speci- 
mens have been bred and exhibited at the recent shows, and success in making this variety seems assured. 
The head of the Rose Comb Black Minorca male should be medium in length; beak, stout and black; 
, dark red; face, smooth and red; comb, rose, straight, and set close and even on the head. In size 
the comb should be between that of the Wyandotte and the Leghorn ; wattles, medium in length and not 
so large as in single comb varieties; ear lobes, pure white, large, smooth and almond shaped. The head 
of female is similar to that of the male, medium in size; face, red; comb, small and even on the head; 
wattles, medium in size, thin and bright red; ear lobes, pure white, large and even. 




POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



195 




Figure 25. 
Blue Andalusian Hen. 



The standard weight of the Minorca cock is 8 pounds; hen, 6^ pounds; cockerel, 6>2 pounds; 

and pullet, 5^ pounds. 

The Andalusian (Figure 25) is one of the prettiest of the feathered race, being 

Andalusians. of a beautiful light and dark blue plumage. It is called the Blue Andalusian 

and it is the only variety of its breed. It is not so popular in this country as 

it shoulcTbe, owing to the sentiment against white skin and blue shanks. English and French poultrymen 

prefer these qualities in a bird, and with them it is very 
popular. The hens are nonsitters and splendid layers of large 
white eggs, equaling in size those of the" Minorcas. Specimens 
of their eggs have been in competition and won the award for 
merit in size and weight. The chicks are hardy, mature early, 
and the pullets begin laying when five or six months old. 

For farm purposes they rank with the Leghorn and 
the Minorca, the preference being only in the color of their 
plumage. For fancy purposes they are an ideal bird on 
account of their beauty. Their general characteristics are 
those of the Leghorn. The hackle and saddle feathers are 
dark blue, approaching black; breast, a lighter shade of blue, 
each feather having a well defined lacing of a darker shade; 
body and fluff, similar in color to breast, but somewhat darker; 
primaries, light blue; secondaries and wing coverts, dark blue; 
wing bows, darker blue, approaching black; tail and sickle 
feathers, dark blue, approaching black ; shanks and toes, slaty blue. 
No standard weight is given. for Andalusians ; their average size is that of the Leghorn. 

The Black Spanish fowls (Figure 26) constitute one of the oldest varieties of 
Black Spanish. domestic poultry. Their name has been indentified with the industry for hundreds 
of years, and their practical worth on the farm has long been recognized. Their 
haughty bearing, large red comb and wattles, and the white face 
and lobes peculiar to the breed, contrasting with their glossy 
black plumage, render them striking birds. 

White Faced Black Spanish have long been favorably 
known for their exceptional laying qualities. The oldest of the 
nonsitting varieties, they still maintain an unsurpassed record. 
The pullets are early layers, averaging 150 to. 180 eggs per year; 
the hens begin somewhat later, after molting, but compensate for 
any loss in number by the increased size of the eggs. Hens and 
pullets alike are well above the average for winter laying. Their 
eggs are large and white and of good flavor. The white face is a 
distinguishing feature, and should be long, smooth, free from 
wrinkles, rising well over the eyes in an arched form, extending 
toward the back of the head and to the base of the beak, covering 
the cheeks and joining the wattles at ear lobes ; the greater the 
depth of surface the better. It should be pure white in color. The 
color of plumage throughout is rich, glossy black, and any gray is considered a serious defect. Shanks 
and toes are blue, or dark leaden blue. Comb is single and bright red in color; wattles, bright red, 
except the inside of the upper part, which is white; ear lobes, pure white. 

No standard weight is given for Black Spanish; they equal in size the Leghorns and Andalusians. 

One of the oldest varieties of poultry is the Polish (Figure 27), its ancestors 

White Crested being traced as. far back as the Sixteenth Century. Among the varieties men- 

Black Polish. tioned in those early days was the Woolly fowl, similar to the Silky fowl of today. 

Mention in history is also made of the Frizzled fowl, the Persian fowl, the 

Turkish fowl, and the Crested fowl. The latter is described as being a fowl with a lark's crest. Another 




Figure 26. 
Pair of White Faced Black Spanish. 



196 



i.TRY RAISING ON T11K FARM. 




Figure 27. 
Pair of White Crested Black Polish. 



et\ is known . Patavinian fowl, which is believed to be the progenitor of the Polish. variety. 

The cock is described as exceedingly beautiful, being richly decorated with five colors, black, white, 

green, red, and ocher; the bod)'- is black, the neck covered with 
white feathers, and the wings and back partly black, and partlv 
green ; the tail is the same, but the roqjs of the feathers are 
whitish, and some of the flight feathers are also white. 

The eyes are surrounded with red circles, the comb is very 
small, the bill and feet yellow, and the head is adorned with a 
beautiful crest. In the hen there is no white except the white 
pellicle at the opening of the ears." She is altogether of a greenish 
black color, with yellow feet and a very small comb, slightly 
tinged with red. 

The general characteristics of the Polish are those of 
medium sized fowls, slightly larger than the Hamburgs; a full, 
round breast, carried well forward; the neck of the cock carried 
back and beautifully arched; a perfectly straight back, broad at the 
shoulders and narrowing rapidly to the tail ; large and closely folded wings ; a large, well expanded, upright 
tail, and in the cock furnished with an abundance of tail coverts and sickle feathers; shanks of a bluish 
color, in all varieties but the White Crested Black, in Avhich they are of dark slate or nearly black; and, 
above all, a large crest and leaf comb. The crest of the cock is composed of narrow feathers, something 
like those which form the hackle of the neck and saddle. They should rise well in front, so as not to 
obstruct the sight, and fall over to the back and sides in a flowing, even mass. If they fall forward, as 
is sometimes the case, they both obstruct the sight and are liable to get wet when the bird drinks. Such 
a crest, also, is hollow in the center and loses much of its beauty. The crest of the hen is formed of 
feathers growing upward and turning in at the extremities, and should be large and globular in form and 
compact in character, with no sign of parting. The larger the crest the better, provided it is of good 
shape; but a close, compact, well formed crest is to be preferred to one that is larger, but of loose texture 
and falling in all directions. The comb is peculiar, and belongs to the class of combs which have a 
fancied resemblance to a leaf, and are designated leaf combs. It is better described, however, as two 
fleshy horns diverting like the letter V, the upper extremities retreating into the crest. The smaller the 
comb the better, and if wholly wanting, except when removed by design or accident, it is not regarded 
as a disqualification. 

Polish chickens are bred extensively in this country and by 
some are considered practical for general purposes, but, while some 
breeders may secure good results, the Polish is not to be fully recom- 
mended as a general purpose fowl. They are considered more as 
fancy birds, and are generally bred for pleasure and the show room. 
Their large crest is against them, hindering their vision and causing 
them to become listless, inactive, and suspicious. Extra care must 
be given to be fairly successful in raising them, and their houses and 
coops must be kept absolutely dry — the least water in their crest is 
likely to prove fatal to them. They are fairly good layers of medium 
sized eggs, and are nonsitters. For table purposes they are considered 
good, their flesh being fine grained, tender, and sweet. 

Of the varieties of Polish, the White Crested Black is the most 
popular. The color of their plumage is a rich, glossy black through- 
out, with the exception of the crest, which is pure white. The shanks 
and toes are black, or dark slate; comb and wattles are bright red and ear lobes are white. 

The Golden and Silver varieties are beautifully marked in plumage. In the Golden the feathers 
are marked with rich golden bay and spangled or laced with black. The feathers of the Silver are 



iso&K 




Figure 28. 
Bearded Silver Polish Hen. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



197 



silvery white, instead of the golden bay, and spangled or laced with black. The illustration 
(Figure 28) shows the general markings of the feathers. The White Polish is pure white throughout 

the plumage. 

There are two distinct subbreeds of Polish, the Plain 
and the Bearded. The latter has a thick, full beard, running 
back of the eye in a handsome curve, and in color corre- 
sponding with the balance of the plumage. The egg varieties 
of Polish are: White Crested Black, Golden, Silver, White, 
Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, Bearded White, and Buff 
Laced. 

No standard weight is given for Polish; they are of 
medium size, about that of the Leghorns. 



^'sJHj 




Hamburgs. 



Figure 29. Pair of Silver Spangled Hamburgs. 



Hamburgs (Figures 29 and 30) are in 
the front ranks of egg producers and 
are in general appearance much like 
Leghorns. There are six varieties of Hamburgs: the Golden 
Spangled, Silver Spangled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, 
Black, and White. They are all very pretty birds and seldom 
fail to prove attractive and profitable to the average breeder 
and fancier. Hamburgs are economical fowls to keep; besides 
being light eaters and great foragers, they are prolific layers and nonsitters. The only thing against 
them is the smallness of their eggs. They lay a pretty, white shelled egg, but smaller in size than 
those of the Leghorn. There are some which lay larger eggs than others, and by careful selection from 
year to year of the birds which lay the largest eggs this defect may be remedied and the size of the eggs 
improved. 

The Silver Spangled Hamburg is perhaps the most beautiful as well as the most popular variety 
of the Hamburgs. Its proud carriage, royal decoration and graceful, symmetrical form command atten- 
tion whenever seen. Breeders of Hamburgs usually adopt the following as a standard for the breed: 
Comb, square at front, tapering nicely into a long spike, full of points, by no means plain, firmly and 
evenly set on the head; face, red; ear lobes, moderate in size, round as possible, and clear white; legs, 
leaden blue; carriage, graceful; plumage, very profuse. 

Cocks — Silver Spangled: Color, clear, silvery white ground ; 
every feather tipped or spangled; the breast as bold as possible, 
but showing the spangle; the bars of the wing regular and bold; 
neck, back and saddle, nicely tipped ; bow well marked (by no 
means cloudy, brown or brassy) ; back, as green as possible. 
Gold Spangled: Color, very black and rich ground; the 'back, 
glossy green ; the neck and saddle nicely striped ; bow of wing 
well marked. Hens — Silver Spangled: The white, clear and 
silvery; spangles, large, green as possible, distinct and clear. 
Gold Spangled: Ground, clear, rich; clear spangles, large and 
distinct. 

The feather markings of the penciled varieties differ 
greatly from those of the spangled; the latter being commonly 
called moon eye, from the round or open appearance of the 
spangles, while the markings of the penciled varieties are in 
parallel bars of reddish bay or black, or clear, silvery white and 
black, as the case may be. White and Black Hamburgs are solid white or solid black in plumage. 




Figure 30. Black Hamburg Hen. 



No standard weight is given for Hamburgs. 






POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



Redcaps. 



there being 



This variety (Figure 31) is the largest of the Hamburg group, its size equaling 

that of the Minorca. Redcaps are an old breed, mention of them being made 

by some of the old authors. They are not so popular as the Hamburgs, 

difficulty in breeding them with good combs and clearly defined plumage. The 

large comb stands in their way as popular birds, and unless it 
is square and even it makes a miserable sight. 

Redcaps are hardy and mature early, and, like Ham- 
burgs, are excellent layers. For market purposes they are 
good, the size and qtiality of flesh being recommendations for 
popular favor. They are reputed to be nonsitters, though 
occasionally they are known to sit and hatch broods. 

The comb is rose, the larger the better, not overhanging 
the eyes, square in front and uniform on each side. It must 
be firm and even upon the head, without inclining to one 
side, the top covered with small points, or corrugations, ter- 
minating at the jear in a well developed, straight spike, and 
bright red in color. Wattles and ear lobes are also bright red. 
In plumage the male and female are red and black; the head 
is red, with blue black hackle, each feather edged with red; 
the back is red and black, and breast purplish black. The 
shanks are slate colored; 

The standard weight of cocks is 7% pounds; hens, 
Figure 31. Head of Redcap Cock. §y 2 pounds; cockerels, 6 pounds; and pullets, 5 pounds. 




Campines belong to the Hamburg group. They are an old variety, but have 

Campines. only recently been admitted to the standard. The first mention of them was 

made in 1828, when they were referred to as a small* variety of fowls imported 

from Holland, called Everyday Hens, or Everlasting Layers. This name is still applied to them on 

their native soil. Campines are rated as extraordinary layers in Holland, their native country, but 

their introduction into this country has been so recent that a comparison with the other egg 

laying breeds cannot be satisfactorily estimated. However, those who keep them speak highly 

of their laying qualities. * 

They much resemble the Hamburgs, so much so that 

many think they are the same breed of birds. They differ, 

however, from the Hamburgs in the comb, having a single 

comb, while the comb of the Hamburg is rose. There are two 

varieties of Campines, the Golden and the Silver. The color 

of the Golden is a rich golden bay in the neck plumage and a 

darker yellow for the body color. The Silver Campines are 

silvery white and black throughout their plumage. The shanks 

and toes of both varieties are dark blue in color; wattles, 

bright red; and ear lobes, white or bluish white. 

No standard weight is given for Campines; they equal 

the Hamburgs in size. 

The three varieties of poultry in the 
Houdans. French class are the Houdans, Creve- 

coeurs and La Fleches. Of these the 
Houdans (Figure 32) are considered to be the most popular and 
profitable, being bred to a great extent throughout the entire 
country. They are hardy and prolific layers of large, white eggs. For table purposes they are 
among the best fowls. They have small bones and the flesh is tender and delicious. The chicks are 




Figure 32. Fair of Houdans. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



199 



sprightly and active and feather rapidly. They are nonsitters and light feeders; like the Leghorns, 
they may be fed at small cost as compared with some of the larger breeds. They are of medium size 
and of a model white plumage, black and white intermixed, the black slightly predominating; wing 
bars and secondaries, black; primaries, black and white intermixed. Houdans are a crested 
variety, having a leaf comb shaped somewhat like the letter V, which rests against the crest; crest of 
cock is large, well fitted upon the crown of the head, falling backward upon the neck, and com- 
posed of feathers similar in shape and texture to those of the hackle. The crest of the female is 
large, compact and regular, inclining backward in an unbroken mass. A peculiarity of the breed is 
their having five toes, like the Dorkings ; shanks and toes are of a pinkish white color. 

The standard weight of cocks is 7 pounds ; hens, 6 pounds ; cockerels, 6 pounds ; and pullets, 5 pounds. 

This variety is not so generally known in this country as the Houdans, but in 
CreveCOeurS. France, their native country, they are bred extensively for market purposes. 

They are considered of superior quality for the table, their flesh being white 
and delicately flavored. They are of gentle disposition and do well in confinement. They have weak 
constitutions and require extra care and attention. As layers they are only fair, and are nonsitters. 
They are a crested variety, having comb and crest similar to the Houdans, and in plumage are a 
rich, greenish black throughout. 

The standard weight of cocks is 8 pounds ; hens, 7 pounds ; cockerels, 7 pounds ; and pullets, 6 pounds. 



La Fleches. 



La Fleche fowls differ in character from the other two breeds of French poultry 
mentioned. Houdans and Crevecoeurs are more compactly built than La Fleches, 
the latter being tall and rather gaunt looking, and in style and character 
denote the preponderance of Spanish blood. Their plumage is a rich, glossy black throughout. The 
comb is peculiar to itself, being leaf, of moderate size, branching and antler like, somewhat like two 
horns pointing upward. The birds are of extremely delicate constitution, 'and difficult to raise. The 
flesh is more delicate and juicy than any variety except the Game. It is a moderate layer of very 
large, white eggs, but by no means so good as the Spanish in this respect. As a table fowl it claims 
superiority; but it does not mature early — not nearly so early as the Houdans or the Crevecoeurs. 

The standard weight of cocks is 83^ pounds; hens, 73^ pounds; cockerels, iy 2 pounds; and 
pullets, 6% pounds. 

This English fowl may be considered an 
Dorkings. ideal bird for general purposes. It is 

hardy and can stand almost any amount 
of cold weather, provided the ground is not damp. This is 
proved by the fact that it does well in the southern part of 
Scotland and in the extreme north of Ireland, among the Cum- 
berland Hills, and the other places equally cold and exposed. 
It should be remembered by those who contemplate raising this 
kind that the soil must not be damp if success is expected. 
The Dorking (Figure 33) is one of the oldest of domestic fowls, if 
not the oldest. There are no definite records to show when it 
first lived in England, or whence it came, but the supposition is 
that it was carried to England by the Romans, who evidently 
possessed chickens of similar characteristics. 
The chief distinctive mark of the breed is the presence of a fifth or supernumerary toe, 
springing behind a little above the foot and below the spur. It has been sought by various writers to 
deprive Dorking of the honor of being the original and principal rearing place of this justly celebrated 
variety; and it is asserted that the true Dorking fowls are .raised at Horsham, Cockfield, and other 
places in the Weld of Syria, and that the ancient and superior white fowls from Dorking are a 
degenerated race compared with the improved Sussex breed. The feature in which this bird 
is most popular is its table qualities. The flesh is white and very delicate in texture. It is 
claimed by many to equal if not excel the French varieties. The broad, deep and projecting breast 




Figure 33. Silver Gray Dorking Cock. 



200 POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



of the Dorking admirably fits it for table purposes, and in this respect it is conceded by some to 
rival the Indian Game. As layers the Dorkings arc good, and are careful sitters and attentive 
mothers. They are profit able and splendid fowls for the farm. 

There are three varieties of Dorkings — the White, Silver Gray, and Colored. The White Dorking 
is really the purest blooded of the three, as for ye"ars this was the only variety which produced invariably 
the fifth toe, although the Colored and Silver Gray varieties seldom fail to breed this peculiarity. In 
color the White Dorking is a clear, unblemished, glossy white. The comb and wattles are a bright scarred 
red; tin it her white or of a delicate flesh color. 

Silver Gray Dorkings are beautiful in plumage. The head of the cock is silvery white ; hackle, 
silvery white, as free from stripes as possible; comb, face, ear lobes and wattles, bright red; beak, 
horn color or white; eyes, orange. Breast, thigh and other parts, black; back, shoulder coverts, saddle 
and wing bow, pure silver}* white; coverts, greenish black; primaries, black, edged with white; second- 
aries, part of outer web forming a wing bay, white; remainder of feathers forming wing butt, black; 
tail, greenish, glossy black; legs, feet and toe nails, white. The eye, beak, comb, face, wattles, legs, 
feet and toe nails of the hen are the same as in the cock; head, silvery white, with slight gray markings; 
hackle, silvery white, clearly striped with black; breast, rich robin red or salmon red, shaded off to gray 
in the lower parts; back, shoulder coverts, saddle, wing bow and wing coverts, bright silver gray, with 
minute pencilings of darker gray on each feather; the shafts of the feathers, white; primaries, gray or 
black; secondaries, gray; tail, gray, of a darker shade than body; quill feathers, black. 

Colored Dorkings differ from the others only in color, the general color of the male being black 
and straw- color, while the female is marked with black and mixed gray, with breast of dark salmon, 
edged with black. The combs of the Dorkings differ in the three varieties ; the Whites have rose combs, 
Silver Grays have single combs, and Colored Dorkings may have either single or rose combs, but single 
are preferred. 

The standard weights of Dorkings differ. The weights for Whites are: Cocks, 7J^ pounds; hens, 
6 pounds ; cockerels, 6 J^ pounds ; and pullets, 5 pounds. Silver Grays : Cocks, 8 pounds ; hens, 6}4 pounds ; 
cockerels, 7 pounds; and pullets, 5}4 pounds. Colored: Cocks, 9 pounds; hens, 7 pounds; cockerels, 
8 pounds; and pullets, 6 pounds. . 

The Game fowl is one of the most interesting varieties of domestic poultry. 
Pit Games. Its origin and history are seemingly linked with all topics concerning poultry 

and its origin, and even to this day the Game class is looked upon differently 
from all others. There are two divisions, Pit Games and Exhibition Games, and perhaps three, which 
are as wholly different in character as though of distinct variety. The Pit Game is not reckoned in the 
standard varieties of poultry, yet for practical and profitable poultry keeping it surpasses the more pre- 
tentious Exhibition Game. The type of the Pit Game is as distinct, thorough, and characteristic as 
any of the standard games, differing in pluming and feather markings. Color is not considered in breed- 
ing Pits; it is muscle, bone, and strength that are sought after, bred for, and that distinguish it from 
its relative, Exhibition Game. Note the contrast between the two types: The Pit is short, stout, and 
stocky, with abundant tail feathering; while the Exhibition Game is long, lanky, close feathered through- 
out, and spare in tail feathering. 

For the farm and general purposes the Pit Game has always been considered a practical and 
profitable fowl. It is hardy, matures early, is a good layer, and fine for table purposes. Its flesh is con- 
sidered of exceptional value for eating, being fine grained, tender, and sweet. The hens are splendid 
sitters and careful mothers. 

For a long time Exhibition Games have been favorites in this country. By 
Exhibition Games, careful selection in* breeding for many generations they have been brought to 

a high state of perfection. The beauty of an Exhibition Game is much praised 
in this and other countries and the pens are always filled at the shows. They are sought after and courted 
by fanciers, and as ornamental fowls they have few equals in the number of their admirers. The practical 
quality of the Exhibition Game has never been demonstrated with accuracy, their tall figure standing 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



201 



in the way of popularity and general usefulness. It should not be understood that they are unprofitable 
to keep, but rather not a fowl for farm purposes. They are usually splendid layers and excellent table 
fowls, their, meat being fine grained, tender, and juicy. They are splendid sitters and mothers. Their 
tall, commanding, and striking figures are decided contrasts to those of other poultry, and afford a 
diversion to admirers of fine poultry. The varieties of Exhibition Games are: Black Breasted Red, 
Brown Red, Golden and Silver Duckwing, Red Pyles, White, Black, Birchen, Cornish and White Indian, 
Malay, and Black Sumatra. 

The history of the Black Breasted Red Game dates from the most remote 
Black Breasted times. They always breed uniformly and invariably alike in color, this 
Red Games. uniformity being also observed in the Bantams of the same name. The 

color of the Red Game Cock is a bright orange; the head, hackle, and saddle 

being a light red; the breast, body, and stern are black; the shoulders, with the exception of the 

shoulder coverts, are red; wing bow, red; coverts, black; tail feathers, sickles, and tail coverts, lustrous 

black; eyes, black; shanks and feet, yellow. The hen is brown; head and hackles, light golden, the 

hackle feathers being striped with black down the center; the feathers of the body, penciled with black; 

tail, black or dark brown, the upper feathers being penciled with 

light brown. 

The head of the cock is long, and the neck slim and 

Snaky; breast, broad; great breadth across the shoulders; back, 

straight and sloping to the tail; body, hard and compact; wings, 

short; tail, small and closely folded, with few sickles and fine, 

narrow hangers; thighs, long and well developed; shanks, long, 

stout and smooth ; toes, long and straight. The hen is about 

the same shape as the cock, and the carriage of both is bold and 

upright. The Black Breasted Red Game is an excellent table 

fowl and a moderate layer of medium sized eggs of rich flavor. 

The chicks require much care, as their constitutions are weak- 
ened from too close breeding for ordinary purposes. 



Brown Red 
Games. 

comb, and ear lobes, 




Figure < 34. Silver Duck-wing Game Cockerel. 



The Brown Red Game differs from the 

Black Breasted Red Game in the color 

of the head. The face is dark purple; 

beak, dark brown or black; wattles, 

black or dark purple; head of cock, 
orange; hackle, lemon colored, with a black down the center of each feather; back, lemon; 
saddle, lemon colored, striped like hackle; breast, black, laced with lemon; shoulders, black; shoulder 
coverts, lemon; wing bows, lemon, and coverts glossy black; tail, lustrous black; shanks and feet, dark 
yellow, nearly black. 

The Golden and Silver Duckwing Games are similar in markings, the only 
Golden and Silver difference being that the Silver Duckwing cock (Figure 34) is white where the 
Duckwing Games. Golden Duckwing is golden or straw colored. In both varieties the face, comb, 

wattles, and ear lobes are red;*the beak, brown; breast, tail, and thighs, black; 
shanks and feet, yellow. In the Golden the head of the cock is straw colored; back, golden; wing bow, 
golden; the wing coverts forming a distinct black bar across the wing. These points are white in the 
Silver Duckwing. 

The plumage of the head and the hackle of the Red Pyle Game cock (Figure 35) 
Red Pyle Games, varies from bright orange to chestnut; back, crimson; breast, white, laced with 

chestnut; body, white; wings, crimson, transversed with a white bar; tail and 
tail coverts, white; the head of the hen is chestnut; hackle, white, edged with yellow; back, white; 
breast, salmon; wings, white or chestnut tinged; tail, white; shanks and feet of both cock and hen are 
yellow or willow. Red Pyles are similar in markings to the Black Breasted Reds, white being substituted 
for black (Figure 39). 



■202 



POl'LTRV RAISING ON THE FARM. 



White and 
Black Games. 



Birchen Games. 



Cornish and 
White In- 
dian Games. 



W 




Figure 35. Red Pyle Game Cock. 



THiese two varieties differ only in color from the others of their breed. The 
plumage of the White Game is a pure, spotless white; beak, shanks, and feet, 
yellow; comb, wattles, and ear lobes, red. The Black Game is a lustrous black 
in plumage; beak, shanks, and feel , Mark; comb, wattles, and ear lobes, deep red. 
Birchen Games arc silvery white and 
black; head, hackle, back, and saddle of 
cock are silvery white, with a narrow 
k stripe in the center of each hackle and saddle feather; 
black ich feather laced with silvery white; wing 

covert- black; tail and thighs, black; shanks and feet., 

dark willow or black; comb, wattles, and ear lobes, dark purple 
or black. The hen is black, except the hackle, which is silvery 
white, with a dark stripe down the center of each feather. 

The Indian Game (Figures 3G and 37) 
has many fine qualities to recommend it 
to the breeder, and for many years 
past has been one of the most popular 
oi fowls. In plumage the ma1 p is green 
black without penciling; the wings, chestnut, with bay and 
metallic black wing bar; the feathers of the neck hackle are 
short and hard, green black, with delicate crimson brown shafts.. 
The plumage of the hen is very difficult to obtain by breeding, 
and should be a combination of nut brown and green black 

throughout, green predominating. Along the breast bone of both male and female the feathers 
part and allow the skin to show just at or above the upper point of the keel bone. This is a distinctive 
feature of the breed and shows from the time the chicks shed the down. The breast is very wide, round, 
and prominent, and should always be oval and full in contour ; the thighs are well rounded, nicely tapering, 
and thick and meaty next to the body; shanks, very stout, well scaled, and deep orange in color; back 
toe should be almost flat on the ground; tail, close and hard, carried well out, and sickles rather short; 
wings, tightly folded, the ends of the secondaries rounding off abruptly and resting close against the 
tail or just above it; eye, yellow, approaching gray; beak, yellow, or striped with horn color. The 
Indian Game is a beautiful bird, and its every movement bespeaks its high breeding. 

The Malays (Figure 38) are supposed to 
Malay Games. be one of the parent stock of the Black 
Javas. They have never been popular 
in this country and are bred for exhibition only, not possessing 
qualification for practical purposes. They are of medium size, 
and in carriage are particularly upright and powerful looking, 
the back standing always at an angle of 45 degrees. Their 
plumage is very close, and red or maroon or black. The body 
tapers from the broad shoulders to the tail, which droops almost 
in a straight line with the back. The thighs are long and pow- 
erful. The striking feature of the Malay is the head. It is long 
and snaky, the brows over the eyes heavy and projecting, 
giving the bird a cruel and fierce expression; the neck is long 
and scanty of hackle; the skin of the throat is a bright red and 
the scantiness of the plumage causes the red to show distinctly. 
This is a characteristic of the breed. The wattles and ear lobes 
are slight in development; the shanks and toes are bright yellow. 
The Malays are large and hardy, and are used for crossing with other breeds to infuse vigor and size. 
In disposition they are reputed to be very savage, and in battle often literally tear their opponents 
to pieces. 




Figure 36. Pair of White Indian Games. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 



203 




- ■ 



Figure 37. Cornish Indian Game Hen. 



Although a beautiful bird and possessing many fine points worthy the consider- 

Black Sumatra ation of the fancier and breeder, the Black Sumatra Game is little known. 

Games. ^It is gentle of disposition and attentive to its young. There is considerable 

comment against the Sumatras on account of their long flowing tail and apparent 

lack of pit qualities ; but as to this those who have witnessed their defense of their mates and young 

differ. They may be slow in opening a conflict, but when 
occasion demands no bird can show a greater amount of staying 
powers than the Sumatra. In plumage they are a rich, 
lustrous black throughout. The tail is long and drooping, with 
an abundance of long, flowing sickle feathers and coverts. This 
is a point which severs all connection with the Pit Game and 
places them in the front rank of ornamental breeds. 

Game Bantams are diminutive repre- 
Game Bantams. sentatives of the Exhibition Game. 

The "color of plumage, markings, and 
shape most correspond with these features in the Game which 
bears its name, the diminutive size being the only distinguishing 
feature between the two. The cocks average 22 ounces in weight, 
the hens 20 ounces. The Malay Bantams average 2 ounces heavier. 

Bantams are purely ornamental poultry 
Sebright and are kept for pleasure exclusively, 

Bantams. though some contend they are profitable 

for eggs and table. This is hardly 
reasonable to suppose, as their diminutive size and small eggs 
would hardly pay for their keep other than for fancy purposes. The Golden and Silver Sebright 
Bantams were originated in the early part of the present century by crossing a common Bantam with a 
Polish fowl and breeding the cross to a hen feathered Bantam. 
After many years of successful breeding beautiful birds have 
been produced which breed true to type. 

The plumage of the bird is a rich, golden yellow in the 
Golden variety, and silvery white in the Silver variety. The 
feathers of each variety are distinctly laced with a narrow edging 
of black. The head is small and surmounted with a bright red 
rose comb; the neck is well arched and hen feathered; the back 
is short and free from -saddle feathers ; the breast is round and 
full and the body compact; the wings are large and carried so 
low as almost to cover the hocks ; the thighs are short, and the 
shanks and toes slate colored. The cock weighs from 24 to 26 
ounces, the hen about 20 ounces. 

Rose Comb Bantams are a miniature 
of Hamburgs. There are two varieties : 
the Black and the White. The cocks 
have a small, round head; a. short and 
slightly curved beak; large, prominent, bright eyes; rose comb, 
square in front, fitting firmly on the head, evenly corrugated 
on the upper surface and ending in a spike with a slight upward 
curve; flat, closely fitting ear lobes; broad, thin, smooth and 
well rounded wattles; neck, small at the head, increasing in 

size as it approaches the shoulders, nicely arched, and carried well back; abundant hackle of good 
length, sweeping over the shoulders and tapering toward the tail; long and plentiful saddle feathers; 
full, round breast, carried prominently forward, plump, compact and symmetrical body; wings large, the 
points carried low, the secondaries slightly expanded ; full, expanded tail, carried rather high and furnished 



Rose Comb 
Bantams. 




Figure 38. Malay Game Coclr. 






POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 




Figure 39. Pair of Red Pyle Games. 



»ng cur\ kles and coverts; short, well rounded thighs, and short, clean, tapering shanks. 

Tin hen should be small and neatly rounded; eyes bright and lull; comb of ttu 

oek's. but smaller and neater; flat, smooth ear lobes; small ^wattles ; short, tapering 
irried well back; short back; full, prominent breast; compact body; ample wjngs, but not drooping 

nuch as the eoek's; full, expanded, upright tail; short, round thighs, and short, tapering shanks. 

The plumage of the Black Rose Comb Bantam is lustrous 

Mack, and of the White, pure, spotless white. The beak of the 

Black is black or dark horn color; of the White, yellow. The ear 

es of the Black are pure white; of the White, red. The shanks 

the Blaek are dark, leaden blue; of the White, yellow. 

Booted White Bantams are distin- 

Booted guished, as. their name implies, by 

White Bantams, heavily feathered, or booted, shanks. 

They have small heads and medium 
sized single combs. The hackles are long and partly cover the 
shoulders; the wings are large and slightly drooping; the tail is 
upright, with long sickles, and abundant coverts; thighs, 
medium in length, and covered with long, stiff feathers, or 
vulture hocks, which nearly reach the ground; toes and shanks, 
yellow. The plumage is pure white 

Cochin Bantams, Buff, Partridge, White, 
Cochin Bantams, and Black, are in both color and shape 

the same as their large ancestors-. They 
are the largest of the Bantam class. The cock weighs about 
28 ounces, the hen 24 ounces. 
Japanese The striking beauty and peculiarly shaped tails of the Black Tailed Japanese- 

Ban tams. Bantams (Figure 40) make them great favorites and place them in the front 

rank of the Bantam class. They are white, except the tail and wings. The 
tail is black ; the sickles black, edged with white. The wings are large 
and long, with drooping points; the color of the primaries and 
secondaries is dark slate, edged with white. When the wing is 
folded it shows only white. The tail is expanded and carried in 
an upright positio'n, almost touching the back of the head; sickles 
are long and gracefully curved. The shanks are free from feathers 
and bright golden in color. 

The White and Black Japanese Bantams are the same in size 
and shape as the Black Tailed Japanese. The beak, shanks and 
toes of the White are yellow, and those of the Black are yellow, 
or yellow shaded with black. The color of the White is pure white ; 
of the Blaek, a lustrous black. 

Polish Bantams are of American origin, 
Polish Bantams, and appeared about 1872, produced by an 

accidental cross of a White Polish cock and 
,mmon hen. At first the chicks had small crests and the plumage . '^§ 

often disfigured by foul feathers, but under careful breeding 
the color has been established so that foul feathers no longer appear, Figure 40. 

and the crests have been nearly doubled in size. They were 
admitted to the Standard in 1879-80, and since then they have 
been disseminated throughout the country, although they are as yet comparatively rare in perfect: 

The Standard recognizes several varieties of poultry which are purely ornamental 
Ornamental in character and purpose. They cannot, however, be considered as either 

Poultry. prolific for eggs or superior for table purposes. 




Black Tailed Japanese 
Bantam Cock. 



^_ » 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM. 205 , 



The Russian fowl is supposed to have been introduced into this country about 
Russians. fifty years ago, but the breed finds little if any favor here, and as a result it has 

become run down and scattered promiscuously. In size the birds are medium — 
the cocks weighing S}4 pounds, the hens 6^ pounds. The cock has a well formed head, rather large in 
size; stout, curved, black or horn colored beak; rose comb, without spikes; full, heavy beard, which 
curves around to the back of the ey es ; medium sized ear lobes ; long, pendulous wattles ; well arched neck ; 
broad back, tapering to the tail; full, round breast; compact, broad body; wings of medium size; strong 
thighs; legs of medium length, and dark lead in color; the bottom of the foot is yellow ; tail erect and free 
from long sickle feathers. The hen is bearded like the cock; comb similar, but smaller; back of less 
width; full breast; tail of medium size, and carried moderately erect; legs same as cock. 

Silky fowls are not extensively bred in this country, but in England are very 

Silky Fowls. popular. Their soft, webless feathers, when in prime condition, are exceedingly 

loose and fluffy, standing out from the body in all directions, giving the fowl 

the appearance of a large bird, which their weight does not justify. The cock's weight is from 2^ to 4 

pounds, while the weight of the hen is from 2 to 2% pounds. The birds are of rather square, compact Cochin 

build; crested; the cock's crest running back horizontally, 
while the hen's is globular ; five-toed ; feather legged ; rose comb, 
lumpy in appearance and dark purple in color; ear lobes blue 
or purple, tinged with white; skin violet, approaching black; 
plumage white and downy. Silkies lay a small egg of a pale 
buff color, and lay ten to twenty-five before wanting to sit. 
They make excellent mothers, and are very valuable to hatch 
and rear the tender little ones of the more delicate varieties. 

Sultans (Figure 41) were exported from 
Sultans. Turkey, into England, about 1854, and 

did not reach America till some years 
later. They might with propriety be classed with the Polish, considering 
Sultan . \% ^|| the characteristics which they possess. A compact crest surmounts the 

head and they are full bearded. Two small spikes constitute the comb. 
The neck and saddle hackles are large, long and flowing. The legs are heavily feathered and booted, 
and hocks vultured. They possess a fifth toe. The tail is full and erect, and in the cock it is well 
sickled. While their beauty is their chief recommendation, they 
lay claim to modest usefulness, but only as layers, being too . 

small for table fowls. They thrive well on a limited range or in ^ 

confinement, and owing to their docility make excellent pets. - ' yg 

Frizzled Fowls are the most grotesque 
Frizzled Fowls. members of the poultry family. Their 

name is applied from the peculiar man- 
ner in which their feathers curve upward and backward at the 
ends, as if in defiance of nature's laws. This curving is most 
conspicuous in the hackle and saddle feathers. As these birds 
vary in color, there is no rule for judging their plumage, except 
that it must have the peculiar upward curve ; any color is admis- 
sible. The combs may be either double or single. Frizzled 
Fowls are reported to be hardy, and very early and good layers. J\ Figure 42. 

Yokohama Fowls (Figure 42) are noted for 1 the ^fl^l Long Tailed Japanese 

Yokohama Fowls, great length of the tail and hackle feathers. \ | Game, 

. . . , , . , \ or Phoenix Cock. 

Anotner variety, said to be superior m these 

points, is called Phoenix Fowls. The Fung, or Phoenix Fowl, is one of the myths of the Japanese 

religion, and is often seen in Japanese pictures. It is thought the Yokohama Fowls are like those in 

the paintings, hence the name Phoenix is applied to the breed. The tails of these fowls average ^bout 

a yard in length, and their colors and general appearance are those of the Games. 





FEEDING POULTRY. 

In feeding for egg production a valuable lesson may be learned from nature. It will be observed 
r domestic fowls that receive the least care and attention, or, in other words, whose habits approach 
most nearly to the natural order of things, lay most of their eggs- in the spring time. The weather then is 
warm and they have an abundance of green feed, more or less grain, with numerous insects supplying 
animal matter, and plenty of exercise and fresh air. They are enabled to scratch for the various roots 
and herbs (nature's poultry food) that their systems crave. Therefore, if we are to feed for egg pro- 
duction, let us not forget nature's lesson. Make it spring time all the year around by not only providing 
a warm place, but by giving them the proper proportion of grain feed, grain, meat, and some good condi- 
rrtental poultry food containing the necessary correctives that nature found it necessary to provide. 
The animal instinct is best. They know by a sort of sixth sense what they require, and, having the 
freedom and an unlimited run, are enabled to get it. When they are shut up and unable'to obtain this, 
it is the owner's place to provide it. Farmers who keep only a small floc^ 1 : of hens, chiefly for the purpose 
of providing eggs for the family, frequently make the mistake of feeding too much corn. It has been 
clearly demonstrated that corn should not form a very large proportion of the grain ration for laying hens. 
It is too fattening, especially for hens kept in close confinement. Until the past few years corn has been 
considered a universal feed for poultry. This no doubt has been largely brought about by its cheapness, 
but the American poultryman has awakened to the fact that it is useful mainly as a fattener, and he 
is using the smaller grains with the proper mixture of a good poultry food and meat scraps, and is 
feeding his hens on a scientific basis. The small farmer will do well to follow in his tracks. 

When comfortable quarters are provided for the fowls, the nutritive ratio for a fowl should be 
approximately one part of protein to three and one-half to four parts of carbohydrates. Wheat is pref- 
erable to corn; oats make an excellent feed, and perhaps come nearer the ideal than any other single 
grain, particularly so if the hull be/emoved. Buckwheat, like wheat, is of too wide a nutritive ratio 
to be fed alone, and produces a white flesh and a very light colored yolk if fed in large quantities. 
In feeding poultry for egg production, as in feeding a cow for a large yield of milk, the ration should 
be made up of various grains, combined with meat scraps and a good condimental poultry food, • 
this latter serving to supply palatability and to increase the digestibility of the grain. This invariably 
gives much better results than is obtained by feeding with one grain alone. It has been demonstrated 
by actual experiments that the fowls not only relish their ration more, but that a much larger percent- 
age of the whole ration is digested. And it is a well known fact that feed relished by the fowls gives 
a finer flavor to the eggs. This is in itself a sufficient reason for supplying wholesome feed and palatable 
rations to the fowls. 

It is conceded by the majority of poultrymen that ground or soft feed should form a part of the 
daily ration. From an economical standpoint it is desirable, for the reason that it will be digested 
and assimilated quicker than the whole grain. This is especially true if Davis Poultry Food is added 
to the ration. A mixture of equal parts of ground corn and oats, added to an equal weight of wheat 
and bran middlings, with one-fourth of the ration made up of meat meal, and a due allowance of 
Davis Poultry Food, makes an ideal morning feed if mixed with milk or water, thoroughly wet but not 
sloppy. If the mixture is inclined to be sticky, the proportion of bran should be increased. A little 
linseed meal will prove profitable, particularly during the molting period. If meat scraps or animal 
meal are to be fed, either Davis Meat Meal or Davis Meat Scraps should be used. About one pound 
of meat meal should be fed to twenty-five hens. 

The grain ration for chicks should consist largely in a mixture of seeds, such as Davis Chick Feed, 

with which Davis Poultry Food is mixed in the correct proportion, making an ideal poultry food of the 

ratio. The farmer himself, however, can make a mixture of wheat, oats, and perhaps a little 

ind corn. This should be scattered in the litter covering the floor. It is necessary that the floor 

—206— 



FEEDING POULTRY. 207 



of the poultry house be covered with a litter of some kind to insure cleanliness. Straw, chaff, buckwheat 
hulls, cut corn stalks — all of this makes an excellent litter. The object of scattering the grain in this 
litter is to give the fowls exercise. All fowls that are noted for egg production are active, nervous, and 
like to be continually at work. Feeding the grain as described will go a long way toward providing 
them with exercise and a method of working off their surplus nervous energy. 

If the fowls are fed three times a day, they should be fed very lightly at noon. At night, just 
when they are going to the roost, they should have all they will eat. At no time should mature fowls 
be fed more than they can eat. Keep them always active, their appetite always keen; this will insure 
perfect health and a good egg production. Davis Poultry Food, if used according to directions, will 
insure these results. It is an ideal appetizer, keeps the system in perfect health, and for the production 
of eggs there is nothing better known. It thoroughly tones up that mysterious mechanism of the fowl 
that produces eggs. It supplies a great amount of the material necessary in this process and insures 
the digestibility of all the nutriments in the feed that are necessary for the production of eggs. Exhaust- 
ive experiments have demonstrated that the egg production can be increased 15 to 20 per cent by the 
continual and regular use of it. 

While perhaps not strictly necessary for their existence, green feeds of 
Green Feed. some kind are necessary if the greatest production of eggs is to be obtained. 

When fowls are kept in pens and yards throughout the year it is always best 
to supply a certain quantity of it. The question of how to supply the best feed most cheaply is one 
that each individual must solve largely for himself. In a general way, however, it may be stated that 
during the winter and early spring months mangel wurzels, if properly kept, may be fed to good advan- 
tage. The fowls relish them and they are easily prepared. It is not difficult to grow from nineteen 
to twenty tons of these per acre, and their cost is not excessive. In feeding these beets to flocks of hens, 
a very good practice is simply to split the root lengthwise with a knife. The fowls will then be able to 
pick -out all the crisp, fresh feed from the cut in the surface. These large pieces also have an advan- 
tage over smaller pieces in this respect: that the smaller pieces when fed from trough or dishes will 
be thrown into the litter and soiled more or less before being consumed. Large pieces cannot be thrown 
about, and remain clean and fresh until wholly consumed. 

Clover, during the early spring, is without a doubt one of the best and cheapest of green feeds. 
It is readily eaten when cut fine in a fodder cutter, and contains a considerable amount of protein. If 
clover is frequently mowed, fresh feed of this kind may be obtained nearly all summer, particularly so 
if the season be a wet one. Should the supply of clover be limited, or the season unusually dry, green 
feed can be grown in the form of Dwarf Essex Rape. This should be sown in drills and given the same 
cultivation as corn and potatoes. When the rape is from 8 inches to 1 foot in height it may be cut and 
fed. It furnishes a fresh, crisp feed that is readily eaten. If cut a few inches from the ground, a second 
and third crop may be produced from one seeding. Alfalfa is also excellent, and will furnish an abundance 
of green feed. It must, however, be Cut very frequently, each cutting being made before the stalks 
become hard and woody. A good quality of clover hay, cut fine and steamed, also will make an excellent 
addition to the feeding ration of laying hens. 

Cabbage can be grown cheaply in many localities, and makes an excellent green feed as long as 
fresh. Sweet apples, and, in fact, almost any crisp, fresh green feed, can be fed with profit. The green 
feed, in many instances, may be cut fine and fed with the soft feed, but as a rule it is better to feed it 
separately during the middle of the day, and only in such quantities that it can be eaten up at once. 
Most of the foregoing, of course, relates to fowls confined in pens. Where the chicks have a large run 
they will gather for themselves during the season all the green feed they require. 

It is absolutely necessary that fowls have access to some kind of grit, if grain 
Grit. feed is fed in any considerable quantity. For this purpose there is nothing 

that can be compared with Davis Mica Spar Cubical Grit. This is made from 
pulverized granite rocks, containing quartz, the hardest of rock substances, sodium aluminum, mag- 
nesia, lime, and iron. In the gizzard it flakes off, does not become dull and is a perfect grit. In addition 
to this it supplies material for the shell. For young chicks Davis Broiler Teeth is to be recommended. 



CONDIMENTS AND ANIMA L MATTER A NECESSITY FOR POULTRY. 

mposed of the smallest size of crystal grit, bone and oyster shell, in about equal proportions, and 
should be in every poultry house. Chemical analyses and experiments, together with reports from many 
.1 poultrymen, show conclusively that the ordinary grain and the green feed supplied to laying 
contain enough lime for the formation of egg shells. It requires several times as much 
lime as is ordinarily fed if good strong shells are to be produced. Davis Broiler Teeth supplies this excess 
of lime, so necessary for the egg production, and if it is kept continuously before the fowls you can trust 
to them and their instinct to eat the amount necessary to supply lime, rather than in mixing it with 
the feed. 

When fowls are kept in confinement, it will be found absolutely necessary to 
Meat Feed. supply them with a certain amount of meat and cut bones. Davis Meat Scraps 

are especially beneficial. Davis Meat Meal is a mixture of cut beef, bone and 
blood. Davis Coarse Ground Bone or Raw Bone Meal should also be supplied. All these preparations 
are specially prepared from fresh meat or bone and, in selecting a meat feed for his poultry, the owner 
should assure himself that no tainted meat or tainted bones are used. Skim milk, if there is a sufficient 
quantity of it, may be substituted in part for the meat feed, without any decrease in the egg production, 
provided the proper grain ration is given. 



CONDIMENTS AND ANIMAL MATTER A NECESSITY 

FOR POULTRY. 

It is well known that poultry, when. allowed to range at will, will eat a considerable quantity of 
animal matter in the form of insects, worms, etc. They will also partake of the various seeds, roots and 
herbs (nature's poultry food) that are so necessary to keep their system in proper condition. How very 
necessary animal matter especially is to fowls was strikingly brought out by recent experiments at the- 
New York Experiment Station. Two lots of chickens and ducks, as nearly alike as possible, were used 
in those experiments. Qne of the lots, in each case, was fed a ration of mixed grain and skim milk or 
curd, containing no animal matter; the other was fed a ration of mixed grains with animal meal, fresh 
bones, or dried blood. The two rations were about equally combined, although the animal matter con- 
tained a little less protein than the vegetable matter ration. The distinctive difference between the two 
rations was that in the one case two-fifths to one-half of the protein came from animal sources, while 
in the other it came from vegetable sources. In each case more feed was eaten by the lot receiving animal 
protein, the gain in weight was more rapid and maturity was reached much earlier, less feed being required 
for each pound of gain, and the cost of gain was less. This emphasizes the advisability, in fact, the abso- 
lute necessity, of feeding such preparations as Davis Meat Scraps and Davis Meat Meal; and if either of 
these preparations is used in connection with Davis Poultry Food surprisingly large gains and a great 
increase in the number of eggs will be seen almost immediately. Young chickens fed on Davis Meat 
Meal, to each 3 pounds of which 1 tablespoonful of Davis Poultry Food has been added, can be raised 
at a cost not to exceed 6 cents a pound, and they will bring better prices on the market, owing 
heir healthier and better developed body. They will also mature at least two months sooner, and 
pullets so raised will start laying from four to six weeks sooner. 

The results obtained in the feeding of ducks according to the above method are even more startling 
in their contrast than with the chickens. It will be noticed that the animals raised with a liberal allowance 
of Davis Beef Scraps, or Meat Meal, and Davis Poultry Food will be developed rapidly and evenly, and will 
gain as much in four weeks as those fed on a straight corn ration will gain in eight weeks ; and exhaustive 
experiments have proved that rations in which 40 to 50 per cent of protein is supplied by animal matter 
give much more economical results and quicker gains, especially if Davis Poultry Food is added. It 
not only makes flesh much more rapidly but at a lower cost. 



CONDIMENTS AND ANIMAL MATTER A NECESSITY FOR POULTRY. 209 



The chief feeds for poultry on the farm are represented by the various grains, 

General Poul- especialty corn and oats, corn possibly forming the basis to the greatest degree. 

try F e*e d . Several years ago extensive digestion experiments with poultry were conducted 

by the United States government. In the following pages we give the results 

and draw conclusions for the* benefit of the reader. 

From the first twelve to thirty-six hours after hatching, the little chick requires 

Feeding Small little if any feed. For the next few days there is nothing better than stale bread 

Chickens. soaked in milk. This should be crumbled very fine, and placed where the little 

chicks will have free access to it, but it should be protected so that they cannot 

walk in it, thus contaminating it with the filth and dirt of the yard. One of the most difficult problems 

for amateur poultrymen is that of devising systems for feeding little chicks so that they will consume 

all of the feed without soiling it. If placed on the floor of the brooder or the brooder run, the larger part 

of the feed will be trampled upon and soon become unfit to eat. 

A simple and efficient feed trough may be made by tacking a piece of tin about 3^ inches wide 
along the edge of a 3^-inch board, so that the tin projects about 1% inches on either side of the board, 
bending the tin so as to form a shallow trough, and fastening the board to blocks so as to raise it 1 to 
2 inches from the floor. 

Within a week the chicks should be fed upon Davis Chick Feed. It is just the article which they 
need to get them started right. It is composed of the best grains, seeds, etc., thoroughly cleaned and 
free from dust, and is properly balanced, so as to produce quick growth and keep the system in a healthy 
condition. To obtain best results 1 teaspoonful of Davis Poultry Food should be added to the feed for fifty 
small chicks. Davis Chick Feed will carry the chicks along in perfect shape. Thev will make phenom- 
enal gains, and after they are six to eight weeks old the ration should be changed, and they should be 
fed on Davis Alfalfa Meal and Davis Mixed Poultry Feed. If it is desirable that they be pushed rapidly, 
Davis Poultry Food in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to every twenty chicks should be added to the 
feed. If the poultryman does not care to purchase these feeds he can find good substitutes for them 
right at home. Granulated oats, with the hulls removed, make an excellent feed for young chickens. 
There is perhaps nothing better. The chickens should have free access to some kind of grit after the 
first day. It was for exactly this purpose that Davis Broiler Teeth was first conceived and is now 
put on the market. There is nothing better or more economical. It the poultryman, however, does 
not care to buy the grit, good, coarse sand, screened, will make an excellent grit for young chickens. 

There is nothing better as a supplementary feed for young fowls than skim milk, but it requires 
some skill in feeding. One of the great difficulties in chicken raising is to carry young chickens 
through the first two weeks without bowel disorder. If Davis Prepared Poultry Feeds are used in con- 
nection with Davis Poultry Food there will be little difficulty experienced along this line. Care must 
be taken, however, that the temperature of the brooder does not run too low. Improper and injudi- 
cious feeding, even if the right kinds of feed are given, plays an important part in producing those dis- 
orders. After the first ten days milk may be given more freely, perhaps, than during the earlier stages 
of the chick's existence. As the chick becomes a little older, more uncooked feed may be used. A mix- 
ture of fine middlings, wheat bran, a little corn meal, and a little linseed meal and Davis Poultry Food, 
all mixed with milk, makes a valuable feed. Hard boiled eggs are also very nutritious for the young 
chicks, but care should be used in feeding them. 

Drinking fountains require close attention. Small chickens drink frequently, and oftentimes 
with their beaks loaded' with feed, which is left to a greater or less extent in the -water supply. As it 
is necessary to keep these fountains in a tolerably warm atmosphere, they soon become tainted and 
emit a disagreeable odor. This condition should not be allowed to exist for a minute, and the greatest 
care should be observed in order that all the feed and drink consumed by the fowls be sweet and whole- 
some. It has often been said, and the saying is a familiar one, that "cleanliness is next to godliness," 
and it is certain that "cleanliness is next to success" in poultry keeping. Above all, keep your fountains 
clean. Automatic fountains, such as can be purchased for nominal sums, should be used, and they should 
be scalded out at least once, a week. If you do not care to purchase one, a cheap and efficient fountain 
may be made of a tin can with a small hole in one end near the side of the can, under which is soldered 



210 CONDIMENTS AXD AXIMAL MATTER A NECESSITY FOR POULTRY. 



■escent shaped piece of tin. forming a lip or small receptacle for water. If the can is filled with water 
and then placed on its side a small quantity of water will run out of the opening and remain in the cres- 
cent shaped lip. As the chicks drink the water a quantity of air will pass into the open*ing and a little 
re water will flow out, thus keeping for the chickens a small quantity of good, clean water at all times. 

If one resorts to artificial incubation it will be necessary to provide a brooder 

Brooders. of some kind. It may be simple and quite inexpensive, or complex and costly. 

It is not necessary to expend very much money in the construction of' an" 
efficient brooder. It is necessary, however, to see that the brooder is capable of doing certain things. 
Some of these requisites are summed up in the following: It must be warm. The little chickens require 
a temperature of from 90 to 100 degrees the first few days, and at all times they should find it so warm 
in the brooder that they are not inclined to huddle together to keep warm. If the brooder is automatic, 
then the temperature may be kept even throughout the whole floor space. If, on the other hand, the 
brooder is heated from one side or from the top and is not automatic, it will be best to construct it so 
that certain parts of the machine will be very warm, in fact, a little warmer than is necessary for the 
chickens, and some other parts somewhat cool. It does not take them long to learn just where the most 
comfortable position is. They may be trusted entirely to select the proper temperature if the brooder 
is of sufficient size so that it never is crowded. A brooder constructed on this plan will require less 
attention than almost any other. It may undergo a considerable variation in temperature without 
overheating or chilling the chickens. 

The brooder should be easily cleansed and so constructed that all the floor space can be readily 
seen. Inconvenient corners are objectionable in brooders — in fact, any corner is objectionable — but if 
brooders are constructed cheaply it is almost necessary to make more or less corners. If constructed 
of wood, circular ones are somewhat more expensive than square or rectangular ones. The floor must 
not only be kept clean, but dry. 

Top or side heat is to be preferred to bottom heat, but there must be sufficient bottom heat to 
keep the floor dry. 

As the chickens get a few days old plenty of exercise must be provided. One objection to many 
of the brooders in the market is that the chickens are kept too closely confined and not allowed suf- 
ficient exercise. It will be a matter of surprise to many to learn how much exercise these little fellows 
require. With the young chickens, as with the athlete, strength is acquired with exercise, and, above 
all other conditions of growth, strength is the one thing necessary in the young chicken. 

The modern improvement in incubators has made the rearing of fowls solely 

Incubators. for egg production quite out of the question unless these machines are used. 

No experienced poultryman at the present time will attempt to rear fowls in 

large numbers for the production of eggs and depend on the hens that lay the eggs for incubation. The 

Mediterranean fowls cannot be depended on for natural incubation, and artificial incubation must be 

resorted to if these fowls are to be reared in considerable numbers. 

There are many kinds of excellent incubators on the market, and, as with many kinds of farm 
machinery, naturally some are better than others. Then, too, an incubator that would give very satis- 
factory results with one individual might prove to be quite inferior in the hands of another person. 
What is best for one is not necessarily best for another. It is advisable before investing, extensively 
in any make of incubator to understand the machine thoroughly. If good results are obtained, then 
additional machines of the same kind should be purchased. Failures are recorded simply because the 
individual fails to understand thoroughly the machine he is trying to operate, or, in other words, fails 
to learn how to operate that particular machine to the best advantage. A successful poultryman must 
necessarily pay close attention to petty detail. Mot only is this necessary in caring for little chickens 
and mature fowls, but also in the care and management of incubators and brooders. The whole business 
ne of details. While incubators may vary considerably in one form or another, yet there are 
certain points to which all should conform. Some of these points are summed up as follows: 

1. They should bo well made of well seasoned lumber. The efforts of the manufacturers to meet 
a popular demand for cheap machines has placed upon the market incubators that are not only cheaply 
made, but ma heap and not thoroughly seasoned material. 



GROWING BROILERS. 211 



2. The incubator should be easy of operation. All its adjustments should be easily made and 
so arranged that the more delicate machinery is in plain view of the operator. The machine should be 
automatic in operation. When supplied with the necessary heat, it should control perfectly within 
certain limits the temperature of the egg chamber. This result is accomplished in various ways. The 
regulating force, whatever it may be, should be placed within the egg chamber so that the regulator 
may vary as the temperature in the egg chamber varies, irrespective of the changes of temperature 
of the room in which the incubator is placed. The regulator must be sensitive. The change of tem- 
perature which is necessary for the complete working of the regulator ought not to vary more than 1 
degree above or below the desired temperature. It is better if the range of temperature can be reduced 
to one-half of 1 degree, thus making a total variation of 1 degree instead of 2 degrees. 

It should not be inferred that a much wider variation than this will not give excellent results 
under otherwise favorable conditions, but, other things being equal, those machines which are most 
nearly automatic should be preferred. The Reliable Incubators come as near meeting all these require- 
ments as any now on the market and should be given the preference. 

In addition to the foregoing requisites, a convenient appliance for turning the eggs, positive 
in its action, should accompany each incubator. This may be an extra tray that is to be placed bottom 
side up over the tray of eggs and held firmly in this position while both trays are turned, thus com- 
pletely transferring the eggs from one tray to another without jar. The different machines have very 
different appliances for obtaining this result. Excellent results are obtained by the use of many 
machines now on the market when the operator of these various machines is thoroughly interested. 
Poultrymen for a number of years have hatched in incubators over 80 per cent of all eggs put in the 
machine. It must not be inferred that this is an easy thing to do. A record of this kind is attained 
only by close observation and good judgment, not only in running the machine, but also in the breeding 
and care of the fowls to produce fertile eggs. 



GROWING BROILERS. 

Poultry specialties are all the time becoming more and more specialized. Most of the large 
growers have some special subbranch to which they devote more attention and from which they get 
the greater part of their profit. Well known growers now make a specialty of the growing of small 
broilers, which are sold at a weight approximating % pound when dressed. Chickens of this size are 
from five to eight weeks old, smaller than pigeons, and to the ordinary farmer would look too diminutive 
for use, but high class hotels and swell clubs in Chicago, Boston, New York and elsewhere are glad to 
pay as much as 75 cents for them in winter and spring. One grower in Massachusetts, who has built 
up an exceptionally large trade of this description, sells nearly 300 of these small broilers from January 
1 to January 20, principally to Boston hotels and clubs and high class private trade. This branch of 
the trade is continued the year around. Incubators are started in January and up to 10,000 chickens are 
hatched out during the year. The breeds used for broilers are Wyandottes and Plymouth Rocks. 
Even for light weight broilers, such as are produced there, small breeds, like the Leghorns, are not 
satisfactory. They need to be a couple of weeks older than the Plymouths to give the same weight. 

The chickens should not be fed for the. first day after hatching. Their first feed may consist of 
broken crackers, softened in water. Cooked mush and bird seeds are also good. If, however, it is desired 
to have the chicks started to the best possible advantage, insuring their rapid growth and perfect develop- 
ment, Davis Baby Chick Feed will prove the ideal ration for newly hatched broods. It is composed of 
the best grain, seeds, etc., thoroughly recleaned and free from dust, and has proved by experience 
a perfect feed for young chicks. By its use they develop quickly, have a strong frame work, 
are healthy, and withstand the diseases to which they would otherwise be in danger of succumbing. 
Davis Baby Chick Feed contains all the essential elements of a well balanced ration for chicks until 
they are five or six weeks old, and they will not need any other feed during that time. No farmer or 



212 GROWING BROILERS. 



poultry raiser can afford to be without it. As soon as the}' get well started, corn meal and middlings 
may be added to the ration of the chicks, making it an even half and half, which is made early in the 
morning and allowed to stand until about 9 o'clock and fed warm. The little chicks should be fed very 
n at the outset, four or five times a day or oftener. After the first five or six weeks a good plan to 
follow is to feed the chicks hard grain in the morning and cracked corn, cracked wheat or cracked oats 
at noon and night. If the best results arc desired, Davis Poultry Food should be added to the ration 
in the proportion of 1 tablcspoonful to each thirty chicks. Davis Meat Scraps in the proportion of about 
1 quart to each 2,000 chicks, mixed with the mash, may also be fed with excellent results. For green 
feed give them cabbages to peck at and steamed clover hay, if convenient. Davis Mico Spar Cubical 
Grit and. charcoal and water should be kept constantly before them. 

Warm, snug and comfortable quarters should always be provided for the young chickens. The 
Massachusetts grower, referred to, keeps them warm by hot water pipes about 6 inches from the 
floor of the pen. Sand is filled in under the pipes to varying heights, according to the size of the chickens. 
The ends of the pipes nearest the boiler are warmest and the youngest chickens are kept there. A great 
point in raising healthy winter chicks is to keep them scratching. The grain or Davis Baby Chick Feed 
is always fed in sand or litter in order to make the chickens wdrk for it. All the chickens are raised by 
incubators and brooders, and by comparison with hens which are used some years it is found that 25 
per cent more chicks can be raised by the use of incubators and brooders. 

In finishing off chickens for the market the orders which are pending become a feature. If a lot 
of chickens are needed in a hurry, the required number are put in a fattening pen and fed all they will 
stand. As great a variety of feed as possible is given them, and just before they have had all they want 
the dishes are removed, leaving them slightly hungry. Then the, next feeding time they will be looking 
for more. Davis Poultry Food, added to the ration in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to each thirty 
chicks, will be of the greatest possible assistance in forcing the process of feeding at this time. It 
will insure the rapid fattening of the chickens and it has been demonstrated that it adds from 20 to 30 
per cent to the nutritive and digestive qualities of the feed, thus not alone hastening the period of fatten- 
ing, but actually saving the grower from 20 to 30 per cent in feed value; and, as its cost is comparatively 
insignificant, it cannot be too highly recommended for this purpose. When Davis Poultry Food is added to 
the grain ration the chickens also are able to stand a high pressure feeding process much better, the reason 
being that it contains ingredients which stimulate thedigestive organs to greater activity and insure the per- 
fect assimilation of the feed. Chickens which are to be kept for a longer period must be fed less, and kept 
hungry all the time, so that they are ready to fly about the pen when the man comes around with the 
feed. They must be kept scratching. At the time when the chickens are ready for the market a good 
method is to carry them in baskets to the place where they are to be killed, and dispatch them by stab- 
bing the back of their mouths with a lancet. Do not remove the head. They should not be fed for 
twenty-four hours before killing and the entrails should not be removed. They should be dry picked 
and packed in pasteboard or other convenient boxes, two and two together. An ice box for cooling 
the dressed poultry during the warm weather is quite indispensable. Other practical, up to date methods 
for the killing and dressing of poultry for the market, according to the customs prevailing in each 
particular locality and the wishes of the dealers, may of course be adopted with as good results as the 
foregoing. 

Intensive farming in or near a city, where the market is located, may be carried on to the greatest 
advantage by the raising of broilers. The most delicate part of the business is to raise them. Where there 
is no room to spread out growing stock, it is almost necessary that one should live with them, so to speak, 
in order to be able to properly care for them. Above all, they should be kept clean and healthy. It 
has been demonstrated by experiments that it is not one particular kind of feed that is required to raise 
the little artificially hatched orphans: cleanliness, ventilation and a correct temperature maintained at 
all times play a greater part than any prescribed method of feeding. The first four or five hours after 
they are taken from the incubator they should be put in a clean brooder that has been heated to 90 
degr h top heat. Cover the floor y± inch deep with good dustless alfalfa meal and sprinkle a little 

Davis Baby Chick Feed and Davis Mico Spar Cubical Grit over the sand. If this is not at hand, ordinary 
chicken grit may be used and the chicks may be fed a very small quantity of rolled oats as the first day's 



GROWING BROILERS. 213 



ration. Feed sparingly the first day and throughout the first week. Davis Baby Chick Feed is the ideal 
ration for them during this period, insuring good health, rapid growth and immunity from disease. It 
should be fed to them in small quantities every two hours, after they have been in the brooder for twenty- 
four hours, and if used no other feed will be required during the first five or six weeks. In its absence 
rolled oats, fine cracked corn and millet seed, fed in small quantities every two hours or so, may be used. 
From the first hour of their life in the brooder they should be allowed all the fresh, cold water they want. 
A combination of Davis Raw Bone Meal, dry wheat bran, Davis Mico Spar Cubical Grit and charcoal, 
put before them in self feeding boxes, so that they can peck at it whenever they feel like it, forms an 
excellent adjunct to the feeding. At three weeks of age a feed of warm mash each day may be added, 
and when the chicks are nine weeks old hard grain, to which has been added 1 tablespoonful of Davis 
Poultry Food to each thirty chicks, may be fed with advantage. It is well to vary their ration considerably 
after this time, and all kinds of green feed may be put before them. To see how the little things throw 
themselves over the green stuff given them is a pleasure as well as a profit to the owner and caretaker. 
The same holds good of fresh meat and bones, served in proper proportions, and Davis Coarse Ground 
Bone and Meat Scraps will do wonders at this stage in the way of strengthening and developing them. 
Ordinary leavings of meat, chopped fine, and bones from the table may serve if they are not at hand. 

An essential for the raising of good, healthy, well grown broilers is to produce them from eggs in 
which the germs are strong and perfectly developed. It is hardly possible to get such eggs from birds that 
are kept closely confined, and it will therefore be found of great advantage to give the layers lots of range. 

To Make Broilers Ready for the Market. — It is a good plan as soon as the chickens are nearly large 
enough for broilers to put them into a pen containing a shady run. Give them all the fattening feed 
they will eat, but remember that muscle and bone making feed is not required at this period. 
Corn in various forms is excellent, and should be fed freely to them. Cooked corn, mashed corn 
and ground corn, as well as whole corn, should be fed daily. Warm potatoes and bread crumbs are 
also good for making fat. Any kind of milk .and a little sugar now and then are also to be recom- 
mended. At this time the grower will be amazed to note the effect Davis Poultry Food, added to the 
ration in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to each twenty chicks, will have on the fowls. .It will 
decrease the fattening period by at least 10 per cent, adding from 20 to 30 per cent to the nutritive value 
of the ration. This is done by its influence upon the organs of digestion, stimulating them into healthy 
activity and enabling the chicken to partake of a much larger quantity of feed than would otherwise 
be the case When Davis Poultry Food is used, every kernel of grain or bit of feed eaten by the fowl 
is perfectly assimilated, thus insuring the grower against all loss or waste by undigested feed that other- 
wise would have occurred. It is just the thing for quickening to the greatest possible degree the fattening 
process; and all poultrymen know that it is of supreme importance at this stage to have the fowls lay 
on fat every hour, and that if they do not the whole venture is likely to culminate in a losing operation. 

In order to secure hens that will produce eggs for hatching in December, January and February, 
the pullets should be hatched early, and they should be kept growing and made to lay so early that, when 
the time arrives that eggs are needed for the incubator, you will have them on hand. Keep up the 
growth of the pullets throughout the summer, feeding them with wheat and mixed grains, adding 1 table- 
spoonful of Davis Poultry Food to each meal for each twei*ty fowls. Keep the chickens scrupulously 
free from vermin and place them in winter quarters about October 15th. 

One Method of Dressing and Preparing Broilers for the Market is to scald and pick them and convey 
them in wooden barrels. Remove the feathers, but leave the head and feet on. If the weather is warm, 
crushed, ice should be used in the shipping. First put in a layer of broilers, then one of ice, and continue 
in this manner till the barrel is packed. Over it all put a large piece of ice weighing from 20 to 50 pounds. 
A cover of burlap may be put over it all and fastened to the barrel. The barrel should be lined with 
coarse brown paper (ordinary packing paper, as you get it from your grocer) if the shipping takes place 
in the cold season of the year, and it is also a good plan to put in a layer of this paper between the different 
layers of broilers and ice. The head should not be scalded with the other parts of the body, for if you 
do it will look pale and white, making it appear as if the chicken had been sick when it was killed. If 
not' scalded the color will be red and fresh, and this means a difference of several cents a pound. The 
chickens after they are picked should be scalded in the ordinary manner in water a little below the boiling 



214 FEEDING KOR EGGS. 



point; then immediately put them into a vessel of fresh, clean, cold water. They should be left in the 
water until thoroughly cooled, which in the warm season will take several hours. A little salt thrown 

over them while in the water is recommended, and will give them a delicate white color, drawing the 
d out of l he skin. 



FEEDING FOR EGGS. 

In the feeding for* eggs it should always be borne in mind that a more mixed and varied diet is 
required by hens than any of our domestic animals. If the best results are to be obtained 'it should 
also be remembered that too close care and attention cannot be given them on the part of the 
feeder; and it is a well known fact that it is almost impossible for the layman to determine conclusively 
which of two or more grains constitutes the best feed for hens, as egg producers. 

Rye and wheat undoubtedly are good feed for fowls, but should only be part of their daily ration. 
Buckwheat is beneficial, but contains a little too much starch, and should therefore not be fed excessively. 
And even corn, which experiments have demonstrated to be an excellent feed for fattening only— although 
many farmers take an opposite view — ought not to make up the entire ration. Rather give a mixture of 
the different grains, and experiment to find out what proportion will give the largest number of eggs, 
then stick to it. The farmer will find that if Davis Poultry Food, in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful 
to each twenty hens, is added to the daily ration it will add materially to a hen's value as a layer, and 
it should always be at hand. It will make a great saving in the feed bill and if given a fair trial will 
readily demonstrate its worth to the intelligent grower of poultry. Again, if hens are fed their grain 
feed in such a way that they are obliged to exercise vigorously, their laying powers will be proportionately 
increased. Feeding them nicely prepared feed from troughs and dishes should therefore be avoided. 
Rather give them a mixture of grain feeds scattered in a litter of cut straw or on a graveled floor, so 
that they will have to scratch and search for it. Remember that if large eggs with a strong shell are to 
be secured plenty of cut bone and grit must at all times be accessible to the hens. Davis Coarse Ground 
Bone and Davis Mico Spar Cubical Grit are ideal preparations for this purpose, and will pay for them- 
selves over and over again. If early eggs are desired the usual ration must be increased, especially 
if Davis Poultry Food is not used. Most farmers have plenty of clover hay at hand, and if the hens are 
fed a few pounds of this finely chopped each week, it will result in a greatly increased egg production. 
Davis Alfalfa Meal is the best, but for lack of this clover may be used. Follow this method: The hay 
should be cut into as short lengths as possible (J4 to l A mc h or so). At night fill up a pail or bucket, 
capable of holding several gallons, cover the hay with water, place the bucket on the stove, and let 
it boil throughout the entire evening until the fire goes out. In the morning during the breakfast hour 
the hay should be permitted to heat up again, and subsequently the water should be drained off and the 
hay mixed with about 3 quarts of wheat «bran, enough to make it crumbly. Finally, 3 pounds of 
Davis Meat Meal or Davis Beef Scraps should be added and the whole thoroughly mixed. This 
will make two gallons of excellent feed. This ration, however, is for cold weather only and 
suitable principally for hens that have a free run. Late at night you may supply as much corn 
as the fowls will consume during one day. Thereafter change to oats and wheat, and so on, varying 
the ration constantly. Fresh, clean water should always be near the hens, and in order not to have it 
freeze, it is advisable to warm the water slightly on cold winter mornings. The poultry house 
should be warm and snug, of a good, tight construction, and should always be fronted to the south. It 
is a fact that the warmer the hens are enabled to keep during the winter months, without it being necessary 
to resort to artificial heating, the quicker they will become broody and the larger will be the number 
of eggs. Do not make the mistake of feeding the fowls corn and wheat or either of the two exclusively. 
Many farmers are in the habit of substituting other feeds with wheat in order to avoid making the hens 
overfat. This is wrong. They forget that wheat, too, contains a large percentage of starchy matter, 



FEEDING FOR EGGS. • 215 



while corn, as an exclusive ration, is much too rich in carbonaceous ingredients. Both grains will fatten 
poultry with almost equal rapidity. Wheat contains more gluten than corn and is therefore perhaps 
preferable on that account, but to make it an exclusive ration or feed too much of it will have the same 
effect upon the hens as corn; in other words, it will make them overfat. 

As excellent feeds, to make up the mixed ration so necessary for a good production of eggs, may 
be mentioned wheat and corn, or oats and buckwheat, or either, and, in combination with the grains, 
scalded corn fodder or ensilage, cooked turnips, small potatoes and anything in this line may be fed with 
advantage, especially when warm. Numerous elements enter into the production of the egg, and this 
will make it apparent that a wide variety in the feeds is necessary if a first class product is to be obtained. 
Davis Poultry Food is always a valuable adjunct to the ration, and no up to date poultryman can afford 
to be without it. It insures perfect assimilation and thorough digestion in the chickens. 

Davis Meat Scraps maybe fed twice or thrice a week with good results. 

As the nights grow colder, feed the chickens nice, sound corn three times a week, added to the usual 
variety of wheat, oats, barley, etc. This will aid in preserving the animal heat during the long, cold 
nights. The value of the corn may be further increased by feeding it well warmed on the stove. Lin- 
seed meal, too, is valuable, but should be fed in small rations. Beans and peas are good for laying hens 
when fed twice or thrice a week. If linseed meal is fed too freely it is apt to cause looseness of the bowels, 
and molting is also often produced. Plenty of sweet milk is advantageous, and a little buttermilk now 
and then. Bowel trouble is likely to ensue if buttermilk is fed too freely. All kinds of meat, fresh or 
dried, are recommended. If a supply of Davis Meat Scraps and other poultry feeds be bought in the fall 
it may be depended upon to greatly decrease the feed bill. Loose heads of cabbage, potatoes too small 
for other use, deformed and knotty apples, and all such vegetables as are usually allowed to go to waste 
on the farm may be gathered and stored away, and will aid materially in furnishing the needed variety 
at a reduced cost. Keep your hens active, scratching and working for their feed by scattering this 
among the litter on the floor, made up of straw or leaves. Do not overload them with feed or keep it 
constantly before them, as a good many poultrymen erroneously do; this will cause them to grow lazy 
and their appetite will vanish. A quantity of tincture of iron occasionally, mixed with their drinking 
water, should be given, though not necessary if Davis Poultry Food is used regularly. Corn on the 
cob is good. Feed them also millet heads when the seed has ripened, and oats in the sheaf. 

A plentiful supply of pure, fresh air is indispensable to the laying hen. Eggs laid in badly ven- 
tilated, ill smelling quarters are unfit for human consumption, and if used for hatching the chicks will 
not be up to the standard in health or quality. Hens which as early as February are laying eggs 
intended for hatching must be provided" with a good varied ration that will keep them in nice trim, 
and also must have plenty of exercise. The}" should be kept neither too poor nor too fat. In order 
to exercise them, a good way is to fill the pen six to nine inches deep with chaff, corn cobs and butts, 
refuse hay, etc., and scatter the grain in it, keeping the hens hungry enough to diligently hunt for it. 
At night give the chickens all they want of cracked corn, oats, wheat and barley. Breakfast should 
be rather frugal, consisting preferably of corn meal, crushed oats and bran, to which mash has been 
added a quantity of Davis Meat Scraps or Davis Poultry Meal. This will add materially to the egg laying 
ability of the hens. Scatter the feed in the litter so that they have to scratch for it throughout the 
day. When the weather allows it keep a window open in the pen all day. Grit, charcoal and fresh, 
cold water should be constantly before them. No better shell producer than Davis Oyster Shell Grit is 
in existence. The prudent poultryman will always make sure to have a good supply of this at hand. 

As has been indicated in the foregoing pages, a variety of feeds is of great imporance if the hens 
are to be brought up to the highest standard 'as egg producers. It must also be remembered that a cer- 
tain quantity of bulky feed, as well as a plentiful supply of green feed, is indispensable to the successful 
raiser. Therefore see that you at all times have at hand for the chickens cabbages, vegetables, apples, 
cut clover that has been soaked in boiling water, etc., and feed it in the morning with the regular meal 
in the mash, or give it to them in the evening — but feed it sparingly, so that the fowls will not lose 
their hunger and quit scratching for the other feed. This will insure strong, fertile germs in the eggs 
intended for hatching, and the eggs for human consumption will have a fine, delicate flavor. Be 
careful not to let the eggs for hatching get chilled. 



216 FEEDING VOR EGGS. 



One poultry keeper out west, who has been exceptionally successful in producing winter eggs, 
feeds as follows, varying the ration from day to day: First meal Sunday, vegetables; second meal at 
noon, whole wheat in the litter; evening meal, wheat in the litter and whole and cracked corn. Mon- 
day morning, sheaf oats; evening, warm mash. Tuesday morning, vegetables; midday, cut green 
bone; evening, cracked corn, scattered in the litter. Wednesday morning, sheaf wheat; night, warm 
mash. Thursday morning, vegetables; midday, whole wheat in litter; evening, whole corn in litter. 
Friday morning, vegetables; midday, green cut bone; evening, cracked corn in litter. Saturday 
morning, sheaf wheat; night, warm mash. Davis Poultry Food, to the extent of 1 tablespoonful 
to each twenty fowls, should be fed in each meal in order to obtain the best results possible. 
Its condimental value, sharpening the appetite of the fowls, strengthening their digestive organs and 
insuring perfect assimilation, makes it indispensable to the poultry keeper who would get all the value 
he can out of his chickens, at the least possible expense. Do not forget to provide them with plenty of 
pure, fresh water. If Davis Poultry Food is not used, a little powdered charcoal should be given also. 
If sheaf wheat or oatmeal is fed in .the morning, it will keep the fowls alert throughout the day and 
the noonday meal may be dispensed with. The mash fed by the poultry keeper referred to consists of 
cooked potatoes or vegetables, cut clover and beef scraps, all mixed in a crumbly mass with some bran, 
shorts, chop feed, and a little oil meal and salt. Remember that you must not overfeed the hens. Davis 
Meat Scraps may be fed with great advantage in the mash. Keep the poultry house warm and dry. 

Breed Intelligently. — You should alway r s remember that it is unwise to depend too much on any 
set rules or regulations. Have your eye on each member of the flock at all times, watch them closely,, 
and suit the feed to their apparent needs. When the chickens are roosting at night pass your hand 
over them, feel their flesh, and judge of their condition. Any fowls not up to the standard, which have 
become beefy, lazy and laggard, should either be dieted or sent to the market at once. The sharp breast 
bone will always reveal the hen that is too poor and thin. Older birds are more susceptible to take on 
too much fat than the younger members of the flock. When warm weather sets in the heating of feeds 
should be dispensed with, or at least such feeds should be reduced in quantity at this season of the year. 
If the owner has his experienced eye on the birds it is unnecessary to be constantly worrying about cor- 
rect rations, for he will soon learn the needs of his fowls and feed them accordingly. In judging of the 
state of a chicken, the droppings are a pretty sure guide. They should be of sufficient consistency to 
hold their shape, but not too solid. Their color should be dark, tapering into" grayish and white. If 
the droppings are watery and dark, with red splashes of mucus in them, feed less meat and feed. 
If the droppings are soft and pasty and yellowish or brownish, feed more meat and less starchy feed. 
Greenish, watery diarrhea should always lead o a careful investigation of the sanitary condition of 
the feed and water. It should be looked upon as a danger signal, and never be allowed to go unheeded. 

See that Each Member of Your Flock Comes as Nearly as Possible up to the Standard. — In the 
poultry business, as in any other branch of animal industry, ultimate success in a large measure depends 
on the quality of the stock, the perfection of each individual bird or animal, as it were. This question 
stands over and above that of feeding. A record of the best layers is kept at the Maine Experiment 
Station with the aid of trap nests. From the best hens will be raised both cockerels and pullets with 
the aim of building a strain remarkable for heavy laying. Some of the poor hens might have been 
picked out on sight as beefy and lazy in appearance, but in other cases the bad layers seemed as smart, 
well formed and vigorous as any. The trap nest is the only sure way unless each hen can be kept with 
a flock of another breed laying eggs of a different color. The Rhode Island Experiment Station con- 
ducted experiments in feeding which indicated that the ordinary rations given to laying hens which 
are locked up in yards throughout the molting season do. not contain a sufficient quantity of animal 
feed material. Meat and green bone as furnished in Davis Meat Scraps and Davis Coarse Ground Bones 
was shown to be of the greatest importance, as it provides animal protein to balance the starchy grains. 
The New York Experiment Station made experiments regarding the relative values of whole and ground 
grains, and in the tests made use of two lots of laying hens, of small and large breeds respectively, hav- 
ing their grain fed only dry and whole. It was found that these ate more feed at a greater cost per 
fowl and for their live weight than did two similar lots which had approximately 37 per cent of their 
grain ground and moistened. 



it 



FEEDING FOR EGGS. 217 



Two pens of Cochins of similar breed were tested, with the result that the one fed whole grain 
produced eggs at a much smaller cost than the one fed on ground grain. This result was attributed 
principally to the fact that a greater amount of exercise was required of the fowls in the feeding of the 
whole grain. On the other hand, a pen of Leghorns which throughout the year had 37 per cent of their 
feed ground and moistened produced eggs at a greater profit than did an exactly similar pen fed on whole 
grain. With the kinds of whole grain generally available it is not quite possible to feed so narrow a 
nutritive ratio as is perhaps necessary for the best results from laying hens — that is, one which con- 
tains as large a proportion of the nitrogenous feed constituents as is required. In adopting a ration 
consisting of such ingredients as cotton seed meal, pea meal, gluten feed, or other of the highly nitro- 
genous by products, together with ground grain, an excessive amount of meat may be avoided and the 
general ration narrowed without bad results. In case hens are fed similar rations, if the fowls of more 
diminutive breeds only produce the same yield of eggs as those of larger breeds, the eggs are more 
cheaply produced by the smaller chickens; but, when the cost of raising and ultimate poultry value of 
the fowls is taken into consideration, the profits will be the same in each case or even greater with the 
larger fowls. 

The digestive apparatus in the chicken is quite wonderfully constructed. In the hen there 
exist three divisions or receptacles for feed. First, there is the crop, receiving the feed as soon as swal- 
lowed; then, a little farther back in the breast, is the gullet, which contracts and expands so as to form a 
second receptacle, with thick walls. Next we find the third receptacle, which is very muscular and 
large and is known as the gizzard. In starting, the gullet takes root from the back of the beak, runs along 
the neck, behind the windpipe, and ends in the abdomen, slightly to the left. 

Overfed fowls that have become fat, drowsy, broody and droopy as a rule are poor layers, 
inclined to weakness in the legs, and, taken all in all, are rarely fit for anything but food. Do not feed 
such hens more than once a day, preferably in the evening. Let the meal be made up of a pound of lean 
meat to twenty-five hens, and scatter a handful or two of grain in the litter to keep them in constant 
exercise throughout the day. Davis Meat Scraps contain little if any of the fat producing elements 
in poultry feed, and may be used to good advantage if a sufficient quantity of lean meat cannot be pro- 
cured at home, and they will constitute a less expensive feed. Spread a few grains in the litter at night 
and the hens, which have been kept hungry throughout the day, will be induced to hunt for them until a 
late hour. This will soon reduce and take off their fat, and their egg producing qualities will again begin 
to develop. If the hens after a week or fourteen days' diet on above ration commence to lay well, the 
one meal per day plan may be followed up. The one thing to bear in mind is to keep them in constant 
exercise until the fat is removed. 

The Anatomy of Fowls is an interesting study. A short description of the digestive apparatus 
already has been given, and to this should be added that the large number of small stones swallowed 
by the birds are subsequently, upon dissection, found in the gizzard. It is claimed by naturalists 
that they hasten the operation of digestion by the contracting of the muscular lining, causing the 
stones to grind the feed, as it were. The third or last stomach is formed by a thick and very strong 
muscular membrane, the external fibers of which are of a tendinous nature. The internal membrane, 
which lines the gizzard, is very thin, fibrous and hard. A coloring matter, having the'properties neces- 
sary to dissolve stones and carbonate of lime, is secreted from this membrane. Dissolving of flint is 
the longest process. Fluids partaken of as drinks seem to be absorbed by the first and second 
stomachs ; at any rate they are never found in the gizzard unless in case of disease. In fowls the 
salivary glands are comparatively small. They secrete a minute quantity of a thick, slimy fluid. On 
the other hand, the liver is large, and is divided into two lobes of the same size. The bile of the gall 
bladder, which is attached to the liver, is thick and extremely bitter. Two small tubes from the 
pancreas pour a fluid into the intestines. . The spleen is small, cylindrical in shape, and situated 
behind the liver. Its functions evidently are to keep in reserve and properly prepare the fluid which 
is used as one of the secretions necessary for the process of digestion. The circulatory apparatus is 
similar to that in other animals. The heart has four cavities and the arteries are the usual ones, 
in the picture presented on the following page the abdominal muscles have been abstracted, 
together with the heart, trachea, sternum, the greater portion of the neck, and the entire head 



218 



FEEDING FOR EGGS. 



pting the lower jaw, which is turned aside in order to bring the tongue into view, the pharynx, 
and the apperture leading into the larynx. The intestinal bulk, left lobe of the liver, sucscentric 
ventricle, and the gizzard, are pushed aside to the right in order to afford a plain view of the various 
portions of the alimentary canal, the ovary, and oviduct. 

The Bodily Composition of Fowls also affords an interesting study for progressive farmers and 
poultrv keepers. Like nearly all animal structures it is composed of more than half water. One 
hundred hens will require not less than 16 quarts of water per day, and care should be taken at all times 
to keep this water perfectly clean, cold and fresh. A pint of water is contained in each dozen eggs. 

In regard to the grain per day approximately required by the 
average laying hens, it is estimated that each 1,000 pounds live weight 
fowls of ordinary size require from 65 to 70 pounds of grain per day. 
The average hens can on this ration generally be depended upon to lay 
from 16 to 30 pounds of eggs. It is possible to produce 1 pound of 
eggs from about z /i pound of water free feed, 1 pound of dry matter of 
the eggs corresponding to each 8.8 pounds of the water free feed 
consumed. Forty to 50 pounds of grain per day, containing about 
z /i pound of water free feed, is sufficient for the feed of each 1,000 
pounds weight of hens of the larger breeds. In regard to the relative 
proportion of nutrients, distributed in the feed, 6 pounds of digestible 
protein, 14 pounds of digestible nitrogen free extract and 2 pounds of 
digestible fat will be found about right. The larger breeds of fowls 
require, when laying, about 4J4 ounces of feed daily. Chicks are 
heavier eaters than the older birds, and must be fed more in propor- 
tion to their weight than these. When very young 10 . 6 pounds to every 
100 pounds live weight per day is generally needed. This ration 
may be diminished to 7 . 5 pounds when the chick reaches a weight of 
2 pounds ; 6 . 4 at 3 pounds weight ; 4 . 9 at 6 pounds weight ; and 4 . 7 
at 7 pounds weight per day. 

The above rations are for grain feed, it should be noted. Green 
feed and extras are an important adjunct to these. Davis Poultry 
Food, if added to the daily ration, will insure perfect health and the 
highest possible productiveness among the layers, and will decrease 
the feed bill from 20 to 30 per cent. It will pay for itself over and 
over again. 

The Farmer and Poultry Keeper will do well in acquainting 
themselves with the comparative nutritive values of the various 
grains available for poultry keeping and feeding. Grains like Kaffir 
corn, milo, maize, durra, millet, chicken corn, etc., may take the place 
of wheat to some extent if the latter is scarce. Hulled broom corn 
seed ranks side by side with wheat as a ration for fowls. A number of 
the grains mentioned above are small and constitute a good scratching 
feed for birds and also may be used as chick feeds. Among the 
standard grains in the market corn is fattening and heating, but it 
should be balanced with meat, bone, bran, linseed, gluten, and similar 
feeds. Corn on the cob is valuable as a chicken feed for the farmer 
and provides some exercise for the fowls, while cracked corn, if it is 
fed dry, always should be sifted in order to prevent waste. Soured or 
overheated corn or meal should never be fed to the fowls, especially 
not to the young. 

Wheat is generally looked upon as the best and safest grain feed 
for poultry, the only drawback in its use being that it generally conies 
higher in price than most of the others. If meYely small, scorched 




Figure 6. Anatomy of a Fowl. 



A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

P 

G 

E 

I 

i 

K 

L 



Tongue. 
Pharynx. 

portion of esophagus. 
Crop. 

d portion of esophagus. 
Succentric ventricle. 

ird. 
Origin of duodenum. 
Duodenal flexure. 
Duodenal flexure- 
Origin ol small intestine. 
le. 
M Fri of caeca. 

tion of organs into intestinal tube 
urn. 

' ery. 

of liver. 



Right lobe of liver, 
bladder. 



rtion 
ducts. 
W P( 
X I. 

Y Ovary. 
Z Oviduct. 



ol biliary and pancreatic 



FEEDING FOR EGGS. 219 



or broken No. 2 wheat is bought and selected with care it often will be found to contain almost equal feed 
value with the No. 1 grain. Sour or burned wheat, however, is always to be religiously avoided, and in 
feeding screenings it should also be remembered that these contain as a rule a number of seeds not eaten 
by the birds. Middlings, shorts and bran, fed with corn meal, constitute a good feed, but if fed alone 
they are not relished by the birds and practically wasted. If the poultryman is located near bakeries, 
he may, with good profit, secure and feed his fowls and chicks with the waste from the bread, which, 
when soaked and mixed with middlings, makes an excellent feed. 

Oats, while it cannot be considered to constitute a vital part of the menu provided for up to 
date poultry, still should always be on hand and fed for the sake of variety. It is not so well liked on 
account of the husk. When it is clipped, however, it is much relished and there is hardly anything better 
for the production of superior eggs. Rolled oats and coarse oatmeal constitute excellent chick feeds 
and may be fed dry. Oats as a whole are nearly as nutritious as wheat and serve to offset corn and 
other grain feeds. 

Buckwheat is generally relished by fowls and is of a fattening nature ; but, apart from localities 
where it is being raised at home or where its price is low, it is comparatively little used. The middlings 
of buckwheat constitute a good feed when mixed with corn meal and are especially rich in egg material. 
Rye bran contains the same qualities, but if fed too freely it is claimed by poultrymen that it is apt to 
produce bowel trouble. 

Barley contains much the same qualities as wheat, but as a rule the birds do not like it very well. 
As a nutritive ration barley shorts are exceptionally valuable. Unless its price is low. it is not" advisable 
to feed barley to any extent. 

Davis Poultry Food. — In the summing up of this little treatise on broiler growing and the general 
care and feeding of chickens, in accordance with the most approved, up to date methods, we desire to 
again call the progressive and economical poultry keeper's attention to the merits possessed by Davis 
Poultry Feeds. In them are contained in nicely balanced ratio all the elements that go to make up 
the composition of the egg, and they will supply materials absolutely necessary to the laying hen if she 
is to produce a satisfactory number of eggs of standard quality and flavor, or if she is meant to be fattened 
for the market. Davis Poultry Food is of a condimental nature, containing roots, herbs, seeds 
and barks, and when fed to the birds in their regular daily ration it has an effect approximately the 
same as condiments for human consumption produce upon our own food, which cause a greatly increased 
activity of the digestive organs, a more abundant flow of digestive juices, a keener appetite, and, conse- 
quently, a more perfect assimilation of the feed consumed. And this means to the prudent and careful 
farmer a saving in his feed bill of from 20 to 30 per cent, actual value, as can easily be ascertained by giving 
them a trial in accordance with the suggestions given in the foregoing pages. 

• If for any reason the poultry keeper should not care to invest in outside poultry foods, he may 
find, to some extent at least, a home substitute for them in the following (when .forced production of 
eggs is desired) , made up of ingredients which can be purchased at the drug store: Cantharides, 90 grains; 
ginger, 36 ounces; Venetian red, 2 ounces; sulphur, 3 ounces; charcoal, 5 ounces; capsicum, 16 ounces; 
oil .meal, 30 ounces. The whole combination should be finely ground and mixed well together. Use one 
and one-half teaspoonfuls to the quart of hot mash, which will be enough for twelve birds of average size. 
The whole preparation should not cost more than 60 cents, but it should be remembered that apart from 
the forced egg production, causing the pullets to lay earlier, there is no profit in its use. Experiments 
have demonstrated that it will not in the least increase the yearly yield of eggs. With the use of 
Davis Poultry Food preparations it may easily be altogether dispensed with. And let it be understood 
that the foregoing formula is a stimulant and not a tonic. Davis Poultry Food is a tonic and digester, and 
increases the yearly egg production. 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 

Many farmers who are in the habit of keeping a large flock of poultry feel the high prices of the 
standard grains used for the feeding of their fowls. And this is the reason why the question is being asked 
again and again if it is not possible to find a substitute to take the place of the costly grain ration. In 
sidering this question it shotild be remembered that as poultry is usually confined in comparatively 
close quarters, it is not well to feed the fowls too bulky or coarse feed, such as the ruminating class of 
domestic animals may safely partake of on account of their greater liberty. However, a judicious anc 
liberal use of vegetables, apples, clover, etc., may with good results be substituted for the grains. But 
under these circumstances the farmer must also eliminate the feeding of wheat bran to any extent, as this 
is altogether too heavy and bulky a feed to go with the green ration. In feeding the regular mash to 
the birds, vegetables, either green or boiled, may be mixed therein. Finely cut clover or alfalfa, also 
clover meal, may be steamed and mixed with the mash, and a good ration for the noonday meal is steamed 
clover, to which has been added a suitable amount of corn meal and wheat middlings. Davis Meat Scraps, 
Davis Meat Meal, and Davis Coarse Ground Bone are exceedingly cheap, when the highly nutritive matters 
which they contain are considered. Barley is at times a most economical feed to use, and may be given 
to the birds either whole or ground. Corn silage is cheap and especially relished. It should be fed 
occasionally. Once a day, at least, whole grain should be fed. 

An Important Part in the proper ration of poultry is supplied by the animal matter consumed. 
Indeed, it is safe to assert that but few poultrymen realize how conducive to the health and well being, 
stamina and productiveness of his flocks, are the numerous insects, worms and other living organisms 
picked up by them during the day. This fact was strikingly brought out a little while ago by the experi- 
ments conducted by the New York Experiment Station that we have previously mentioned but which 
we repeat here, as we deem them worthy of repetition. Two lots of chickens, closely resembling each 
other, were employed in these experiments. Of these one lot in each case was fed a ration consisting of 
mixed grains, skim milk or curd,' containing no animal matter whatever; the other ration was made up of 
mixed grains with animal meal and fresh bones or dried blood. The two rations were balanced equally 
well, with the exception that the animal matter ration contained slightly less protein than the 
vegetable matter ration. The material difference in the two rations consisted in that in the one case 
two-fifths to one-half of the protein originated from animal sources, while in the other the entire amount 
was derived from vegetable sources. 

Two separate trials were made with chickens, and as a result it was proved that whilein each case 
more feed was eaten" by the lot fed on animal protein, there was a more rapid and pronounced gain in 
weight, leading to an earlier maturity, the cost of gain was less, less feed being required for each pound 
of gain. This is in itself an elegant illustration of the great nutritive value contained in Davis Meat 
Scraps, Davis Mixed Poultry Feed, and Davis Coarse Ground Bone, and clearly demonstrates the great 
saving which may be made through a judicious and constant use of these feeds. 

Continuing with the experiment made by the New York Station, it was found that during the 
first twelve weeks of the first trial (starting in with the one-half week old chickens) the chicks fed on 
animal meal gained 56 per cent more than those on the vegetable diet, notwithstanding the fact that they 
ate but 36 per cent more; for the gain of 1 pound they required 3^ pound of dry matter less, and each 
pound of gain cost but 4J4 cents, while that of the grain fed fowls was 5 1-5 cents — a telling argument 
in favor of the animal matter ration. 

Passing over to the next eight weeks, the cost of gain was found to be respectively 1Y 2 cents and 
11 1-5 cents. The chickens fed on animal meal reached 2 pounds in weight more than five weeks before 
the others; they arrived at 3 pounds more than eight weeks sooner, and four weeks earlier than any 
the grain fed birds three pullets of the lot began laying. 

— 220 — 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 221 



The correctness of the indication made by the first experiment was further enhanced by the second 
trial, showing respective differences in the same direction. The second test was made with six weeks 
old chicks, and proved that the great advantage of animal nitrogen lies in the promotion of a quick, 
healthy growth and ah early maturity rather than increasing the fattening tendency. 

In the case of ducklings fed on the same contrasted rations, the results were almost startlingly 
convincing. The experiment had only progressed a short way when attention was drawn to the fact 
that the fowls fed on animal meal matter developed evenly and rapidly, while the ducklings fed on grain 
only became thin and uneven in size. So marked was this that it was almost pitiful to observe the long 
necked, scrawny, grain fed birds, who, although the troughs before them were filled with good, seemingly 
wholesome feed, were constantly- straining their necks and scrambling over each other in hot haste to 
get away with the unlucky grasshopper or fly which happened to come near their enclosure, while the 
contented looking meat fed ducklings basked lazily in the sun and paid scant attention to the humming 
bee or crawling beetle. To make a long story short, the meat fed birds lived and thrived and looked 
happy and contented, while the vegetable fed birds one after another dropped off, starved to death, 
so it seemed, by sheer lack of animal feed, and only twenty of the thirty-three used in the trial were 
alive at the end of the fifteenth week of contrasted feeding. Then, as a further experiment, they were 
fed for four weeks on the meat meal ration, and made nearly as rapid gains as the other lot of the same 
size two months before. Their start on the exclusive grain ration, however, had put them so much to 
the bad that they never quite overcame its disastrous effects. 

From the above experiment we may then deduct the inference that rations in which from 40 to 
50 per cent of the protein is made up of animal matter, will give better and more economical results 
than such rations as draw the greater part of their protein from vegetable sources. In the experiment 
mentioned the main advantage was found to lie in the production of rapid growth and satisfactory 
development, although the cost of production was also in its favor. Inferior palatability undoubtedly 
had something to do with the marked differentiation in results, especially in reference to the ducks, but, 
taken all in all, the chief inference to be drawn from these experiments and others not yet reported appar- 
ently indicate that the superiority of the one ration over the other is due to the animal feed contained 
therein. No better argument than the foregoing can be found for the constant use of Davis Meat Scraps, 
Davis Beef Scraps, Davis Coarse Ground Bone, or Davis Prepared Meat Meal. These all contain or 
are made up of animal matter of the highest feeding value, and are scientifically prepared in our extensive 
laboratories, combined so as to contain the various elements necessary for the nutrition and growth 
of animal life. The meat and bones used in their preparation, it may be added, are absolutely fresh, 
pure and untainted, and the prudent farmer who adopts the steady use of these feeds in accordance with 
our directions will be amply rewarded by seeing his poultry thrive and grow, and gain in life and vigor 
until his pens and yards are filled with valuable, beautiful fowls, pleasing alike to the eye and making 
dollars for their owner by their increased worth as broilers and layers. 

Ducklings, as well as other fowls, need meat or animal feed in some form. Thus, for instance, 
one of the oldest duck raisers in the country feeds one part hard boiled eggs and three parts of stale 
bread crumbs the first three or four days, which ration he thereupon changes into one consisting of equal 
parts of wjheat bran, corn meal and boiled potatoes, with a small percentage of Davis Beef Scraps added 
to each meal. Another large duck raiser feeds equal parts of corn meal, wheat middlings, bread crumbs 
or crackers with green feed for the first week. He than changes the ration into one consisting of four 
parts corn meal, two parts bran, one part middlings, one part Davis Beef Scraps, and four parts green 
feed. Each quart of the mixture is supplied with a handful of sharp sand, or Davis Cubical Grit; and 
plenty of fresh air, and pure, clean water is allowed the ducklings at all times. 

Grain has been used hitherto to an almost exclusive extent, for the simple reason that it was easier 
to obtain. It is, however, a fact that bone is far superior to grain as an egg producing material, 
and it will be found that by buying the Davis preparations it will be much less expensive than the costly 
grain rations, and a saving of from 15 to 20 per cent will go side by side with the enhanced egg production. 
It is estimated that if the farmer can get only two extra eggs per week from its use during the winter, 
he will make a handsome profit ; also that one extra egg per week will pay for all the feeds consumed by 



.>•>•> 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 



the fowl. It is therefore easy to calculate that the feeding of Davis Poultry Food will pay for itself 
over and over again. It is oil en the case that poultry is well taken care of, receiving a sufficient quantity 
of feed, but not of the kind that goes to increase the egg production, but the prudent and progressive 
poultry keeper will know that to feed his flock on egg producing material, such as is contained in the 
Davis preparations, is the way to make his business pay. 

One pound or so of Davis Coarse Ground Bone per day will suffice for from fourteen to sixteen 
hens, and the cost is insignificant. In cases where the birds have a free run of the yard, 1 quart of grain 
at night and 1 pound of Davis Egg Producer and Davis Coarse Ground Bone, ought to be sufficient for 
sixteen to eighteen hens, and no other meal need be fed during the day. In the warm season, when 
insects and worms are plentiful, only the bone need be fed. A ration of this kind provides fat, nitrogen, 
lime, starch, phosphates, and all the substances required for egg production. With eggs generally 
selling for 3 cents each in winter, it will be seen at a glance that a great saving may be made by feeding 
the Davis Prepared Feeds instead of ordinary grain. Davis Coarse Ground Bone is cut to the required 
size and is ready for consumption when received by the poultryman. No bone cutter or any other 
machine is necessary to prepare it. All you have to do is to take it from the bag and feed it to the poultry 
in accordance with the directions accompanying the shipment. 

The Ohio State University made an interesting experiment to determine the value of green bone, 
mixed with oyster shells and gravel, as a ration for the laying hens. The trial was separated into four 
divisions with two pens in each division, one of pullets and one of old hens, ten to each pen. The'first 
of those divisions was fed on green cut bone, gravel and crushed oyster shells, the second was fed on green 
cut bone and gravel, the third crushed oyster shells and gravel, the fourth gravel only. In the first 
instance the ten pullets laid 140 eggs, the ten hens, 64, making a total of 204; in the second pullets, 115, 
hens, 80, total, 195; in the third pullets, 79, hens, 4, total, 83; in the fourth pullets, 52, hens, 13, total, 65. 

At the trial the first division received 14 pounds of raw cut bone, 2 pounds of oyster shells and as 
much gravel as they would eat. The second division received 14 pounds of raw cut bone and all the gravel 
they would eat. The third division received 6 pounds of oyster shells and gravel. The fourth division 
received nothing but gravel. Counting bone at 3 cents per pound and shells at 2 cents, the fowls fed on 
cut bone ration more than doubled in value of eggs. There was enough difference in those fed shells 
to more than pay for the shells, but left a narrow margin when fed with bone, while those fed bone more 
than doubled on those that were fed nothing but gravel, or by the test 20 cents per pound could have been 
paid for the cut bone, while eggs brought 25 cents per dozen. The hens that received the bone also 
possessed a much better plumage and wintered much better. It was in conformity with absolutely 
reliable, scientific experiments of this nature that Davis Poultry Foods, in their various forms, came 
into existence to supply a long felt want in this direction and enable every progressive raiser of poultry 
in the country to obtain the highest possible value from his fowls at a minimum expense. As soon as every 
raiser of fowls has had an opportunity to test the merits of these preparations and satisfy themselves 
that our claims for them are based on simple truth and facts, we are confident of their patronage and 
expect that in the course of a few years we will be able to build up the largest business of this kind in 
the world. 

As bone is a highly concentrated and nutritious feed it should not be used carelessly $.nd indis- 
criminately if the best results are to be obtained. In overfeeding lies the only possible danger or in 
feeding that which is sour or moldy. The first results in forcing the chicks or fowls off their feed, and 
in leg troubles; the other in diarrhea and bowel complaints. Full directions for the use and preservation 
of Davis Animal Foods are, however, sent with every shipment, and if the keeper will but follow them 
implicitly no troubles of any kind will be encountered. 

It should be added here that the use of Davis Coarse Ground Bone, Davis Raw Bone Meal, Davis 
■t Meal, etc., not only increases the production and quality of eggs, but lessens the feed cost of eggs,. 
This has been demonstrated in the preceding pages, but deserves to be emphasized and further enlarged 
upon. It is a fact that from 15 per cent to 20 per cent of actual feed is saved by its use. In this con- 
nection it is interesting to note an experiment which a few years ago was made at a private experiment 
station in the State of Massachusetts. In it were employed two lots of pullets and hens, each of them 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 223 



containing nineteen fowls, and lasting seventy-nine days. The feed for the first lot in pounds was as 
follows: Whole wheat, 99.5; oats, 100; wheat bran, 18.5; ground clover, 18.5; wheat middlings, 18.5; 
Chicago gluten meal, 18.5; green cut bone, 10; total, 283.5; cost, $3.25; nutritive ratio, 1 to 4.8. 
The second lot received essentially the same feed, with the exception that in place of the green bone it was 
fed 9 . 7 pounds of animal meal. The total feed amounted to 287 pounds, the cost of which was $3.26; 
nutritive ratio, 1 to 4.9. The lot fed on green cut bone laid 269 eggs at a cost of 0.940 pound dry matter 
in feed per egg and 1 . 2 cents for feed consumed, while the second lot laid 145 eggs at a cost of 1 . 796 
pounds dry matter and 2 . 2 cents for feed consumed. The cost of labor for cutting the bone was 
included in this. This additional expense, of course, is not present with the use of the Davis 
Prepared Feeds. 

Very much the same results were arrived at in other and more recently conducted experiments 
carried out at the New York Experiment Station. In these it was demonstrated that for laying hens 
the ration containing animal feed was superior to others in which all organic matter originated from 
vegetable sources. The fowls fed green cut bone laid more eggs and at a less cost per egg for feed con- 
sumed. Pullets raised on feed containing a considerable quantity of bone started laying much earlier 
than those fed corresponding rations made up of vegetable feed. It is of the utmost importance that 
this point be brought home clearly and forcibly to poultrymen and farmers. The difficulty of getting 
late hatched pullets started to lay eggs before the cold weather set in is well known. But once get them 
laying, and with good feed, care and warm quarters, they will go on laying well during the late fall and 
early winter, at the season when eggs are highest in price; while, on the other hand, if they cannot be 
started before the holidays it is almost impossible to get any profit out of them before toward spring 
when every other hen and pullet starts laying and the price of eggs goes downward in leaps and bounds. 
By feeding Davis Coarse Ground Bone, Davis Raw Bone Meal, Davis Beef Scraps, or Davis Meat 
Scraps, with Davis Poultry Food in the proper proportion, you will be sure of having your late hatched 
pullets commence laying in the fall. Any and all of the above mentioned preparations are good. And 
they are as inexpensive as they are good. They will pay for themselves over and over again. 

It has further been demonstrated that for the raising of young ducks and chicks Davis Raw 
Bone Meal in incomparable. Nothing, in fact, has been found that will equal it for the speedy putting 
on of growth and weight both in chicks and ducklings. Without an abundant supply of animal protein 
in the ration the little fellows evidently are unable to even approximate their normally rapid and most 
profitable growth. A liberal allowance of vegetable matter should, of course, always be given with the 
ration. Feed the whole ration to them thoughtfully and intelligently, observing carefully its influence 
upon, them from day to day. 

Davis Raw Bone Meal, Davis Coarse Ground Bone, Davis Meat Meal, Davis Beef Scraps and 
Davis Meat Scraps are all prepared from strictly fresh, pure and untainted meat and bones, combined 
in the proportions which have been found to be most conducive to the sustenance, growth, development 
and enhanced value to the owners of poultry of all kinds. Expert chemists are employed in our large 
laboratories the year around to see that the feeds are perfect in every respect. In this way we 
are enabled to offer to the consumer, the enterprising, up to date American poultry keeper and farmer, 
an ideally prepared feed, the name of which we want to make a household word with every poultryman. 
We wish to' obtain your confidence and patronage by offering you something honestly good, and we 
trust to you that, as soon as you have demonstrated to your own satisfaction that it is all that we 
claim for it, you will recognize merit by not only giving us your own trade, but by recommending the 
Davis preparations to your friends and acquaintances. Try it at our expense, and judge for yourself 
of its merits. If it is not all that we claim for it, write us and we will return you your money without 
argument or question. 

The West Virginia Experiment Station some time ago conducted an experiment for the purpose 
of comparing the value of bone and meat meal for egg production. The results were very much in 
favor of the green bone. 

In the course of a period of four months, beginning October 25th, seventeen Plymouth Rock 
hens fed the fresh bone laid 650 eggs of an average weight of 11.75 pounds per hundred. The fowls 
which were fed fresh ground meat and bone also increased more in weight and were much healthier during 



224 SPECIAL FEED INC. 



the experiment, four of the others having died, and being replaced by others. As this experiment was 
made with only one sample oi meat meal the results cannot be considered absolutely conclusive, but 
new evidence along this line is all the time coming in, and it is safe to assume that when the value of 
proper feeding is fully recognized, substantiation of these experiments will come in from so many different 
quarters that there will no longer be room left for any doubt in the mind of the poultryman and farmer. 

In the following we shall endeavor to give an idea of the comparative values of the different feed- 
stuff's suitable for poultry raising, in the form of milk and vegetables, which are usually available 
on the farm: 

Whey Cream. — Given in moderate quantities with other feeds this constitutes a most valuable 
poultry feed. It is eagerly sought and relished by growing chicks, and may be used regularly as an 
adjunct to their diet. Experiment has shown that it gives an exceedingly sweet and tender flavor to 
their flesh, and that the objection that it makes their meat oily in taste is not well founded. Doubtless 
if chickens are kept in close confinement and fed largely on this waste cream a marked oily flavor to 
their meat may be brought about, but this is not the case if the diet is suitably mixed and the birds 
have a free run of the yard. As it is waste matter that costs comparatively nothing, its utilization in 
this direction is a most profitable one. It is well known in cheese manufacturing districts that all of 
the cream from sweet milk cannot be worked into full stock cheese. And the resulting percentage of 
necessary waste, rising in the whey tub, and which usually is fed to the hogs or used as cheese 
dressing, is recommendable as an adjunct to the feed ration of growing chicks. 

Bulky Feed. — As is the case with almost every species of domestic animals, poultry must be fed 
a suitable percentage of bulky feed. It is not alone on account of the respective nutriments they contain 
that such feeds are valuable, but they serve to distend the crop and assist the fowls in extracting the 
nutriments from the condensed feeds partaken of. As suitable for the bulky feed ration may be men- 
tioned finely cut grass and clover. These have a greater feed value than their analysis indicates in reality. 
If the birds are fed upon such feeds in connection with Davis Poultry Food and the regular ration of 
more condensed feed, the habit of feather pulling will rarely be contracted. This habit evidently is 
mainly ascribable to two causes, foremost among which is lack of animal matter, while lack of bulky feed 
takes the second place in importance. It is safe to say that feather pulling would hardly be known at 
all if these two elements were fed regularly, unless perhaps it was introduced to the flock through some 
vicious individual that, for want of the two feeds mentioned, had originally become infected with the 
malady. Even after the habit is contracted such feeds will frequently overcome it if persisted in. 

Skim Milk. — In the world of poultry it is practically only the hen that may be fed skim milk with 
profit. Most of the other varieties are averse to it. But it is a fact that 100 pounds of skim milk, fed 
to laying hens, will make as many pounds of egg, or, fed to broilers, as many pounds of poultry, as it 
will of pork or veal. 

Green Feed. — The value of green feed for laying hens was strikingly shown in an investigation 
made by the West Virginia Experiment Station. Forty White Leghorn hens and four cocks were divided 
into two flocks of equal size and placed in two houses, side by side, in the middle of July. Runs, 15 
feet wide and 100 feet long, were allowed to both flocks, and both had access at all times to such grass 
and herbage as grew in the runs. An abundance of green feed was given to one of the flocks in addition 
to the regular ration. The result was that at the end of the year the birds provided with the green feed 
had laid two dozen eggs more than the other. 

Special Feed Crops. — There are a number of greens and vegetables which will prove of special 
value and largely conduce to the health and growth of chickens if fed in suitable quantities together 
with the grain and animal matter ration. Young lettuce and onions ought to be grown and kept by 
ry farmer for feeding purposes. Chop them moderately fine and the birds will relish them. Well 
ked beans, either whole or ground, is a good article to add to the feed list. Seeds of the common 
millet, golden millet, sorghum and broom corn will also help to variate the list of good, inexpensive feeds. 
Young chickens relish rape seed. It is easily raised, and will prove useful and valuable. Equally 
valuable for young fowls is Egyptian corn, a species of sorghum or akin to this plant. Tobacco ought 
also to be raised, and used to keep the birds free from vermin. 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 225 



Clover Run. — One successful poultry raiser is in the habit of sowing crimson clover in the pasture 
or run for his poultry. The land set apart by him for market produce lies in close proximity to the 
poultry yard, and his method is to sow crimson clover as a catch crop between the rows of garden vege- 
tables. Then, after the vegetables are gathered, he allows the birds the range of the field during sea- 
sonable weather, in the course of the late fall and early winter when the other grasses do not supply green 
feed for them. It seems that crimson clover is especially adapted for this purpose, as, contrary to other 
clover, it remains green after the hard frost of early winter. A little rye, sown in with the clover, will 
be found of assistance, helping the clover in enduring the cold, if the weather in your section is severe, 
and the rye will survive if the clover should be killed by the frost. You will be in a fair way to make 
a good profit on the hens next winter if you provide them with such a run now, and at the same time 
dry and put away some of the clover rowen for future use. 

Mangels. — This beet, with little care, yields an enormous crop in comparison with the ground 
taken up in its cultivation. It is easy to harvest and may be kept throughout the winter with little 
difficulty, either in the cellar or in ordinary pits. A good way is to feed it raw, and if the beet be split 
from crown to foot the chickens will enjoy picking out the inside. It may also be cooked and mixed 
with the other steamed or cooked feeds. 

Rice. — One poultry keeper, formerly of California but now located on the Hawaiian Islands, 
records interesting experiments made by him with a milk and rice diet. For ten years he was engaged 
in raising poultry for market both with hens and incubators while residing in California. He had trouble 
with young chicks during this period, more or less, diarrhea manifesting itself now and again and making 
inroads on his flock. Now, since he came to the islands, he makes a practice of feeding the chicks on 
broken rice and milk, and never has had a case of diarrhea or a sick chick, although he is obliged to keep 
them in close quarters on account of the mongoose. Of course they are kept clean at all times, but until 
fully grown are always confined inside a wire fence. He asserts that if he had known the value of rice 
as a feed while in business in California he would have been several hundred if not thousands of dollars 
in pocket now. 

■ Onions cannot be recommended as a feed for poultry, as they will quickly affect the flavor of 
eggs. Turnips also will communicate their peculiar pungent and disagreeable taste and smell to the 
flesh and eggs of poultry, as they do to milk and beef. They will taint the meat, and when it is cooked 
it will emit a pronounced smell of turnips. Muskrats will likewise affect the quality and flavor of eggs 
or meat, making it musky and repulsive, and the meat of these animals should not be fed to chickens. 

Nuts. — If an abundance of nuts are produced on the farm, more especially butternuts and black 
walnuts, they can be turned into profit when fed to the poultry. They should be cracked rather fine, 
when the hens will pick the shells clean in a short time. 

Odds and Ends. — The, leavings from the table are excellent chicken feed, as they generally include 
vegetables, meat, etc. The bones which the farmer's table yields in the course of the year, when ground 
or chopped fine, yield a feed of almost equal value to Davis Meat Scraps and Davis Raw Bone Meal, 
and may be fed to the fowls in equal proportion with good results. 

Mixed Feedstuffs. — A good egg feed may be found in old and damaged cheese, useless for other 
purposes. A cheap and valuable feed, equal in value, pound for pound, with raw corn, is contained in 
popped corn from the factories. If the -corn is sugared, so much the better for fattening. Bakery 
refuse, such as bread, cake and crackers, makes good feed for chicks and will take the place of many pounds 
of grain. Very often scorched grain can be obtained for about two-thirds of the standard price, and 
may be advantageously used if it is not so badly burned that part of it will be left on the ground. Grain 
screenings are of questionable value for birds, but chicks will eat most of the seeds they contain. 

Gluten Meal. — This is manufactured from the chit or nitrogenous elements of the corn grain, 
constituting the refuse from ordinary corn starch. Nearly 30 per cent of nitrogenous matter is contained 
therein, while the pure corn meal holds only about 9 per cent. Very rich, and valuable in the mixed 
ration, are cotton seed and linseed meal, although they are of course quite different articles from gluten. 
Cotton seed meal contains about 40 per cent of nitrogenous matter, and linseed meal 30 per cent. There 
are two kinds of linseed meal, namely, the old and the new process. Of these the new process linseed meal, 
if carefully and judiciously fed, may be used without bad effect for the purpose of increasing the egg 



SIg. 15 



220 



DRESSING AND PACKING POULTRY FOR SHIPMENT. 



production, while the old process, which contains 10 per cent of fat or oil, is too fattening for the laying 
hens. This constitutes the principal objection to cotton seed meal, which contains 12 to 13 per cent of 
tat . while gluten meal holds no more than 5 per cent oi oi». It the proper care and judgment is employed 
either of these concentrated meals may be advantageously used as poultry feed, provided Davis Poultry 
Food is fed regularly. It is advisable to start in feeding either of them in very moderate quantities 
and by degrees increase the ration, as judgment and experience permit it. They should, however, 
never be fed alone, being too concentrated and rich, but other feedstuffs 
should always enter largely into the ration. 

Cider Pomace may be made to serve the same purpose as green feeds, 
roots, herbs, clover, etc., during the winter months. The fowls will partake 
of it freely, and the cost will be smaller than if green feeds were provided. 
Hogsheads or tight barrels are suitable for storing the pomace in. Fill up 
the barrels and press down the contents firmly with jackscrews or barrel 
headers, making a solid, compact mass. 

Sour Feed is not recommended, as it induces bowel trouble. Remove 
any such feed from the presence of the fowls. Feeds that have a tendency 
to sour quickly should not be left about. Feed only as much of them as 
may be consumed within twenty minutes or half an hour. 

Garbage. — If well cooked and fed with ground feed, garbage from 
village and city swill may be given once a day to the fowls without injury. 
There is no objection to feeding it as long as the hens thrive and remain in 
good health, but too large a quantity should not be given at any one time. 



DRESSING AND PACKING POULTRY 

FOR SHIPMENT. 

In the poultry industry, as in every other, attractive marketing is an 
important feature, and one too often overlooked. Many of the products 
marketed by the farmer do not realize high prices owing to a lack of proper 
packing, or because some special requirement of the consumer is not com- 
plied with. The Canadian Experiment Stations have devoted considerable 
attention to the poultry industry. Special efforts have been made to learn 
the requirements of the English market. In a recent report of the 
Canadian. Commissioners of Agriculture and Dairying, the methods of 
dressing, packing, and shipping poultry for British markets are discussed. 
Some of the directions for shipping turkeys seem of general application. 
Among the principal points are the following: 

Plucked turkeys are regarded as more salable than unplucked. Fast 
the birds for twenty-four hours, to empty the crop and intestines. The 
fermentation of feed in the crops and intestines will wholly spoil the birds. Figure 33. 

Give a small quantity of water just before killing. Kill by wringing the neck, 

and not by knifing or sticking. One dealer says the easiest and best mode of killing is by the dislocation 
of the neck. This manner of killing is generally adopted by the English and continental poulterers. 
It is done as follows: Grasp the legs of the bird in the left hand and the head of the bird in the right 
hand, the back of the bird being upward and the crown of the head in the hollow of the hand. Hold 
the legs of the bird against the left hip and the head against the right thigh or knee. In this position 
strongly stretch the head, at the same time bending it suddenly backward, so as to dislocate the neck 
near its junction with the head. The bird is killed instantly, and plucking the feathers must be proceeded 




DRESSING AND PACKING POULTRY FOR SHIPMENT. 



227 



I 



with at once. The method of. killing turkeys in Norfolk is also recommended. It is as follows: The 

bird is hung up. by the legs, the wings being crossed to prevent struggling. Next it is given a sharp blow 

on the back of the head with a stout piece of wood, which renders it insensible. The knife is then 

inserted into the roof of the mouth, so as to pierce the brain, cut- 
ting it along the entire length. The bird is left hanging by the legs 
for a few minutes to allow the blood to drain out. Pluck at once 
while still warm. Feathers should be left on the neck for about 3 
inches from the head; also a few feathers on the tail and tips of 
wings. Do not tear the skin in plucking, and do not under any 
circumstances dip the bird into water. Remove the intestines from 
the rear. Care must be taken not to break the gall bag. All the 
rest may be left inside. Twist the wings on the back of the bird 
(Figure 33). A string, which, however, should not encircle the 
body, may be used to keep them in place. As soon as the feathers 
are off hang the bird up by the feet to cool. Do not lay it down or 
hang it by the head. 

The blood should drain toward the head, and become coag- 
ulated there. One dealer says to lay the birds on their breasts on 
a setting board, pressing the rumps square, letting the heads hang 
down until the body is set, when the birds will always retain their 
plump shape. Cleanliness is neces- 
sary. The feet and legs of the birds 
hA should be clean also. The legs of 
the dressed birds are often tied up 
as shown in Figure 34. If the birds 
are to be displayed in a shop the 
head should be pushed up under the 
wing. The birds should be thor- 
oughly cooled (not frozen), and they 
should be cold through and through 
before being packed in cases. Pack 
in any one case only birds of nearly 
the same weight, graded to within 
two pounds. In no case should any 
bird be lighter than the lightest 
Figure 34. weight or heavier than the heaviest 

weight marked on the package. 

Pack the cocks and hens in separate cases. Mark the cases at both ends 

plainly. Wrap every bird neatly in paper. The head of each bird 

should be wrapped with a quantity of thick paper, to absorb any 

blood. Spread a small quantity of wood pulp or dry, clean straw in 

the bottom of the case. Put paper on the bottom and top of the 

birds to keep them clean. A small quantity of wood pulp, or dry, 

clean straw may be put on top, directly under the cover. Pack the 

birds with backs down, with heads at one side. Put from twelve to 

twenty-four birds in a case. Every case should be packed quite full and 

close, to prevent damage during transit. Do not export any old, tough Figure 35. 

birds. Every bird should show a good, plump, white, broad breast. 

Opinions differ in the United States regarding the practice of drawing poultry before market- 
ing. While it is desirable to suit the demands of the market to which shipment is made, the following 

conclusions from recent American experiments are of interest: 




j 




2 2 S DRESSING AND PACKING POULTRY FOR SHIPMENT. 

Under precisely the same conditions of temperature and humidity, drawn fowls will keep 
from twenty to thirty days longer than those not drawn. The presence of undigested feed and 
excrementitious substances in animals which have been killed most certainly favors tainting of the flesh 
and general decomposition. The viscera are the first parts to show putrescence, and allowing these to 
remain within the body cannot do otherwise than favor infection of the flesh with bacteria and 
ptomaines, even if osmosis does not actually carry putrid juices to contiguous tissues. Hunters know 
the value of drawing birds as soon as possible after they have been shot, in order to keep them sweet 
and fresh and to prevent their having a strong intestinal flavor. 

That the opening of the body of an animal and exposing the internal surfaces to the air may have 
some influence of itself in hastening putrefaction is admitted, but when the process of drawing is properly 
conducted this secondary objection to its immediate performance may be entirely set aside. Absolute 
cleanliness should be maintained throughout the operation, and if the entrails are torn and their contents 
allowed to come in contact with the flesh of the animal its interior should be at once washed out with clean, 
cold water and afterward with a solution of common salt and the carcass hung up until thoroughly dry. 




DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



For the proper treatment of disease it is essential that the poultryman should 
Common have some idea of the most common causes. Should the digestive organs be 

Causes. affected, the feed, its character and quantity, should be first looked into. See 

that the birds are given opportunity to exercise properly, assure yourself that 
they have had the necessary grit, or whether the alimentary canal is obstructed at any point. Find 
out whether or not they have been exposed to cold or drafts of air, and, last but not least, assure your- 
self whether or not they have been subjected to the attacks of the numerous parasites, both animal 
and vegetable, that are known to cause disturbance of the digestive tract. Diseases of the respiratory 
organs may be caused by chills-, by exposure to drafts or a damp atmosphere, and they may also be 
caused by minute organisms or parasites. If the skin or feathers are affected, look for parasites; in 
cases of lameness, it is possibly due to injury by rheumatism. If the fowl is pale around the head and 
there is a general loss of weight, it is probably caused by indigestion, by improper feed, or by the attacks 
of internal and external parasites. Diseases of the brain may result from exposure to too great 
heat, from sunstroke, from overexertion, high feed or insufficient exercise. Diseases of the ovaries 
may be the result of the bird being too fat, or from the ration being impropejly digested for the 
needs of the body. 

The hygienic and sanitary surroundings are particularly important in fowls, 
Hygienic much more important perhaps, than in quadrupeds. When we stop and con- 
RequirementS. sider the matter we find that the reason is that birds digest more feed in pro- 
v . portion to their weight than any other animal. Not only that, but they breathe 
more rapidly, their blood circulates faster, their temperature is higher, and they make a greater proportion- 
ate increase in body weig/ht in a much shorter time than other animals. On the top of all this the bird of 
today may be rightly compared with a very complicated and delicate machine, run under extremely 
high pressure, which, if neglected, soon goes to pieces. In this connection we will refer the poultry- 
man's attention to our chapter on houses, etc., and strongly advise that they be followed. 

The word disinfection means to destroy or remove infection in the way of 
; = Disinfection. ' vegetable or animal parasites, microbes and foul odors. As we have repeatedly 

stated, prevention is better than a cure, and too much attention, therefore, 
cannot be given toward keeping the fowls in clean surroundings. The longer chickens are kept on the 
same premises the more the parasites will increase and therefore the greater will be the danger. 
Systematic and thorough measures should be adopted, and they should be attended to with religious 
regularity. The methods- of disinfection are many. Some are dangerous and some are inefficient, and 
it is therefore important for the poultryman to thoroughly understand those which are most efficient 
and least dangerous. For the inside of the house, including the roosts and nests, hot whitewash should 
be used at least twice a year, and we strongly advise adding to this whitewash Phenalin, manufactured ■ 
by the Davis Stock Food Company. The Phenalin should be used in proportion of 1 quart of Phenalin 
to 30 gallons of whitewash, the Phenalin being mixed with the water before it is put on the lime. 
There are a great many good preparations on the market, but Phenalin is better than the majority. 
It is much stronger and absolutely safe. Should the poultryman not have it on hand, carbolic 
acid will do very nicely, but it is not so strong as Phenalin, and more dangerous. Where houses 

229 



230 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



that have boon whitewashed need to be disinfected again we advise spraying the ceilings, walls and all 
the crests of the house with a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin. For external parasites there is nothing 
better than Dr. Brown's Lice Killer, applied to the roosts, or the fowls may be dusted with Brisbaine's 
Death to Lice. The runs used by the fowls should be plowed and replanted often, in order to bury 
the accumulated excrements and parasites and bring fresh soil to the surface. 

In spite of all these precautions intestinal worms will at times develop, and it is in such cases 
as this that Davis Poultry Food proves its efficiency and value. If used regularly there will be much 
loss danger from internal parasites, and the cost is practically nothing, being less than 1 cent a month 
for each fowl. 

This is one of the most common diseases of fowls. The attacks may be mild 

Simple and affect but a few birds of the flock, in which case it is easily overcome. 

Catarrh. Again, severe attacks that will affect nearly all the fowls in a flock, and which 

* > will yield only to heroic and prolonged treatment, may occur. In such 

cases it is important to make a thorough and exhaustive examination when the disease is first noticed, 

so as to determine whether or not it is simple catarrh or infectious catarrh, in order that the treatment 

may be gauged accordingly. 

Symptoms. — Birds more or less dull; disinclination to move; poor appetite. Sometimes the 
mucous membrane thickens, causing obstruction to, breathing ; there is a thin, watery discharge, which 
later becomes thick ; eyes are often watery ; eyelids swollen and sometimes held together. In the more 
severe and complicated cases of catarrh the feathers often stand erect; nostrils are completely 
obstructed and breathing carried on entirely through the mouth, accompanied by a whistling or snoring 
sound. The bird has no appetite and a thin liquid runs from the mouth. Finally it becomes exhausted 
and dies. 

Causes. — Causes are undue exposure, dampness, drafts of cold air. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause and give good, stimulating feed. Each fowl should receive 
one-half teaspoonful of Davis Poultry Food a day. It is better, perhaps, to give it one-sixth of a 
teaspoonful at a time three times a day. If Davis Poultry Food is not at hand, use the following: 

Gentian root 4 drams. 

Ginger 4 drams. 

Sulphate of iron 2 drams. 

Hyposulphite of sodium 1 dram. 

Salicylate of sodium 1 dram. 

The above substances should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed, and 3 to 5 grains a day given 
each fowl. 

This disease is probably caused by a germ. Symptoms. — The early symptoms 

Roup Of of this disease cannot be distinguished from those of simple catarrh. As the 

Contagious disease advances the inflammation extends from the mucous' membrane along 

Catarrh. the internal surface of the air passages, and ulceration is liable to occur. The 

secretion instead of remaining fluid will become thick, yellowish and cheesy. 

It forms around the eyes and oftentimes forces the eyeballs out of the sockets. It also at times 

blockades the nasal passages, presses down the palate and obstructs breathing entirely. At times it 

may also prevent swallowing. 

Treatment. — Thorough disinfection of the surroundings. Exclude contagion by every means that 
can be devised. Isolate all affected birds. The wounds and ulcers and eyes may be treated with 
a solution of boric acid, 15 grains to the ounce of water. Some people report excellent results from the 
use of kerosene mixed in equal parts with olive oil. Dr. Fillmore's Roup Cure will cure a majority of 
cases if taken in time. Davis Poultry Food as a tonic and stimulator should be given in the propor- 
tion of one teaspoonful to each fowl once a day. It is important to dispose of the carcasses of all 
dead birds promptly by burning them.' 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 231 



This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchial 
Bronchitis. tubes, due to exposure and dampness, cold drafts of air, etc ; 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; loss of appetite ; quick breathing ; cough. Whistling 
sounds may be heard from the throat because of the air being drawn over the dry and thickened 
membrane. The birds frequently open their beaks in order to get fresh air. 

Treatment. — Give soft- and cooling feed, such as stale bread moistened with milk. Let them 
inhale steam or vapor from boiling water in which one tablespoonful of Phenalin has been mixed with 
each quart of water. If Phenalin is not at hand, carbolic acid may be used, although not so good. 
Give each fowl one-half tea*spoonful of Davis Poultry Food once a day. If this is not at hand get black 
antimony and give each fowl 2 grains a day. Flaxseed steeped in hot water often gives great relief. 
Should the attack be severe it can often be controlled in the early stages by giving 10 drops of 
turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil, and the dose may be repeated in five or six hours, although 
not oftener. Care should be taken in administering medicines in all diseases of the bronchial tubes or 
air passages. They should always be soft and free from roughness so as not to excite the inflammation. 

This is a parasitic disease caused by the presence in the air passages of a worm 
The Gapes. called the syngamus trachealis. The prominent symptom is that of frequent 

gaping, from which the disease has been named gapes. 
Description of the Worm. — It is a small, round worm, red in color, that attaches itself by its mouth 
to the mucous membrane of the bird's trachea or windpipe. The female worm is usually J^ inch in 
length; the male less than yi inch. They suck the blood from the bird, and in doing this set up 
considerable irritation and inflammation. They rapidly exhaust the strength and obstruct the wind- 
pipe, thus causing death by exhaustion or asphyxiation. Young birds become affected with this parasite 
either by eating the adult worms, containing eggs, which are coughed up by affected birds, or by taking 
the embryo into their system with feed or drink. It will therefore be seen that it is very important 
to isolate all affected birds. 

Symptoms. — This disease is seen most frequently in young birds. The bird will be observed to 
lose its appetite and be less lively than usual. The head will be frequently extended with open beak — 
in other words, gapes. If watched they will be seen to gape every minute or so. They will soon begin 
to* cough and emit a whistling sound. A whitish liquid may flow from the mouth and nostrils at times. 
If badly affected the bird will become weak. The feathers roughen, the wings droop, and the neck is 
shortened or drawn up, except when extended for gaping. The bird will shake its head convulsively, 
as if trying to get rid of the foreign bodies in its throat. 

Treatment. — Separate the sick birds from the well at once, and clean up the coops and yards 
and drinking troughs thoroughly with a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin or 5 per cent solution of carbolic 
acid. Burn the bodies of the birds that have died. To remove the worms from the chick's throat either 
a feather, or hair from the tail of a horse may be used. If a feather is used, strip it to the web, except 
near the tip, and moisten the tip with kerosene or turpentine. If a horse hair is used, fold it, and twist 
the two ends so as to leave a small loop at the extremity. Force the chicken's mouth open with the 
fingers of the left hand, and when the glottis opens for breathing thrust the hair or feather into the wind- 
pipe, then turn and twist it several times and withdraw. One or more worms may then be adhering to 
it. Care should be taken in removing these worms, as the windpipe is very tender and sensitive, and 
may be liable to injury from a broken or rough feather. For internal treatment the following has been 
advised: Make a mixture of hard boiled eggs, crumbs of stale bread and boiled beef's heart; chop these 
ingredients finely and then pound them into a thorough paste. To this paste add garlic in proportion 
of one bulb to each ten chickens, and feed the birds. Asafetida, 8 grains to each fowl a day, given in 
a powder combined with an equal quantity of yellow gentian, mixed into a paste and given to the fowl, 
is good treatment. Davis Poultry Food, mixed into a paste and rolled into pills, each pill about the size 
of a pea, and given every hour or two, has proved satisfactory. 

Causes. — The usual causes are exposure to cold, which leads to contrac- 
C n gestiotl tion of the external blood vessels, and this forces a large amount of blood into the 
of the LtUlgS. internal organs. It is most often seen in fowls that are molting, which have been 

exposed.to cold drafts or rain when the skin is partly denuded. It is also very 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



common among young chickens and turkeys allowed to run in the rains of early spring. Incubator chicks 
allowed to get chilly are also frequent victims. 

Symptoms. — The bird breathes rapidly and with difficulty. It is indisposed to move, sleepy, 
and does not notice things around it. A thick mixture, tinged with blood, escapes from the mouth. 
The comb is dark red or bluish from the lack of oxygen in the blood. The symptoms appear suddenly. 
The bird may live but a few minutes and sometimes a few hours. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists almost entirely of preventive measures, because when the 
disease once occurs the development is so rapid that there is no chance to treat it. Young birds and 
fowls that are molting should be guarded against exp'osure Birds in confin&nent should have a varied 
ration, with Davis Poultry Food, and plenty of exercise. When birds are dying from any cause a care- 
ful examination of the carcasses should be made. If the lungs are found very dark in color and distended 
with blood, particularly if blood is found in the bronchial tubes, this indicates the nature of the disease 
and should lead to the adoption of preventive measures at once. 

Causes. — Chills; impaired activity of the general circulation; inhalation 
Pneumonia. of irritating vapors; in some cases bacteria and germs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very similar to those in pulmonary con- 
gestion, and breathing is very rapid, difficult and painful. There may be a discharge from the mouth 
or nostrils of a yellowish or grayish fluid, tinged with blood. The plumage of the bird will stand erect, 
with wings drooped and head drawn in. There is a loss of appetite, great thirst and constipation. 

Treatment. — The disease is very rapid and therefore very unsatisfactory to treat. The fowl 
should first of all be taken into a warm room and covered with a piece of blanket if the weather is at all 
cold. The head should be left uncovered, however, so that the bird can get all the fresh air necessary. 
As a drink give linseed tea, made by pouring a pound of boiling water on an ounce of flaxseed and keeping 
the mixture hot, but not boiling, for two or three hours ; then remove the seeds by straining, and a sort 
of mucilage will result which is very valuable in the treatment. It also serves as a vehicle to carry the 
medicine. If the patient appears to be failing rapidly, becomes sleepy, develops a dark bluish color of 
the comb, put 15 drops of tincture of digitalis in an ounce of water and administer 10 drops of the mixture 
every two hours. Care should be taken in the administration of the medicine in order not to get it into 
the air passages. As the bird begins to improve a grain of quinine with 10 drops of cod liver oil twi«e 
a day will hasten recovery. The feed, during the sickness, should consist of a soft mash to which Davis 
Poultry Food has been added. 

This is a catarrhal inflammation of the mouth. 

Pip. Symptoms. — A dryness of the membranes of the mouth, particularly the 

tongue ; a hard deposit accumulates along the edge and end of the surface of the 

tongue, sometimes firmly attaching this organ to the rest of the mouth. The dry membrane may 

partly separate and form a shell, which remains attached to the free extremity of the tongue, causing 

more or less painful contraction and interfering with the movements of the tongue. 

Causes. — This disease may arise from any form of local irritation or injury which is sufficiently 
serious to set up inflammatory action. In most cases it is probably caused by micro-organisms. 

Treatment. — Moisten the tongue with a few drops of equal parts of glycerine and water, to which 
has been added 20 grains of chlorate of potash to each ounce. If properly treated this disease will remain 
localized and will not cause any great danger. Exaggerated ideas of its dangerous nature will 
undoubtedly arise from the fact that it is often associated with more serious diseases. 

This is a disease affecting the mouth, and characterized by a whitish or yellowish 

Thrush. deposit on various parts of the membrane lining that cavity. It is a very 

rare disease and but a few cases have been recorded. There are no characteristic 

symptoms, except the whitish patches on the inflamed membrane. The head may be swollen and there 

is a rapid loss in weight, usually preceded by convulsions. 

Treatment. — The system of the bird should be strengthened by good feed and tonics. Davis 
Poultry Food, giving 3^ teaspoonful a day to a bird, is quite effective. The parts affected, should be treated 
with antiseptics, such as a 1 per cent solution of Phenalin, or, better still, a 10 per cent solution of borate 
of soda. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 233 



Diphtheria is recognized by whitish, grayish or yellowish patches of false mem- 
Diphtheria, brane upon the mucous membrane of the mouth. It is a serious contagious 
disease, and is oftentimes confounded with roup. Diphtheria affects not only 
the mucous membrane of the mouth, but the nasal passages, the eyes, the throat, and may extend into 
the windpipe or the bronchial tubes. 

It is characterized by an exudate of a grayish or yellowish nature, called the false membrane, 
which forms upon the surface of the parts mentioned. This becomes attached to the living tissue, so 
that, when it is forcibly removed, a raw, bleeding surface may be left. The bird will lie with the back 
arched, head or neck drawn down into the body, feathers roughened, breathing rapidly; the swallowing 
is very difficult; there is more or less shaking of the head and sneezing; the mouth, if examined at this 
time, will be found very pale, with small gray spots shaded with black, slightly projecting above the 
surface. In a day or so the temperature increases, the appetite disappears, and diarrhea sets in. From 
the open beak there comes a thick, stringy, grayish mixture; the eyes are dilated and projecting; walk- 
ing is irregular and difficult, and the patches on the tongue increase in size. From the third to fifth 
day the whole interior of the mouth may be covered with false membrane, completely obstructing the 
passage. The swallowing is either difficult or impossible. 

Cause. — This disease is undoubtedly caused by a bacillus and is contagious. Various experiments 
and investigations have demonstrated that the disease of diphtheria in children has been communicated 
to fowls. 

Treatment. — Prompt measures should be taken to prevent the introduction of contagion among 
normal fowls, and the sick ones should be isolated at once. All dead birds should be burned if possible. 
Thorough disinfection with Phenalin of the houses, yards, feed troughs, and drinking fountains. Sick 
birds should be placed in a warm, ventilated, dry place, where they "will not be exposed to drafts. Apply 
a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin to the spots on the mouth three or four times a day, and if possible 
inject a small quantity of this solution into the mouth and throat. An excellent remedy is made by 
dissolving 35 grains of potassium chlorate and 2 grains of salicylic acid in 1 ounce of water, and adding 
thereto 1 ounce of glycerine. 

This liquid should be applied to the diphtheritic spots two or three times a day, and may also be 
given internally, in adults, one teaspoonful to each fowl. 

Fumigation with oil of turpentine, by evaporating it in the room so that the birds will be forced 
to breathe the vapor, will be found beneficial. Stimulating and tonic remedies have been very suc- 
cessful and especially valuable in chronic cases. Davis Poultry Food has been especially effective 
and should be given in proportion of one-half teaspoonful to a fowl each day. It is, perhaps, a good idea 
to mix this with a small quantity of syrup, so that it can be rolled into pills. Fowls that have been 
affected and are recovered should not be returned to the flock for thirty days, as they may still be able 
to communicate the contagion. 

Birds sometimes attempt to swallow a particle of feed or something so large 

Choking Of and irregular that it -becomes lodged in the pharynx. This condition may 

Obstruction Of be recognized by the efforts of the birds to rid themselves of the object, and 

the Pharynx. by passing the fingers over the throat a hard swelling can be distinguished. 

Prompt relief must be afforded or death will result from the affliction. The 

object can easily be removed by carefully pressing on the side of the throat in such a manner as to 

force the foreign body into the mouth. If it is difficult to move it in this way, a teaspoonful of olive oil 

poured into the back of the mouth may assist in dislodging it. A small pair of forceps may in some 

cases be of service. Careful manipulation by the fingers, however, can usually be relied upon to 

accomplish the removal. 

This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the interior of the 

Inflammation crop, resulting in a disturbance of the functions of this organ. 

of the Crop. Causes. — This disease may be caused by irregular feeding, or by too 

much ,feed being taken at one time. Again, the fowl may eat feathers or other 

indigestible substances, which may irritate the mucous coat of the throat. Putrid feed of any kind is 

irritating. It may also result from the presence of worms. 



234 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 



Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom is distention of the crop, and on examination of 
the swelling it is found to be soft, due to an accumulation of liquid or gases mixed with more or less 
feed. The birds are dull and disinclined to move. Loss of appetite, belching of gases, and more or less 
weakness are characteristic symptoms. Pressure on the crop causes the expulsion through the mouth 
of liquid and gas, having an offensive odor. 

Treatment. — A clean, dry pen should be provided and the next step should be to empty the crop of 
the irritating and decomposing contents by careful pressure and manipulation while the bird is held 
with its- head downward. When the crop appears nearly empty give 2 grains of subnitrate of bis- 
muth and y 2 grain of bicarbonate of soda in 1 teaspoonful of water. This will remove the irritation 
and correct the acidity. The bird should now be kept without feed for from eighteen to twenty hours 
and then fed sparingly upon soft mashes that are easily digested. One-half grain of quinine morning 
or night for two or three days may prove beneficial. After the fourth day roll Davis Poultry Food in 
pills and give it. If the treatment is commenced in time this disease can easily be cured. 

This is a disease of the entire intestinal tract, consisting of an inflammation 

Gastro Intes- of the membranes lining the various organs. 

tinal Catarrh. Causes. — It may result from overloading the stomach; from too 

stimulating rations; from too much pepper; from eating tainted, moldy or 
putrified feed; from drinking water that has been contaminated by filth; from exposure to draft,- 
cold rains or damp coops. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and roughness of the plumage; disinclination to move; folds of the 
crop are partially paralyzed, causing it to empty itself slowly, and there is therefore a distention of 
it; slight diarrhea at first, with a passage of a soft, yellowish or greenish excrement. This gradually 
gives way to severe diarrhea. There is increased thirst, elevation of temperature and usually 
hemorrhages from the intestines in severe cases. 

Treatment. — It is most important that the cause be removed. See that the birds are comforta- 
ble ; not exposed to drafts or dampness ; that they have absolutely pure drinking water and are fed noth- 
ing but mush or cooked feeds, with a little daily allowance of Davis Meat Meal and Davis Poultry Food. 
Place a handful of oatmeal in the drinking water, or, perhaps, better still, give them milk to drink. 
A teaspoonful of olive oil as a laxative to carry off the irritating substances in the intestines will prove 
beneficial. Follow this with 2 grains of bicarbonate of soda and 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth in a 
little water three times a day. . Should the diarrhea become serious, with symptoms of pain, omit the 
bicarbonate of soda and give }/g oi a grain of powdered opium and 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth 
every four hours. If the diarrhea persists after the fever has disappeared it may be checked with 
laudanum, 5 to 10 drops. 

Causes. — Caused by dry, stringent feed or other deleterious matter. 
Constipation.* May result from irritation by mechanical • means. May also be due to an 
unnatural dryness of the intestines. 

Symptoms. — Birds which are afflicted with serious constipation become dull, lose their appetite, 
stand with an arched head, feathers on end, walk with difficulty, are uneasy, and make frequent attempts 
to expel excrement. 

Treatment. — When the excrement accumulates upon the feathers it should be soaked in warm 
water until softened and then by clipping some of the feathers it is easily removed. If the cloaca is 
filled with a hardened mass it should be softened with warm water or olive oil, and carefully manipulated 
until it can be pressed out or otherwise removed. Oil can be injected around such a mass with an ordi- 
nary syringe, or, in the absence of a syringe, with an ordinary oil can. After the oil has been applied 
it will be well to wait for an hour or two until it has had an opportunity to soften the mass. 

In the case of serious constipation, when the obstructions are farther forward, the most successful 
treatment is 20 to 30 grains of Epsom salts dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. Castor oil, one or 
two teaspoonfuls, may also be given with good results. The constipation should be corrected so far 
as possible by regulating the ration and by adding Davis Poultry Food, in proportion of one teaspoonful 
for each fowl. Give soft mashes, green feed and bran until the fowl appears in a normal condition. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 235 



This is an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, quite commonly seen in 
Toxic-GastTO- poultry as the result of the fowl eating irritating matter. 

Enteritis. The symptoms are a general inflammation of the mouth, trembling convul- 

sions, diarrhea and drowsiness. The fowl usually seeks quiet and unfrequented 
places, and is found with her head drawn close to the body, generally in a sleepy or comatose condition. 
Unfortunately, however, the poisonous juices are not discovered until too late for successful treatment, 
which should be about the same as for simple gastro-enteritis, which is described under that name. In 
addition to this use mucilaginous drinks, such as infusions of flaxseed, together with strong stimulants, 
such as coffee or brandy. 

This is an infectious disease of turkeys and is rather serious on account of the 
Blackhead. fact that the infection usually becomes quite advanced before any diagnostic 

symptoms are exhibited. The affected birds will show a slight loss of appetite, 
which is followed by weakness and emaciation. The diarrhea is the most marked and constant symp- 
tom, but appears past the middle course of the disease. A peculiar discoloration of the head appears 
at the height of the disease, and has led to the popular name of blackhead, although the discoloration of 
the head is not constant. Young turkeys are quite susceptible. It has been recognized most often in 
birds about three weeks of age, but old birds are not exempt by any means. 

Causes. — The disease is caused by one of the protozoa named the Amoeba meleagridis. This 
parasite gains entrance to the digestive organs with the feed or drink, attacking the mucous meinbrane 
of the caeca, causing the development of inflammation. It is assumed that the microparasites are 
carried by the blood into the liver, where they multiply and spread in all directions. Affected birds usually 
die in from two to six weeks, although in some cases a bird may live all summer. During the course of 
the affection the parasitic protozoa multiply and are mixed with the contents of the intestines. They 
are discharged with the excrements, and in this way contagion is spread. 

Treatment. — It is evident that the treatment must be principally hygienic and preventive 
measures. Great care should be taken in separating all infected birds. All runs, roosting places, feed 
grounds, drinking fountains, feed troughs, in fact, every place where the birds have access, should be 
thoroughly disinfected with a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin. And it would be wise to kill or dispose of 
all the turkeys on the farm, since, as before stated, the disease may gain entrance to the system and He 
dormant all summer before causing death and in this way the affected birds may be propagating the 
disease. Medical treatment of the diseased birds has been more or less a failure. The following may 
be tried however: Sulphur, 5 to 10 grains; sulphate of iron, 1 grain. Combine this and give them 
one dose of it. Or try sulphur, 10 grains; sulphate of iron, 1 grain; quinine, 1 grain. Combine and 
give in one dose. These doses are for birds weighing from 3 to 5 pounds. 

There are a large number of animal parasites peculiar to the digestive system 
Worms. of fowls. Some cause serious disturbance or serious disease, while others are 

apparently harmless. 
Parasites of the Stomach. — There are a number of round worms infecting the stomach of fowls, 
the most dangerous of them being the Trichosoma contortum, which packs itself in the cervical dilation 
of the esophagus, obstructing the passage. It also bores into the walls and through the walls of the 
esophagus, thus weakening the structure and making it impossible for the muscular contraction and 
action to force the food on, which collects in this dilation and impaction of the birds. 

Symptoms. — This disease is seen most frequently in young Pekin Ducks. The symptoms are 
unrest, emaciation and weakness. Inside of a week or ten days a swelling appears in the lower part of 
the neck, which rapidly increases and leads to death in one or two days. • 

Treatment. — The treatment is similar to that recommended for gapes. Turpentine is one of the 
best remedies. It may be mixed with twice its quantity of olive oil, and a teaspoonful given of both. 

Symptoms indicating the existence of worms are not very characteristic. As 
Intestinal Worms, a rule, however, the birds become weak, dull and emaciated. The feathers 

lose their brilliancy and become roughened. There, is a tendency to diarrhea, 
and the bird will seek quiet and rest apart from the flock. 



236 DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM, LIVER AND SPLEEN. 

In the case of a chicken dying from an unknown cause, it should always be opened and examined, 
and if worms arc found in the intestines it will serve to show what in all probability is the trouble with 
the rest of the flock. 

Treatment. — Preventive measures, among which may be mentioned a frequent disinfection of 
yards and houses, together with proper feeding, are in this case, as in all others, the best treatment. 
It is most important that the fowls be moved upon fresh ground at least once a year, and the old ground 
plowed under. Davis Poultry Food, fed regularly, makes it impossible for parasites to develop in the 
intestines. When the parasites are once established in your flock all affected birds should be isolated, 
their droppings either burned or covered with lime, and other hygienic measures added. Medical 
treatment can only be partially successful. Pomegranate root, 1 teaspoonful to each fifty birds, is 
very effective. This should be varied by a dose of castor oil, 2 teaspoonfuls to a bird. Powdered Areca 
nuts may be given in doses of from 30 to 45 grains, mixed with butter and made into pills; or male fern, 
powdered, in 30-grain doses, are both very effective; but Davis Worm Powders are better than either of 
the above. Oil of turpentine is also an excellent remedy. More than 1 teaspoonful should not be given, 
however, and it should be diluted in equal amounts of olive oil. 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM, LIVER 

AND SPLEEN. 

An inflammation of the peritoneum, a delicate serous membrane, lining the 

Peritonitis. abdominal cavity and covering the surface of the organs located in this cavity. 

It may occur from a severe inflammation of the intestine, liver or kidneys, 

or from perforation of the intestine and the escape of a portion of the contents into the abdominal 

cavity. Rupture of the oviduct, injuries or bruises of the abdominal wall, irritation due to parasites 

in the cavity, are other causes. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, fever, restlessness and painful efforts to void the excrement. 
Abdominal walls hot and painful if pressed upon. Birds rapidly lose strength until no longer able to 
stand. There are convulsive movements and death follows. The disease is rapid in development. 
Treatment. — Peritonitis is an exceedingly difficult disease to treat. The best way is to insure 
your birds against contracting it by always having a supply of Davis Poultry Food on hand, and by 
feeding it with the regular feed ration, keep your flock in healthy condition. If, however, the disease 
has been contracted, the affected birds should be kept quiet and protected from currents of air. Opium 
in doses of 1 grain every four hours is recommended to quiet the pain and reduce the movements of the 
intestine ; or mix 3 or 4 drops of tincture of aconite in half a glass of water and give a teaspoonful three 
or four times a day. Injections of tepid water are recommended to counteract constipation. Flannels, 
dipped in hot water and squeezed partly dry, applied to the abdominal wall, and renewed as often as 
possible to keep up the moist heat, are excellent. If, however, the disease is due to rupture of the 
oviduct or perforation of the intestine, treatment is useless and the bird should be killed. 

This is one of the largest and most important organs in the fowl's body. It 

Diseases of prepares the bile, one of the principal digestive fluids, and assists in a number 

the Liver. of the most necessary chemical changes occurring in the blood. It contains 

numerous blood vessels through which a large quantity of blood passes, and is 

particularly subjected to the attacks of various parasites, finding their way to the liver through the 

blood channels, and there settling down to their destructive, disease producing work. 

Congestion of the liver is often found in fowls, due to lack of exercise, overfeeding, 
Congestion of or tainted or moldy feed taken into the digestive organs. Infectious diseases, 
the Liver. obstruction to the blood circulation, etc., are other causes. Birds in plethoric 
condition or very fat are especially liable. 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM, LIVER AND SPLEEN. 237 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are obscure and difficult to analyze. A diagnosis during the life 
of the affected bird is not often possible. The post mortem examination shows a vastly enlarged liver 
engorged with blood, tender and easily crushed or torn. 

Treatment. — If the disease is recognized in time for treatment, give sulphate of magnesium or 
sulphate of sodium in a purgative dose (20 grains to a dram), and follow with sulphate of magnesium, 
10 grains, bicarbonate of sodium, 2 grains, repeated daily for a week. One-quarter teaspoonful of 
Davis Poultry Food rolled into pills and given as one dose, will be found very effective in combating the 
disease. The trouble should be prevented by proper feeding, regular exercise, and protection from 
parasites and infectious diseases. Davis Poultry Food, given with the regular ration every day 
according to directions, will practically insure the fowls against the disease. 

Due to same causes as congestion of the liver. It is a different and more advanced 
Inflammation stage of the same disease. 

of the Liver, Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, sluggishness, tenderness over the abdomen, 

Hepatitis. and sometimes a yellowish color or jaundice of the skin. 

Treatment. — Only treatment for birds that are valuable for breeding or 
exhibition purposes is advised. Otherwise, when so affected, it is best to kill them. On treating them, 
begin with J^ to 1 grain of calomel, followed with 20 grains of Epsom salts and 2 grains of bicarbonate of 
soda after twelve hours. To each dose add Davis Poultry Food in equal parts. If the diarrhea is exces- 
sive and weakens the bird, treat as recommended for that disease. When marked improvement is 
shown, give green feed, Davis Poultry Food as a tonic, and Davis Meat Scraps, and permit the bird plenty 
of exercise in the open air. 

Congestion of the liver may lead to an exaggeration of the functions of this organ 

Jaundice, Bil- characterized by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile in the gall bladder, 

iary Repletion penetrating the adjoining organs by imbibition, and coloring them for a con- 

of the Liver. siderable distance. The bile is thick, dry and hard, like a piece of black soap. 

Unfortunately the nature of the disease is only occasionally suspected before 

death. With birds having combs and wattles, or those which have the borders of the eyes or cheeks 

free from feathers, a close observer may detect the yellowish or mahogany color of these parts indicating 

the disease. 

Treatment. — When the disease is discovered purge with ^> to 1 grain of aloes, and change the 
ration completely, giving as great a variety of feeds as convenient. Davis Poultry Food mixed with 
the ordinary ration in proportion of % teaspoonful a day will greatly facilitate the recovery. 

This disease, technically known as atrophy, is generally associated with hard- 
Atrophy Or Wast- ening and sometimes with a marked yellow coloration. 
ing of the Liver. Causes. — Some authorities consider it due to compression, and it may 

result from this cause when there is a great accumulation of fat in the 
abdominal cavity. In most cases it undoubtedly results from chronic inflammation. Other authori- 
ties regard it as caused almost entirely by infections and intoxications. 

Symptoms. — The surface of the liver is often more or less granular, the smal.1 centers of glandular 
tissue being shrunken, undergoing degeneration and surrounded by thickened connective tissue. 
This process is accompanied by the obliteration of old vessels and the formation of new ones, there is 
even a formation of new bile ducts, which, however, is more or less incomplete, as most of the new ducts 
fail to perform their functions. The symptoms are obscure and the disease hard to recognize while the 
bird is alive. Dullness, drowsiness, stupor, and possibly convulsions are features accompanying the 
malady. 

Treatment. — The treatment must be largely preventive on account of the extreme difficulty 
of diagnosing the disease in time. Davis Poultry Food, in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful to each 
twenty birds, added to a properly balanced daily ration in which excess of starch and fat is avoided, will 
prevent the trouble. Give plenty of exercise, with green feed, avoid grain or meal that is musty or moldy, 



23S DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 

as well as decomposing feed of all kinds. The early stages of atrophy may be treated with calomel, 
saline purgatives and alkaline salts, as recommended for hepatitis. 

A rather common disease of birds, largely attributed to lack of variety in feed, 
Fatty Degeneration close confinement and insufficient exercise. 

of the Liver. Causes. — Examination after death discloses the liver in a shrunken, 

hardened and marbled condition, or spotted with areas of grayish or yellowish 
tissue. A microscopical examination shows the cells to contain droplets of fat and the liver tissue 
degenerated and largely replaced by yellow and fat globules. 

Treatment. — Preventive measures. Davis Poultry Food, in proportion of 1 tablespoonful to 
each twenty birds, added to the regular ration, is the only effective measure to be taken, as the disease is 
not recognized during life. If a number of cases occur in the same flock give a greater variety of feed 
and a run of grass. Bicarbonate of soda may also be given in the drinking water to the amount of 1 
or 2 grains a day for each bird. 

Authors who have examined into the subject contend that the fatty livers 
Fatty Liver. which are so skillfully developed by certain feeders of ducks and g'eese, and 

which are considered to be a great table delicacy, ought not to be confounded 
with livers which have undergone fatty degeneration. The latter is a disease, while the former is 
simply a physiological condition. In fatty degeneration the liver is shrunken, fat forms with the cells 
and destruction of the cells occurs. In fatty livers, on the other hand, the fat is deposited between the 
microscopic elements of the liver, and this organ is thereby enlarged and made more succulent and 
delicate. In this case no breaking down of cells takes place. There is no disease if the fattening is 
properly done. 

Whitish or yellowish white nodules and aggregations of nodules, varying in 
Tuberculosis size from a mere point to an inch or more in diameter, characterize this disease. 

of the Liver, These develop either in the peritoneum or in the tissue of the liver and spleen. 

Spleen, and The affliction is of the same nature as tuberculosis. It is incurable and there- 

Peritoneum. fore no treatment is recommended apart from preventive measures, sanitary 

and otherwise, as indicated in the chapter upon this subject. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND 

REPRODUCTION. 

Two kidneys and two ureters form the urinary apparatus in fowls. The blad- 
A Short Descrip- der is absent, the cloaca forming a depository for both feces and urine. The 
tion of the kidneys in fowls are divided into three distinct lobes, each lobe connecting with 
Urinary Organs, the ureter. The texture of the kidney is much more frail than in the mammalia 

and yields readily to the pressure of a finger. The uriniferous tubes do not 
empty into a cavity or pelvis in the interior of the kidney as with mammals, but unite to form a ureter 
upon the surface of the gland. Beyond the kidneys the ureters pass behind the cloaca, penetrate its 
walls, and finally end in valvular eminences in the lower part of the cloaca. The urine secreted is very 
thick, with the color and consistency of cream. It is made up almost entirely of uric acid. In the 
cloaca it dries to a chalky paste, and is expelled therefrom with the feces. As all poultry keepers know, 
the excrement of birds is composed of two distinct portions, 'one white and the other differing in color 
from time to time. The first is the secretion of the kidneys and the last is the residue of the alimentary 
matter which has passed through the stomach. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 



239 



Inflammation 
of the Kidneys. 



Obstruction 
of Cloaca 
by Urinary 
Concretions. 



There is' an evident suffering in the vicinity of the kidneys. The bird is prone 
to lie continually upon its abdomen, rising with difficultv .in order to eat. An 
examination made after death will reveal an enormous enlargement of the 
kidneys and, upon cutting across these organs, numerous black points, each 
representing a minute intestinal hemorrhage, will 
divulge themselves. Other symptoms are cessation 
of growth in the young pullet, loss of appetite, 
emaciation, improperly developed feathers and 
roughened plumage. Microscopical examination 
has revealed the existence of minute organisms in 
the kidneys, and some authorities have ascribed 
this to toxic fungi contained in the feed. Preven- 
tive treatment, consisting of Davis Poultry Food 
added to a varied and nourishing ration, with 
plenty of fresh air and exercise, is the only effect- 
ive means of combating this disease. 

Many instances are report- 
ed of partial or complete 
obstruction of the cloaca 
by drying or hardening of 
urinary accumulations. 
Improper rations are usu- 
ally the cause of these concretions in the cloaca. 
Nitrogenous matter is fed too heavily. Davis 
Poultry Food will tend to prevent and correct the 
trouble if added to the daily ration. If the disease 
is advanced the contents of the cloaca should 
be carefully softened with warm water and re- 
moved. A small quantity of olive oil injected 
daily for six days will guard against further accu- 
mulations and give any local irritation that may 
have arisen time to pass away. No other treat- 
ment than this and Davis Poultry Food is required. 

The female organs of re- 
The Making production in fowls, which 

of an Egg. are responsible for the 

making of the egg, consist 
of a single ovary and a single oviduct. During 
the first part of the life of the chick the two 
ovaries are of the same size, but soon develop- 
mental forces apparently concentrate in the left 
ovary. The right remains undeveloped and finally 
disappears. The remaining ovary develops to a re- 
markable degree. The external appearance is that 
of a granular or nodular body attached to the spinal column by a fold of peritoneum. The nodules are 
irregular in size, some small and whitish, others large and of a yellowish color. The ovum is enlarged, 
due to an accumulation of food yolk, called the yellow, this causing distension of the ovarian capsule 
that encloses the ovum. This capsule is also called the calyx. As the ovum grows bigger its capsule 
becomes more and more separated from the remainder of the ovary, until it is seen to be attached only 
by a narrow base or pedicle. The' calyx consists of two membranes united by connective tissue and 
blood vessels, converging toward a white transverse line or band, crossing the most prominent part of 
the calyx. This band is called the stigma and begins to appear when the ova are well developed. 




3 



Figure 33. 

Reproductive organs of the hen: 1, ovary; 2, oviduct; 3, infundib- 
ular portion of oviduct ; 4, depression corresponding to right oviduct ; 
5, opening of left oviduct; 6, oviduct laid open to show egg surrounded 
with first layers of albumen; 7, uterus opened to show egg with shell 
forming upon it ; [8, cloaca ; 9, rectum; 10, upper portion of anus; 
11, openings of ureters. 



240 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 



The Lii omes broader and the membranes thinner as the ovum increases in size. When the 

it tune arrives the walls of the calyx give way along this line and the egg slips out of its capsule, 
into the infundibular opening of the oviduct. The egg when it enters the oviduct consists of a 
vitellus yolk enclosed in a very thin vitelline membrane. It is in the upper portion of the oviduct that 
impregnation or fertilization takes place. After entering the oviduct the ovum is propelled with a rotary 
motion, by the peristaltic contractions of that tube, toward the cloaca. Contact with the ovum stim- 
ulates the oviduct into secreting first a dense layer of albumen, which is deposited upon the vitelline mem- 
brane and continued in fine threads from pole to pole. The threads or filaments thus produced are the 
chalazae and the dense layer of albumen with which they are connected is the membrana chalazifera. 
As the egg rotates in the oviduct the chalazae become twisted in opposite directions, and the one next to 
the small end of the egg finally adheres more or less to the membrane lining the shell at that point. 
Advancing farther back in the oviduct two other layers of albumen are secreted and deposited upon 
the egg, each thinner and more watery than the preceding one. Reaching the narrowest part of the 
tube two still denser layers of albumen are excreted, making the membrana putaminis. Thus enclosed 
and having acquired its ovate form with the small end toward the cloaca, the egg enters the uterine 
or shell forming dilatation. The inner surface of the oviduct here secretes and deposits upon the 
membrana putaminis a thick white fluid which condenses, becomes calcareous and finally forms the shell. 
It is said that approximately five hours is required in the common fowl for the egg to pass from the 
infundibulum to the uterus. Sometimes it may be arrested there for from twelve to twenty hours. The 
color of the shell depends upon the pigmental matter secreted by the villous membrane of the uterus. 
If pores appear on the outside of the shell they are caused by impressions of the formative membrane. 
The shell is largely made of carbonate of lime to which is added a little carbonate of magnesia and 
phosphate of lime and magnesia. 

The oviduct, in which the egg goes through the process of formation, is simply a whitish tube, 
slightly larger than the large intestine, containing many branching blood vessels upon its surface. It 
starts close to the ovary by an enlarged portion named the infundibulum, bends upon itself several times, 
forming three principal convolutions, and finally reaches the cloaca, into which it opens. The ovary 
and oviduct are reduced in size in the nonbreeding season, when the parts are inactive, almost 
disappearing from view. 

This occurs most frequently during the nonbreeding season, when, however, 

Atrophy of it is a physiological atrophy and not a disease, The. same phenomenon may 

the Ovary. be observed in old hens, sometimes accompanied by remarkable changes in 

other parts of the body. The spurs are enlarged, the feathers grow longer 

and more brilliant, rivaling those of the cock. The habit and voice of the male is also largely assumed 

by such birds. Complete atrophy of the ovaries is sometimes congenital; in other words, these organs 

fail to develop at all. Cases are also recorded in which rudimentary organs of both male and female 

are present in the same individual. Where this condition exists the bird also in voice, plumage, spurs, 

habits, etc., resembles the capon. They are good for nothing but the table arid should be fattened 

and killed. 

A common disease with all kinds of poultry. A post mortem examination of 

Gangrene of the ovary . will show the ova in different stages of development. However, 

the Ovary. instead of being yellowish pink in color, with well defined bloodvessels, they are 

black or brown, easily crushed and the contents broken down into a putrid 

liquid. As it may occur in birds which are not fat, and as it evidently is accompanied by bacteria, 

it probably is an infectious disease. Death is caused partly by peritonitis and partly by the absorption 

of the products of decomposition. 

This organ, being a highly vascular tube, with great functional activity dur- 
Inflammation in^ the laying season and consequently subject to injuries of various kinds, is 
of the Oviduct. often affected with inflammation. 

Causes. — Irritation due to too frequent laying; too large eggs; too 
stimulating feed; breaking of an egg within the tube; obstruction of the cloaca. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 241 



Symptoms. — Bird shows desire to lay without being able to produce eggs; may lay eggs contain- 
ing more or less blood, without shell ; also small, misshapen eggs, containing albumen but no yolk ; or 
the yolk may be dropped without any albumen or shell. As inflammation increases there is high 
temperature, straining, an effort to rub the abdomen upon the ground. Bird becomes dull, indisposed 
to move, comb is pale, plumage rough, and temperature falls to normal or below in the last stages. 

Treatment. — If treatment is to be successful early attention is imperative. Give green, cool- 
ing feed ; avoid meat or irritating ingredients. Give Davis Poultry Food with each day's rations. Keep 
bird quiet and administer Epsom salts 20 grains, bicarbonate of soda 2 grains. Follow this with J^ 
drop of tincture of aconite root three times a day. 

This is a common disease, most often observed in old hens that have been 

Prolapsus Of great layers. Overfeeding, too stimulating feed, constipation, and straining to 

the Oviduct. expel large eggs are direct causes. This disease may also occur as a result of 

inflammation of the tube or from any cause preventing the passage of the eggs. 

Symptoms. — Efforts to expel eggs may cause prolapsus; it is observed as hen leaves the nest; 

usually only partial at first, gradually increasing. In the latter case a tumor may be noticed within the 

mouth of the cloaca. • In the course of a short time the eversion continues and a large dark red or violet 

colored mass protrudes from the vent. 

Treatment. — Catch bird at once and ascertain if an egg is arrested in the passage. If swelling 
is soft, with no signs of an egg, apply carbolized oil or lard, returning the part by gentle pressure. Then 
treat bird as for inflammation of the oviduct, giving additional treatment of 3 to 5 drops fluid extract 
of ergot, to cause contraction of the oviduct and keep it in position. If an egg is found within the swell- 
ing, treat as recommended for obstruction of the oviduct. 

Causes. — -Irritation of the lower part of the oviduct, arresting the secretion 
Difficult Laying, of mucus and causing the mucous membrane to be dry and lacking in its normal 
Egg Bound, lubrication. Another cause is too large eggs or birds being too fat ; it may be 
Obstruction Of aggravated by constipation. 

the Oviduct. Symptoms. — In advanced cases bird may be unable to expel the egg ; the 

egg is arrested in the passage, where it sets up inflammation, leading to straining 
and sometimes prolapsus of the oviduct. There is a frequent inclination to go to the nest, making 
efforts to lay, but hen is unable to perform the function. Restlessness, evidence of distress; in the 
latter stages, dullness, roughened plumage, indisposition to move. On examining bird by pressure 
of the finger, egg may be distinguished as a hard body in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity. 
When prolapsus exists the everted oviduct protrudes. 

Treatment. — In early stages before case has become too aggravated it is sufficient to inject small 
quantity of olive oil and gently manipulate the parts. Thereupon give cooling feed ; if hens are too fat 
reduce the feed ration and add to it Davis Poultry Food in proportion of one tablespoonful to every 
twenty hens. 

In case the expulsion of the egg cannot be brought about by oil injections, immerse the vent 
and lower part of the body in water, as warm as can be used without injury, and keep it immersed for 
half an hour until the parts are relaxed. Now inject oil and endeavor to assist bird by careful pressure and 
manipulation or by dilation of the passage. Fluid extract of ergot is useful in cases of this nature and 
may be administered in 5-drop doses three times a day. It may at times be necessary to puncture 
the egg, allow the contents to escape, crush the shell and remove the pieces. 

If an egg arrested in the oviduct cannot be expelled, inflammation is pro- 
Gangrene Of duced, becoming more and more pronounced, at last causing death of the tissue. 
the Oviduct. Decomposition and putrefaction of the flesh sets in, and this is called gangrene. 

The walls of the oviduct are easily torn when gangrenous and the egg may 
then escape into the . abdominal cavity. No treatment is possible for this condition and death 
will occur in a short time. 



Sig. 16. 



242 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 

Even it no gangrene or inflammation exists the walls of the oviduct are at times 

Rupture of torn or ruptured as the result of strong contractions in the efforts to expel an 

the Oviduct. abnormally large egg. A fissure may appear, allowing the egg to escape into 

the abdominal cavity. The trouble may be discovered from the suspension 

of laying and enlargement of the abdomen. Pressure of the finger will discover one or more eggs in the 

lower part of the abdomen. No treatment is possible, and it is best to kill the bird as soon as this 

condition is recognized. 

Contagious catarrh of the cloaca at times occurs in birds, and it may be trans- 

Cloacitis, mitted from bird to bird during the act of copulation. In severe cases the 

Vent Gleet. trouble may extend to the mucous membrane of the lower part of- the oviduct, 

and even to the rectum. 

Symptoms. — Early symptoms are frequent passages of excrement voided in small quantities. 

The bird sometimes tries to drop excrement when cloaca is empty. This is caused by tenderness and 

irritability of the cloaca, giving the fowl the sensation of fullness, producing spasmodic contractions. 

On examination the mucous membrane in the early stages is found to be red, dry, swollen and hot. 

First it is thin and watery, then turns into white and becomes purulent and offensive. After a few 

days a discharge makes its appearance, collecting upon the skin and feathers, obstructing the passage, 

and irritating parts with which it comes in contact. Soiled skin becomes red and inflamed and sores 

and ulcers may occur from the birds picking at it or from friction. 

Treatment. — Clean the parts and reduce the inflammation by holding lower part of bird's body, 
including vent, in vessel of warm water in which has been dissolved a tablespoonful of bicarbonate of soda 
to each quart of water. Water to be as warm as can be comfortably borne by the hand. The application 
should last for one-half to three-quarters of an hour, repeating daily until the inflammation subsides. 
After the fowl is removed from the water, dry carefully with the following mixture injected into the cloaca: 
Water 6 ounces, glycerine 2 ounces, morphia sulphate 1 grain, boric acid 1J^ grains. A small piece 
of cotton may be saturated with this mixture and inserted in the cloaca two or three times a day, leaving 
it there until expelled by the fowl. In case the discharge is offensive a solution of permanganate of potash 
1 grain to each ounce of water may be used as an injection, or, if this is not on hand, a solution of perox- 
ide of hydrogen may be substituted. If these remedies fail to give satisfactory results, try a solution 
of Phenalin of the strength of 1 per cent. After the inflammation has been overcome, if the discharge 
keeps on, an astringent solution consisting of acetate of lead 4 grains to an ounce of water may afford 
relief. In severe cases acetate of lead 3 grains, sulphate of zinc 3 grains ) and water 1 ounce may be 
used with good results. All sores and ulcers should be kept clean and dust free. 

In the course of its travel through the oviduct, it is not difficult to understand 
Parasites that the egg may absorb, in the different layers of albumen it here is provided 

in EggS. with before the shell is formed, any parasite which has gained access in some 

way to this tube. This parasite thus becomes imprisoned with the albumen in 
the shell. The parasite most frequently found in the egg is the Cephalogonimus ovatus (Distoma 
ovatum). More rarely the common round worm known as the Heterakis perspicillum (Heterakis inflexa, 
Ascaris inflexa) is encountered. The two worms mentioned apparently pass into the oviduct from the 
cloaca. The chicken cholera bacillus and perhaps also the bacilli of fowl diphtheria and avian tuber- 
culosis may also be found in eggs. As all these parasites are killed by a comparatively low temperature, 
and absolutely so by cooking, their existence need not cause anyone to avoid eggs as an article of diet. 
The presence of certain micro-organisms in eggs, however, leads to early decomposition. Cleanliness 
and sanitary conditions in the yards are essential to the production of good eggs. 

At times small blood clots may be discovered in eggs, most often in the albumen. 

Sanguineous This is caused by a slight hemorrhage, generally occurring in the upper part 

EggS. of the oviduct. Rare instances are recorded* in which the hemorrhage took place 

within the ovary. When this is the case the blood will be found either upon 

the surface or within the yolk. These conditions may be counteracted and overcome by including 

plenty of green feed with the daily ration and feeding the birds Davis Poultry Food with each meal. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION AND REPRODUCTION. 243 

In special cases medium doses of perchloride of iron or ergot will be found beneficial. Plenty of fresh 
air, a free run, and cleanliness in yard are essential. 

This phenomenon is due either to a lack of shell making material or to inflam- 

EggS With- mation of the shell forming chamber of the oviduct. Fright may also cause 

Out Shells. premature expulsion of an egg before the shell has been formed. Shelless 

eggs are more difficult to lay than perfect ones, for which reason they often 

are retained for a considerable period in the uterus, enhancing the inflammation and irritation. 

Removing of the cause is the proper treatment for this trouble. Give the bird plenty of shell forming 

material, such as Davis Crushed Oyster Shells, Davis Crushed Clam Shells or Davis Mico Spar Cubical 

Grit. Wheat bran and a plentiful allowance of green feed to avoid inflammation of the oviduct should 

be included in the ration. 

Sometimes eggs containing two yolks are laid. They are the result of two 

EggS With ovarian capsules becoming ruptured at about the same time, the yolks descend- 

TwO Yolks. ing the oviduct so near together that they both become encased in the same 

shell. They are generally larger than normal eggs, and the danger of their 

causing injury to the oviduct is greater. Some hens are habitual layers of such eggs. If incubated 

double yolk eggs as a rule produce twins, double chicks or monsters. Sometimes, however, a single yolk 

egg may contain two germs and give birth to two embryos, united in some part of the body, as is 

often the case with the two-yolk eggs. 

Often^hens drop eggs of miniature size, productions about as large as a pigeon's 
Aborted Or In- egg, with a shell sometimes more dense than the ordinary. They contain albu- 
COmplete EggS. men, but no yolk. At times they contain little more than the albuminous 
membranes, so tightly twisted that they have been taken for worms. The 
production of these small eggs shows that an irritation exists in the central part of the oviduct. Albu- 
men is secreted without the normal stimulus given by the presence of the yolk, and passing down the 
tube to the uterus is there covered with a shell. The fowl laying such eggs should be removed from the 
flock, kept quiet and treated as recommended for inflammation of the oviduct. 

This phenomenon is related to the one just considered and is of frequent occur- 
EggS Within EggS. rence. The enclosed egg is a small one, encased in a shell and containing only 

albumen. It is produced by irritation of the central portion of the oviduct, 
causing albumen to be secreted without the presence of a yolk. This albumen is pressed by the con- 
tractions of the tube downward to the uterus,' where a shell is deposited upon it. In the effort to 
expel this small egg irregular contractions are induced, which force it upward for a certain distance, 
where it meets a yolk surrounded by albumen, or a second mass of albumen without a yolk, becomes 
imbedded in this soft albumen and a membrane and shell are formed around the whole. . The com- 
pound egg thus formed is usually of normal size. These abnormalities are in reality easily explained 
and understood, and the careful poultryman should draw the deduction from their frequent repetitions 
that his fowls are being forced beyond safe limits. 







DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 



Among Diseases of the Brain are Cerebral Hyperemia, Congestion of the Brain, Apoplexy, Epilepsy. 



Congestion of the brain is a disease very frequently met with in poultry. Fat 
Congestion Of and plethoric birds incur it through fright or faulty digestion ; irritation of the 
the Brain, intestines by parasitic worms is also often the cause. Male birds during the 
General Hyper- breeding season are most often affected, and chickens exposed to the hot rays 
emia, Vertigo. of the sun are liable to contract it. Blows upon the head and a complication 

with infectious diseases such as cholera are other causes. 

Symptoms. — Giddiness, leading the bird to throw its head upward and backward, or to bend 
the neck to one side; gait is staggering and uncertain; bird may be seen walking backward, sidewise 
or in a circle. Sometimes the bird falls to the ground fluttering and making convulsive movements 
with the legs, or may lie for some minutes, powerless to move. Stupefaction and drowsiness are other 
symptoms. 

Treatment. — Apply cold water or ice to the head and hold it in position until the head is thoroughly 
cooled. Give internally 30 grains of Epsom salts, or \}A, grains of calomel, or 2 teaspoonfuls of castor 
oil. Keep the affected bird in a cool, quiet and shady place. Include Davis Poultry Food with the 
regular ration. If there is not entire recovery under this treatment, try bromide of potassium 1 to 5 
grains three times a day dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. If intestinal parasites exist, dislodge these 
by appropriate remedies. 

Rupture of a blood vessel of the brain and pressure of escaped blood is the cause 
Hemorrhage Of the of apoplexy. Stimulating feed, overfeeding and mechanical injuries, violent 
Brain, Apoplexy, exertion and straining in the laying of eggs are the most frequent causes. 

Symptoms.— The trouble is not marked by any premonitory symptoms. 
The attack is instantaneous, causing entire or partial insensibility, and' the bird dies upon the nest. 

Treatment. — The treatment should be preventive. Regulate the rations, give plenty of exer- 
cise, green feed and Davis Poultry Food. In most cases treatment is impossible, as the bird dies before 
it can be administered. In milder cases use same treatment as recommended for congestion of 
the brain. 

This disease is characterized by convulsive attacks, with loss of consciousness, 
Epilepsy. occurring from time to time, and commonly known as fits. It may be caused 

by pressure upon the brain (tumors), intestinal parasites, etc. In many cases 
no visible cause can be discovered. 

Symptoms. — When stricken the bird falls to the ground. Legs and wings are moved convulsively. 
It may lie upon its back or abdomen, with legs spread, head thrown back, bill and eyelids opening 
and closing alternately, and eyeballs turned backward. In a little while the attack is over and the 
fowl resumes its natural appearance. 

Treatment. — Bromide of potash 3 to 5 grains two or three times a day. Except in cases where 

the ailment is caused by intestinal worms treatment as a rule is not successful, and unless the bird is very 

valuable you had better kill it. 

— 244 — 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 



To This Group of Diseases Belong Pericarditis, Inflammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the Heart 

Sac ; Endocarditis, Inflammation of the Internal Membrane of the Heart ; Hypertrophy 

of the Heart; Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels. 



Pericarditis, In- 
flammation of 
the Pericardium, 
Dropsy of the 
Heart Sac. 



This is a common disease among poultry, and is often associated with inflam- 
mation of the lining membrane of the heart, lung inflammation and soreness 
of the joints. It is supposed to be of a rheumatic nature. 

Symptoms. — Great weakness ; hard breathing ; the head is generally 
thrown backward and the breathing done through the mouth. If stirred to 
run the bird quickly stumbles and falls. 



Causes. — Post mortem examination finds the pericardium or heart sac 
distended, with a large quantity of liquid attendant upon the inflammation. Sometimes thick false 
membranes exist, adhering to heart and pericardium, at times uniting the two. 

Treatment. — Generally the disease is not discovered until after death when bird is examined. 
A number of cases in the same flock indicates exposure to sudden changes in temperature or to extreme 
cold and dampness. These conditions should be done away with. Give 2 to 4 grains of bicarbonate 
of soda to each bird daily in the drinking water. Give plenty of green feed and mix Davis Poultry Food 

with the ration daily. 



Endocarditis, 
Inflammation 
of the Internal 
Membrane of 
the Heart. 



Hypertrophy 
of the Heart. 



Much less frequently than the pericardium, still often enough to be worth 
noting, the delicate membrane that lines the interior of the auricles and ven- 
tricles of the heart is subject to inflammation. The symptoms are the same 
as those in pericarditis. Post mortem examination divulges the internal surface 
of the heart reddened, and deposits of coagulated lymph are present. The 
treatment recommended for pericarditis in fowls is applicable to this trouble also. 

This disease is most frequently seen in pigeons, but other fowls are not exempt. 
It appears to be due largely to great timidity, as shown by pigeons, where the 
least fright is apt to cause palpitations. 



Symptoms. — Violent beating of the heart, sometimes so pronounced as 
to cause rupture of blood vessels and the escape of blood from several parts of the body at the same 
time. The walls and valves of the right side of the heart are most frequently affected. No treatment 
except preventive, in the form of strengthening, nourishing feed, with Davis Poultry Food added to 
each ration, is of any value in this disease. 



Rupture of the 
Heart and Large 
Blood Vessels. 

be foretold or treated. 
Davis Poultrv Food to 



This trouble, together with fatal hemorrhage, is common with fowls. Among 
the causes are overexertion in attempting to escape when chased, compression 
of small birds in the hands, and other injuries. It appears most frequently in 
plethoric, full blooded fowls. Diphtheria is known to have produced it in a 
few rare instances. The trouble is followed with instant death, and cannot 
Preventive, strengthening measures -are all that can be recommended. Add 
each ration in order to increase the digestive and assimilative powers of the birds. 

—245— 



PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



Among the Most Prominent Skin Diseases are Those Caused by the Epizoa or Parasites Living upon the 

External Surface of the Body : Scabies or Mange of the Body ; Scabies Caused by Epidermoptes ; 

Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes; Depluming Scabies; Favus; Chicken Pox; 

Sore Head; Pigeon Pox. 



Larva 

of 

Coleoptera 



Young pigeons. 



One of the great troubles attendant upon the keeping of domesticated fowls 
The £ p i Z a Or is their proneness to become infested with various kinds of external parasites 
Parasites Living or vermin. These minute organisms, living upon and drawing their sustenance 
Upon the Exter- from the external surface of the bird's body, are grouped as epizoa. It is 
nal Surface Of impossible here to give more than a general account of the many different 
the Skin, species existent. In the list below we also give the technical or scientific name, 

the popular name (when possible), and the kind of bird which the different 
parasites commonly infest: 

Group I. Epizoa Which Suck Blood or Gnaw the Flesh. 

Pulex avium. The bird flea. Fowls, pigeons and many other birds. 

Acanthia columbaria. Dovecote bug. Fowls and pigeons. 

Dermestes lardarius 

Tenebrio molitor 

Xecrophorus ) Various 

Silpha ) species 

Argas reflexus. Pigeon tick.^j Pigeons. 

Leptus autumnalis. Harvest bug. Fowls. 

Dermanyssus gallina. Red mite. Poultry, pigeons and other house birds. 

Group II. Epizoa Which Cause Scabies or Mange. 

Epidermoptes bifurcatus. Fowls. 
Epidermoptes bilobatus. Fowls. 
Sarcoptes lavis, var. gallinae. Scab mite. Fowls, guinea fowls, turkeys and cage birds. 

Group III. Epizoa Which Live in the Connective Tissue or Air Sacs. 

Cytodites nudus. Air sac mite. Fowls. 
Harpirhynchus nidulans. Connective tissue mite. Pigeons. 
Laminosioptes cysticola. Connective tissue mite. Fowls. 
Falciger rostratus. Pigeons. 

Group IV. Epizoa Which Live upon or Within the Feathers, or upon the Skin, Some Being 
Inoffensive, While Others Injure the Plumage or Cause Itching. 

Goniodes dissimilis. Louse. Fowls. 

Goniodes stylifcr. Louse. Guinea fowls and turkeys. 

Goniodes falcicornis. Louse. Peacocks. 

Goniodes minor. Louse. Pigeons. 

Goniodes numidianus. Louse. G.uinea fowls. 

Goniodes parviceps. Louse. Peacocks. 

—246— 



>ARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 247 

Goniocotes gigas., Louse. Fowls. 

Goniocotes hologaster. Louse. Fowls. 

Goniocotes rectangulatus. Louse. Guinea fowls and peacocks. 

Lipeurus anatis. Louse. Ducks. 

Lipeurus anseris. Louse. Geese. 

Lipeurus caponis. Louse. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 

Lipeurus columba. Louse. Pigeons. 

Lipeurus' crassicornis. Louse. Geese. 

Lipeurus heterographus. Louse. Fowls. 

Lipeurus numida. Louse. Guinea fowls. 

Lipeurus meleagridis. Louse. Turkeys. 

Menopon numida. Louse. Guinea fowls. 

Menopon biseriatum. Louse. Fowls and turkeys. 

Menopon latum. Louse. Pigeons. 

Menopon pallidum. Louse. Fowls. 

Menopon phaostomum. Louse. Peacocks. 

Docophorus icterodes. Louse. Ducks and geese. 

Trinoton anseris. Louse. Geese. 

Trinoton continuum. Louse. Geese. 

Trinoton luridum. Louse. Ducks. 

Trinoton lituratum. Louse. Geese. 

Colpocephalum turbinatum. Louse. Pigeons. 

Cheyletiella heteropalpa. Mite. Pigeons. 

Syringophilus uncinatus. Mite. Peacocks. 

Syringophilus bipectinatus. Mite. Fowls, Guinea fowls and pigeons. 

Dermoglyphus elongatus. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 

Dermoglyphus minor. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 

Dermoglyphus varians. Mite. Guinea fowls. 

Freyana anatina. Mite. Ducks. 

Freyana chanayi. Mite. Turkeys. 

Megninia asternalis. Mite. Fowls and pigeons. 

Megninia cubitalis. Mite. Fowls. 

Megninia ginglymura. Mite. Turkeys. 

Megninia velata. Mite. Ducks. 

Pterolichus obtuses. Mite. Fowls. 

Pterolichus uncinatus. Mite. Turkeys. 

Pterophagus strictus. Mite. Pigeons. 

In the preceding list we have collected into groups, as epizoa which suck the 
General blood or gnaw the flesh, a number of parasites which produce somewhat similar 

Remarks. effects, although, speaking zoologically, these pests" vary quite distinctly. How- 

ever, they have in common that they do not remain constantly upon the birds, 
most of the varieties hiding in the roosts or houses during the day and coming out from their concealment 
to make their attacks during the night. Their method is to puncture the skin and suck the blood for 
their nourishment. One parasite, the larva of the coleopterous, gnaws the skin and even the super- 
ficial muscles of the neck and abdomen of young pigeons, producing serious wounds and sometimes death. 

The common bird flea mostly makes pigeons its prey and only rarely attacks fowls. The so 
called dovecote bug closely resembles the ordinary bed bug, and some even hold that it is identical with 
it. Once infected with this parasite, the pigeons suffer greatly, as it spreads rapidly and is extremely 
pernicious in its effects. The tick also lives in the pigeon cotes, hiding during the day in the cracks 
and holes and appearing at night to attack the birds. Young pigeons are the preferred victims, and 
so much bloodls sucked from them that they die from exhaustion in from ten to fifteen days. These 



248 PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

parasites may wander a considerable distance, and are at times found in adjacent poultry houses and even 
in dwelling houses. They attain a considerable size, and the mature females are about one-fourth of an 
inch in length. They are said not to trouble fowls, but, as they sometimes bite children, or even grown 
persons, it would be but little surprising if it were found that they occasionally also attack poultry. 
This tick lives for a long period without food of any kind, and may subsist for generations on dead 
organic matter. Once established it is therefore a troublesome pest and hard to do away with 
wherever lodged. 

Another of the common parasites, the harvest bug, is a small, red insect about 1-60 of an 
inch long, usually, making its appearance in the summer and fall. Small animals are its usual victims, 
but it may attack and swarm upon man if he invades its habitat. It punctures and even penetrates 
the skin, causing small swellings. Fowls at times are attacked, the effects being most serious with chickens 
hatched late in the summer or autumn. The parasites fix themselves to the skin at the base of the 
feathers, causing such intense irritation as to induce epileptiform symptoms, leading to death in a few days. 

The Dermanyssus gallina, or red mite, undoubtedly is the most common and perniciously active 
of all the vermin that attack birds. It is from 1-35 to 1-40 of an inch in length, yellowish white or dark 
red in color, depending upon whether it is fasting or more or less filled with blood. By day it hides 
in crevices and corners of the buildings, nests, perches, floors, where it may be discovered in great clus- 
ters. At night the individuals composing these clusters distribute themselves over the birds, and by 
pricking the skin and sucking fill themselves with blood. Both on account of the blood which is 
extracted and the itching, pain and unrest attendant upon their activity are these parasites harmful 
to their victims. Young pigeons, chickens and cage birds are- the greatest sufferers from their attacks, 
and many die from exhaustion when infected. Usually it confines its operations to the night, but in 
severe cases fowls may be infested both night and day. Man and horses may also be bitten by the red 
mite when it gets upon them; in fact, all animals stabled near the poultry house are liable to be attacked. 
It will cause horses to rub and bite themselves, the hair over the infected spots is lost, and there appears 
an eruption similar to that following the bite of common mange. Considerable itching and some 
irritation follow its attack upon human beings. 

All the epizoa mentioned in the second group are mites. The Epidermoptes produce a sort of 
scabies, distinguished by the production of dry, grayish yellow crusts or scales. The disease is seen 
on any part of the body except the head, where it but seldom occurs. 

The Sarcoptis lavis is the parasite that produces the true form of scabies on pigeons and fowls. 
The skin is but slightly affected, but the feathers break and are shed from the affected spots. 

As the animal parasites which live in the connective tissue and air sacs are all mites they might, 
perhaps, properly be placed among the entozoa. Many of them pass a portion of their existence upon 
the surface of the body. It is therefore the best way to consider them together with the other mites. 
The Cytodites nudus breeds in the air sacs and connective tissue of fowls and pheasants. They are found 
in the trachea, bronchi, lungs and the various air sacs, including those of the bones. In small numbers 
these mites are not very injurious, but badly infected birds become anaemic, lose flesh, stop laying eggs, 
show catarrhal symptoms, and droop and die. 

The Harpirhynchus nidulans makes its habitat in the tumors of the skin on pigeons and 
sparrows. It is comparatively harmless when present in limited numbers, but when very numerous 
the nutrition becomes impaired, there is a noticeable loss of flesh, followed in many instances by death. 

The Laminosioptes . cysticola takes up its abode and breeds in the connective tissue of the 
Gallinacea, where it often causes irritation and the formation of tubercles, in the center of which 
the mites are located. When the number of mites is small no great harm ensues to the animal infected, 
but when large the usual symptoms produced by the epizoa — bloodlessness, loss of flesh, weakness 
and death — become evident. 

The Falciger rostratus is a pigeon parasite really belonging to the group of the feather mites. 
It is able to introduce itself into the connective tissue beneath the skin, entering this by way of the feather 
follicles, to remain there for a portion of its life. 

In the fourth group of epizoa living upon, within or among the feathers (but which do not bite 
or [juncture the skinj, we find included a long list of lice and mites. The lice of birds belong exclusively 



. PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 249 

to the pennivorous varieties; that is, they subsist upon the feathers, but do not suck the blood. It is 
a noteworthy fact that the entire group of blood sucking lice lives upon the mammalia. When chicks 
are hatched under hens they nearly always have lice upon them, located upon the head and under the 
throat, where they have fixed themselves to the feathers close to the skin, for which reason they 
often, under a superficial examination, are mistaken for pin feathers. When badly infested, they also may 
be found under the wings and about the vent. Different kinds of lice may be found at one time upon 
the same bird, and it may be added that each species of birds has its own species of lice. The lice are 
more or less injurious to the plumage of the victims and cause itching by roaming over the skin. They 
also prevent the birds from obtaining proper rest and sleep. The mites of the fourth group cause little 
or no inconvenience to the birds which they infest. Some live between the barbules of the feathers, 
others live within the quills, and these are sometimes called feather mites. The Cheyletus lives at the 
base of the feathers. The Syringophilus lives within the quills of the tail, the wing and the wing coverts. 
The quills of the affected feathers lose their transparency and are filled with an opaque powder, which 
upon microscopical examination is found to consist of the parasites, their excreta, the skin which they 
have shed and the debris of the interior of the quill. It is supposed that this alteration of the feather 
has no effect upon the health .of the bird. The Dermoglyphus and Pterolichus also are located within 
the quills. The above mentioned members of the various groups are the ones most commonly 
encountered in poultry and birds. 

Symptoms. — Little chickens are sickly, do not thrive, and, if severely infested, they will gradually 
languish and die. Grown birds, when badly attacked by external vermin of this kind, lose flesh, skin 
and comb become pale and bloodless; the fowls are picking, scratching and dusting themselves almost 
all the time. They are restless both by day and night, lose comparatively large quantities of blood, 
and rapidly become emaciated. Sitting hens forsake their nests, the feathers break and drop out, the 
skin becomes abraded and sore, the afflicted fowls cease to thrive, their egg production is greatly dimin- 
ished or altogether arrested, and every now and then a bird is found dead. A careful opening of the 
feathers located about the head, neck or under the wings, also about the vent, will disclose the vermin 
moving about. If care is not taken persons going about the roosts will be covered with the lice, and an 
examination of the roosts and cracks of the building will bring to light dense clusters of the red mites, 
some of them light yellow, but the majority dark red and gorged with blood. The presence of such 
pests as the bird flea and the dovecote bug can only be determined by a close examination of the poultry 
houses and pigeon cotes. Sores upon the breast and neck of young pigeons indicate the presence of para- 
sites. Ticks are indicated in the majority of cases by a number of these parasites attaching to the skin 
of some part of the bird's body. If the skin is irritated, inflamed, or covered with scurfs, scales and 
crusts, with loss of feathers, or if the feathers are shed when the birds are not normally molting, they 
should be examined for the mite which causes scabies. Should the legs become enlarged, roughened 
and scaly the effects of the Sarcoptes mutans are evidenced. In the same way the discovery of small 
nodules in the skin or of miliary tubercles on the serous membranes, in the connective tissue, lungs or 
other organs, should be followed withjj, hand lens to determine if connective tissue mites are the cause. 

Diagnosis. — If a careful search is made for the parasites or vermin, determination of the nature 
of such disorders is easy and unmistakable. Nevertheless birds often are unthrifty, leave their nests, 
or even die from the effects of lice or mites without the cause being discovered; the reason being that their 
owners either forget to look for the parasites, and attribute their ailment to cholera, or if they observe 
a few lice they conclude that these are always present with fowls and do not give the matter a second 
thought. It is only after a thorough examination of the roosting places by taking down the roosts and 
removing the loose boards, thus discovering the parasites, that the trouble is recognized and understood. 
External animal parasites are always the most common and frequent cause of trouble in the poultry 
yard or pigeon cote. Always when the birds appear abnormal look for these pests at once, repress 
them, and you will be surprised with the improvement made on your flock. Just as when a horse breaks 
down the maxim is to examine his feet; so, when anything seems wrong with the birds, your first 
thought should be to look for lice. * 

Causes. — Contagion is responsible for the louse plague; the vermin is introduced in the poultry 
house, breeding rapidly under favorable conditions. The second generation from a single louse may 



2 50 PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

number 2,500 individuals, while the third may reach the enormous number of 125,000. All these may 
be produced in the course of eight weeks. Remember, therefore, that, although birds when you 
examine them may have only a_few lice upon them, a few weeks after, if circumstances have been favor- 
able, may find them covered with vermin, emaciated and exhausted. Not long ago the popular belief 
prevailed that the generation of lice was spontaneous, resulting from accumulations of dirt and filth. It, 
however, is not so/ It is admitted by all scientists today that every living thing is descended from a 
living parent of the same nature. You may therefore safely put away the old superstition. 

It is easy for experienced people to distinguish the different species of lice and mites from one 
another. Their special traits are handed down from generation to generation, and they always infest 
the same species. Turkeys, hens, pigeons, ducks, geese and guinea fowls all have their own species 
of lice, respectively, living upon them alone. Few species of lice live upon more than one species of 
birds. It is therefore possible to multiply lice through favorable conditions, but impossible to generate 
them without parent parasites. 

The breeding and multiplication of lice are due in a large measure to the poor condition of the birds 
and filthy, unsanitary surroundings. Birds poor in health and vigor may be found literally covered 
with them when healthy members of the flock are comparatively free; in fact, there are birds so strong 
and healthy that vermin cannot thrive upon them. On the other hand, poor condition, accumulations of 
dirt and filth, close confinement of the birds, lack of dusting places, buildings with cracks and crevices 
in which insects may hide, and damp, dark and badly ventilated houses all favor the development 
and multiplication of vermin. And even if the poultry yard is kept practically free from these pests 
there is always danger of their being introduced by purchased fowls, or by birds that have become 
infested at shows and other strange places.- It should therefore be guarded against with the same care 
and vigilance as all other infectious and easily communicable ailments. 

Treatment. — No better remedy in the world exists for the combating and quick and thorough 
extermination of all kinds of lice and parasites than Brisbaine's Death to Lice. It is an absolutely sure, 
as well as harmless, remedy, which we earnestly and conscientiously can recommend to every farmer 
and poultry raiser. When it is used in accordance with the simple directions given with each package, 
and the necessary sanitary conditions of the yard are carefully observed, you will have no more 
trouble or loss from this source. The existence of lice among your hens and other fowls will soon become 
a thing of the past. It is included among the Davis Preparations and has been selected for its place 
in this list of standard stock foods and remedies only after the most thorough, practical tests. It is 
put up for the convenience of the purchaser in strong, round one-pound boxes, provided with a sprinkler 
top, enabling you to use the powder without removing the lid. Full directions for its use are given 
with each box. The price per pound box is 25 cents. If your birds are in any way affected with 
parasites you can do no better than to give it a trial. 

Young chickens hatched under a hen almost always are infested with lice, and should be treated 
as soon as removed from the nests. If Brisbaine's Death to Lice is not at hand try pure lard. Rub it 
carefully into the feathers on the top of the head, under the throat and around the vent. Pure lard is 
harmless and as a rule will kill the lice, consequently it is a good thing to use on small, chicks. Also rub 
a small quantity under their wings — but not before the chicks are a couple of weeks old. Unless the 
incubator has in some manner become infested, chickens hatched with it should be exempt from lice. 
It is well, however, to occasionally examine incubator chickens also, as the brooder or incubator may 
have become contaminated with the vermin. In connection with the directions given on the package 
a few general rules are here added for the treatment of birds infested with parasites : 

Older birds, excepting the hens with young chickens, may be annointed about the heads and 
under the wings, also under the vent, with lard in which Brisbaine's Death to Lice is mixed. The 
operation may best be performed by holding the bird by the legs, head downward, so that the tendency 
of the feathers will be to fall away from the body. Then apply the powder thoroughly with the 
sprinkling box in which it is contained. If the bird is held over a large piece of paper the powder 
which fails to adhere to the feathers and skin can be saved and used a second time. 



\ 
I 



PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 251 

If Brisbaine's Death to Lice is not at hand try dipping the infested fowls in a solution of warm 
water containing 1 per cent of Phenalin. This solution is made by mixing 1J4 ounces of pure Phenalin 
with 1 gallon of warm water. Larger quantities may be made in the same proportion. The solution 
should be allowed to cool and then put in a vessel suitable for immersing the birds to be treated. The 
fowls should be held in this liquid for about a minute, and care should be taken to wet every portion 
of the body, including the head. 

In order to obtain the desired results, the complete and permanent extermination of all harmful 
parasites of the birds, the buildings in which they are confined must receive careful attention. Thorough 
sanitation and hygienic measures are necessary if you would have a clean, healthy and fine looking flock, 
capable of yielding large profits. The droppings should be removed carefully and mixed with fine, 
dry road dust, ashes or lime. 1 Fine dust destroys the lice and should therefore be used plentifully about 
the yard, and given to the fowls in boxes so big that they are able to give themselves a thorough 
dust bath whenever desired. Brisbaine's Death to Lice may be mixed with the dust in these boxes in 
order to render it still more deadly to the vermin. Scrape the floor of the poultry house and pigeon 
cote thoroughly, and cover it with fresh sand or road dust. The roosts and all loose pieces of wood 
should be removed, and then the whole inside and also the parts which have been removed should be 
sprayed with a solution made by dissolving 3 ounces of Phenalin to a gallon of water. Once a year, at 
least, the inner woodwork and walls should be given a good coat of lime wash to which 3 ounces of 
Phenalin to each gallon of water has been added. The nest should also be cleaned out, drenched with 
boiling water or carbolic solution, and when dry sprinkled with insecticide powder (Brisbaine's 
Death to Lice) and bedded with fresh straw. The treatment recommended above, if carried 
out in a thorough manner, using Brisbaine's Death to Lice in the way indicated, will soon bring the trouble- 
some external parasites under control, either thoroughly eradicating them or diminishing their number 
to such an extent that they will become harmless. There are a number of other popular methods in the 
way of disinfection which have been found valuable, and of which we give a few of the more common 
ones here. Some throw dry lime dust against the roof and walls of the buildings; others fumigate by 
burning sulphur and leaving the doors and windows closed for a few hours, there being, of course, no birds 
left inside at the time; others, again, fumigate by placing open bottles of bisulphide of carbon about the 
poultry house. Anise seed is disagreeable or distasteful to most of the parasites of birds, and is an 
excellent remedy when powdered and dusted into the feathers, or when strewn into the boxes. A small 
quantity of essential oil mixed with water renders this more effectual in destroying the. mites about the 
roosts , nests and other woodwork, and roosts should be painted with Dr. Brown's Lice Killer. The essen- 
tial oil may also be mixed with olive oil and rubbed upon those parts of the birds most frequented by 
lice; and, in case of catarrh caused by the red mite, the mixture may be introduced into the nasal 
passages with a small feather. 

If the larva of the Coleoptera, which already has been specified, should attack the young pigeons, 
clean the houses as thoroughly as possible, use Brisbaine's Death to Lice or Dr. Brown's Lice Killer 
according to the directions, and strew the floors and nests with a mixture composed of equal parts of 
pine sawdust and sand. 

In the same way, when the Argas or pigeon tick is introduced upon the premises, it must by all 
means be exterminated as quickly as possible. The ticks should be carefully picked from the birds 
so that the head (rostrum) will not be left in the wound. They should then be crushed and burned. 
The infested pigeon cotes should be thoroughly cleansed, scalded and whitewashed. Brisbaine's Death 
to Lice should at the same time be freely used upon the birds and Dr. Brown's Lice Killer applied to the 
nests and cotes. The same holds good in the case of the harvest bug. To destroy it and permanently 
keep it away from your birds, use Brisbaine's Death to Lice and Phenalin, carbolic or sulphur ointment. 

* 

g For Epidermoptes use Phenalin dips, sulphur ointment and Brisbaine's Death to Lice. The mites 
which live in the air sacs and connective tissues can only be destroyed by frequent applications of Bris- 
baine's Death to Lice, and a religious observance of all the details necessary to insure cleanliness. All 
badly affected birds should be killed and their carcasses burned. This is the most difficult parasitic 
disease of birds to overcome. 



PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



There are two known varieties of mange affecting the bodies of domesticated 
Scabies Or Mange birds. One form is attributed to mites of the genus Epidermoptes and the 
of the Body, other is known to be caused by the Sarcoptes. There is a marked difference 

in the two kinds, and they are therefore best described apart. 

Several specialists have observed and described the two species, named Epider- 
Scabies Caused moptes bilobatus and Epidermoptes bifurcatus. Their presence is generally 
by Epidermoptes. coincident with mange like diseases "of the skin, although they have been found 

upon birds apparently free from this disease. There is, therefore, some doubt 
as to whether these parasites produce scabies or whether they are harmless. The majority of evidence, 
however, so far indicates that they are the cause of the trouble, and it is therefore attributed to them. 
The Epidermoptes are very small acarina, or mites, which generally live in the soft plumage, or down, 
at the surface of the skin. As a rule they are not very numerous, but under favorable conditions multiply 
enormously. The skin of the entire body, head excepted, becomes irritated, scurfy, and covered with 
large, thin, yellowish or grayish scales or crusts, accumulating particularly at the base of the feathers. 
The head may be affected in rare instances. Appearance of the affected parts resembles closely that 
seen in favus, the disease caused by the vegetable parasite known as the Anchorion schonleinii. Some 
think that the disease is due to this fungus and that the mites are innocent of pathogenic action. Future 
investigation must determine this. 

This trouble is caused by the mite known as the Sarcoptes lavis. The parasite 
Scabies Caused found on the pigeon is not exactly the same as that found upon the fowls, although 
b y Sarcoptes. both belong to the same species. The pigeon parasite is known as the columba 
Depluming and the fowl parasite as the gallina. The disease is most common in the spring 
Scabies. and summer, disappearing in the fall when the birds molt, and does not reappear 

before springtime. Principal symptom is loss of feathers, causing spots on 
various parts of the body. Feathers break off at the surface of the skin. At root of feathers is seen a 
small mass of epidermic scales which can easily be crushed in£o powder. Microscopical examination 
of this powder reveals numerous mites and the debris which they produce. Disease appears in poultry 
yards as a consequence of one or more birds being affected. It develops rapidly — a whole flock is 
contaminated in a few days. Starts usually on the rump, the transfer of the contagion being effected 
by copulation, and spreads rapidly to the back, thighs and belly. An infested cock will rapidly infect all 
the fowls in a poultry yard. 

Treatment. — Exhaustive experiments made by experts with various remedies demonstrated 
that no better treatment exists than Brisbaine's Death to Lice, used according to the directions given 
with each package. It is a speedy, sure and inexpensive cure, and if its use is persisted in the trouble 
is not very difficult to overcome. If the owner does not happen to have this preparation on hand, try a 
home made ointment of Phenalin or carbolic acid, made by mixing one part of either of these 
substances with ten parts by weight of lard or vaseline. Do not cover a very large part of the body 
with strong carbolic acid preparations, as this may cause poisoning by absorption. 

This trouble is generally known as white comb or baldness. It is caused by 
FaVUS. a fungus named the Achorion schonleinii, which also attacks human beings, 

cats, dogs, mice and rabbits. When it affects man the disease is known as 
tinea favosa and favus, the latter name generally being used. As a disease of man this parasite was first 
discovered by Remak in 1837 and more completely demonstrated by Schonlein in 1841. 

•Symptoms. — This skin disease, named favus, in birds usually starts on the comb or other fleshy 
parts of the head, gradually extending to and affecting all parts of the body. Rare instances find it 
beginning upon the body before head is affected. Symptoms are small white, light gray, round or. irregu- 
lar spots, from size of pin head to that of dime, extending and increasing in number until nearly all of 
the skin of the affected parts is covered. Examination of spots shows that a thin scale or crust has formed 
on the surface of the skin. This crust often develops in round or concentric deposits, raised at the border 
and depressed at the center, giving to the spots a cup shaped appearance. It increases in thickness until 



PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 253 

in the course of a month it may be 34 of an inch or more in depth. It is then of a dirty white color, 
scaly and irregular on the surface. When crust is removed skin is seen to be irritated and slightly excori- 
ated. Disease spreads from the bare parts of the head to the parts of the body covered with feathers. 
The neck, the region about the vent, and the adjoining surface soon become invaded. The feathers are 
dry. erect and brittle, they break and fall off, leaving the skin denuded and covered with crusts, which 
are often cup shaped, with the depression in which the feather was fixed left in the middle. The health 
of the bird at first is not visibly affected, but as the disease spreads it gradually falls into a decline, con- 
tinuing until the vitality of the body is exhausted and it dies. A disagreeable odor attends the disease. 

Causes. — This contagious disease, as already stated, is caused by a fungus named Anchorion 
schonleinii. It may be inoculated from bird to bird; perhaps also from mice, rats, rabbits, cats and clogs 
to birds. On the other hand, it may probably also be communicated from birds to these animals and 
to children. Some specialists hold that the poultry favus is a distinct form of the general disease and not 
communicable to mammals, but the weight of evidence favors the conclusion that the disease in all of 
these species is intercommunicable, and, in fact, identical. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of favus Phenalin has proved itself an excellent remedy. 
It yields readily to this remedy when used in the proper way. It should, if possible, be applied 
immediately, when the disease is still confined to the head. At this period it is comparatively 
easy to handle, but after it has spread to parts covered with feathers, or affected the plumage, 
it becomes much more difficult and serious. In using Phenalin it is important that the remedy 
should penetrate beneath the crusts to the skin. To secure this the crusts may be rubbed off as 
thoroughly as possible with a blunt instrument, such as the handle of a spoon. Do this gently, so as not 
to cause bleeding. After the crusts are removed, dress affected parts once a day with Davis Carbolic 
Salve. It is well to keep this remedy at hand at all times in order to have it ready for any emergency ; 
but, should the owner not happen to have it at the moment, try any of the following preparations, which 
can be made at home with drugs purchased at the drug store: Tincture of -iodine; benzine, 1 part; 
soft soap, 20 parts; mix thoroughly before using. Or try carbolic acid, 1 part; soft soap, 20 parts; mix 
thoroughly. Do not apply the carbolic preparation to any large surface at one time, as the acid may 
cause poisoning by absorption. Another good ointment may be made with either calomel or red oxide 
or mercury, 1 part to 8 parts of vaseline. If the disease is very severe, a more active but- also more 
dangerous remedy may be made by mixing 3 grains of nitrate of silver with % ounce of vaseline. Bris- 
bane's Death to Lice, mixed with vaseline, will, as a rule, prove itself both the most effective 
and the most harmless of all the remedies mentioned, and its cost is insignificant — 25 cents per pound 
package. A remedy which in extreme cases may be used as a last resort is made by dissolving 
10 grains of corrosive sublimate in an ounce of water. This is very poisonous and therefore very 
dangerous to use. 

Of all the remedies here mentioned, Brisbaine's Death to Lice will, in the majority of cases, be 
found the safest and most speedy and efficacious. If taken in time it will overcome the trouble in a few 
days, but in case a number of birds have become affected, and especially if the feathered parts of the body 
have become infested, it must be applied reguiarly and patiently in accordance with the printed directions 
in order to successfully combat and overcome the disease. It is also necessary to adopt sanitary regula- 
tions. The affected birds should be separated from the well ones, and the house and runs disinfected 
with lime wash and carbolic acid solution. Cleanliness, fresh air, and. fresh, pure drinking water are 
essential here as elsewhere. 

An old poultry disease, known for many years in both the Old and the New 

Chicken POX, World. Some people have called the disease warts; others have thought it to 

Sore Head, be a form of variola, allied to theicommon cow pox, if not the same malady. 

Pigeon Pox. Careful study, however, has demonstrated it to be an entirely separate disease. 

The most commonly used technical name for it is cutaneous psorospermosis. 

Chicken pox affects ordinary fowls, turkeys, pigeons, and, more rarely, geese. Pigeons and young chickens 

are most often affected, but old fowls are not exempt. This widespread disease is of southern origin, 

most often found in southern Europe_and the €rulf Section of the United States. It is very destructive. 



J.I PARASITES AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

Symptoms. — Head of poultry chiefly affected, disease appearing as eruptions of round, oblong, 
yellow nodules, varying from the size of a pin head to that of. a pea or grain of corn. The largest are 
found about the beak, the nostrils, the eyelids and upon the parts of the head that are free from feathers. 
They form rough, yellow masses upon the comb and wattles. The trouble may either confine itself to 
the spot where it first appears or may extend to the feathered portions of the body. 

Causes. — This disease is contagious, spreading from one bird to another. Roosting places become 
speedily infected by one or more affected birds and the trouble is rapidly communicated to others. It 
appears that, while an abrasion of the surface of the skin or a deeper wound facilitates the entrance of 
the contagion into the tissues, the parasite also at times is able to penetrate the normal skin. Some 
have supposed that the bites of fleas and mosquitoes, or that the punctures of ticks produce the disease. 
Undoubtedly these act simply as a means for an easy entrance of the germs. Some moisture is necessary 
for the growth of the germs, those houses which have leaky roofs or into which water can penetrate 
through the walls favoring the contagion and spread of the disease. The fungi appear to multiply 
outside the birds' bodies, likely in the accumulations of excrement which exist in many poultry houses. 
Fungi are most numerous in the atmosphere during wet weather, while bacteria are most numerous 
during dry times. This f act may explain the prevalence of sore head during wet weather. Late hatched 
chickens are especially susceptible. 

Treatment. — Brisbaine's Death to Lice made into an ointment is a very effective remedy for this 
trouble. It materially assists in the destroying of the parasite. Some people have been successful 
in feeding sulphur, and at the same time applying sulphur ointment twice a day to the nodules. Others 
have cured the affected birds by using Phenalin ointment, or glycerine containing 2 per cent of carbolic 
acid. Still another treatment is to bathe the affected parts with soap and water, in order to soften the 
crusts, and afterward to apply a solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone), 1 dram to ^ pint of water. 
Sulphate of copper has been found destructive to many kinds of fungi. Brisbaine's Death to Lice, mixed 
with vaseline, however, we believe will easily be found superior to any of the other remedies mentioned, 
and it is well always to have it on hand. 

Tincture of iodine is also recommended, both alone and mixed with 10 per cent of carbolic acid. 
This remedy, however, is rather severe and should only be applied sparingly and after everything else 
has proved ineffective. 

The direct treatment should also in this instance always be accompanied with scrupulous cleansing 
and disinfection of the houses and, if possible, changing to new, uninfected runs. It is well to wash 
the feeding troughs and drinking vessels daily with boiling water. Isolate the affected birds at once 
when the disease is discovered, treat them apart from the others and disinfect the premises thoroughly. 




SOME DISEASES OF THE FEET AND LEGS, 

WHICH ARE COMMONLY MET WITH IN POULTRY AND BIRDS. 



Prominent Among this Class of Diseases are Leg Weakness, Rheumatism and Gout, Superficial Sores, 
Corns, Deep Bruises and Abscesses, Scabies of the Legs and Feet, Scaly Legs. 



A term popularly used to designate any condition in which birds find it diffi- 
Leg Weakness. cult or impossible to support themselves upon their legs. It may originate 

in young chickens kept in brooders through which the heat is not properly dis- 
tributed or where there is too much bottom heat ; also in those which are kept constantly upon wooden 
floors. It is often encountered in heavy cockerels, also in flocks which have been forced or are 
kept in damp or ill ventilated places. The ailment generally may be specified as being of a rheumatic 
nature, and affects the muscles, tendons and joints. Often it is limited to bruises of the feet, and in 
some instances its origin and nature is obscure and hard to comprehend. 

Symptoms. — Trouble may appear suddenly or gradually. In the first instance it is indicated by 
unsteadiness in walk and lameness, which may aggravate until the bird instead of standing upon its feet 
sits down upon its legs even when eating. In the worst cases birds are wholly unable to rise. 

Treatment. — The birds should first be examined for bruised feet or inflammation of the joints, 
and if either of these conditions is found use Davis Veterinary Liniment, a standard remedy for the 
speedy relief and cure of this class of diseases. It is put up in bottles, ready for use, and the price — 
$1.00 per bottle — is insignificant when the excellent results are taken into consideration. Full direc- 
tions go with each bottle. In all cases in connection with the liniment give cooling feeds, such 
as bran, barley, rice, green feed, skim milk (or buttermilk), and vegetables, to which Davis Poultry Food 
has been added. Give 5 grains of bicarbonate of soda daily in the drinking water for grown fowls. See 
that the heat is properly applied in the brooders and that the birds have dry quarters with plenty of 
fresh air. Do not use any other condiment than those contained in Davis Poultry Food. 

Diseases to which all fowls are subject. Spasmodic jerking of the legs, followed 
Rheumatism by lameness, indisposition to remain standing, painful joints and refusal to walk, 

and Gout. are the usual symptoms. The feet and the next joint above are most frequently 

affected. Then small swellings appear upon the sides of these joints", at first 
soft and som'ewhat painful, but gradually becoming more firm until feeling like enlargements of the bone 
itself. The swellings sometimes ulcerate, the sores appearing red, irregular in outline, and bleeding. 
Yellow, stringy pus partly fills the sore, and when this is removed the naked tendons, bones or joints 
may be seen. The cavities of the joints are opened to the air, fistulas develop and death of the bone 
occurs. The disease is chronic in its development, for the reason of which the advanced stages are gen- 
erally seen in old birds. It is a lingering disease and the fowls affected may live a long time, even when 
affected to such an extent as described above. Gradually, however, they lose flesh, the plumage becomes 
rough and dull, and general exhaustion is followed by death. 

Treatment. — Proper ventilation and drainage are especially important, as rheumatism is usually 
the result of exposure to cold and dampness. Buildings and roosts should be thoroughly dry, free from 
drafts, yet well ventilated and not too cold. Prevention through proper sanitary measures, here as 
always, is better than any amount of cure. If, however, the disease has gained entrance, the affected 
birds should be treated locally with applications of Davis Veterinary Liniment, as per the directions 

—255— 



SOME DISEASES OF THE FEET AND LEGS. 

given on the bottle, and in addition to this a frequent change in their ration should be made, with plenty 
jreen food. In combination with this an internal treatment, beginning with a dose of Epsom salts, 
20 to 30 grains, may be tried with good results. Next day add 30 to 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda 
(baking soda") to the quart of drinking water, and give 2 or 3 grains of salicylic acid twice a day. Davis 
Poultry Food in proportion of 1 tablespoonful to each ten fowls should be added to the regular daily 
ration in order to stimulate the appetite and increase the digestive and assimilative processes. The 
very seriously affected birds had better be killed than treated, and the owner should always remember 
that without securing proper sanitary arrangements in the form of dry, clean and well aired quarters 
for his poultry, treatment at its best will not be able to cope with the evil. 

Cuts, bruises, pricks and similar injuries cause frequent injury to the feet of 
Diseases of poultry. Fowls are peculiarly liable to this form of injuries because their 

the Feet. nights are usually spent upon perches, in flying from which they often alight very 

heavily, causing sprains and injuries to the feet, while their vigorous scratch- 
ing in search of feed is another reason. For the present purpose it is enough to divide the diseases 
of the feet resulting from injuries into three classes, viz., 1, deep bruises and abscesses; 2, corns; 3, 
superficial sores. 

An aggravation of corns resulting from prolonged irritation and bruising. 
Deep Bruises Affected part is hot, painful, more or less swollen. An abscess sometimes 
and Abscesses. forms, which in older cases may "break and, leave a suppurating sore. Joints 
(Bumblef OOt.) are inflamed in severe cases, even to the extent of being penetrated by the pus 

channels which the abscesses have formed. 
Treatment. — Three standard remedies for this kind of trouble are Davis Veterinary Liniment, 
already mentioned, Davis Carbolic Salve, and Davis Healing Powder. Preferably use the liniment, 
and in addition to this twice a day for half an hour soak the feet in warm water. Before using Davis 
Veterinary Liniment, poultice until the inflammation has subsided. If an abscess in'the sole is indi- 
cated it should be opened with a sharp knife. If Davis Veterinary Liniment or the two other Davis 
Preparations mentioned are not at hand apply a boric acid ointment after the poulticing is finished 
and protect the feet with a piece of cotton cloth. The last measure should be employed also with the 
Davis Preparations. If the joints have become affected, especially if they communicate with the pus 
channels and are the seat of the suppuration, the bird had better be killed, as treatment in this instance 
in many cases is ineffective and recovery often impossible. By prompt treatment with Davis Veterinary 
Liniment and the several curative measures recommended in connection therewith you will, however, 
be able to save your flock. 

The just described trouble in modified form. An inflammation and thickening 

Corns. of the skin on the under surface of the foot, resulting from prolonged irritation, 

pressure and bruises. Too small or narrow perches are most generally the cause, 

as they compel the fowls to grasp them tightly in order to keep their balance. Heavy birds flying from 

perches and alighting upon stony surfaces or hard floors are also liable to become affected. 

Treatment. — Prevention by providing against the conditions mentioned is the most effective 
treatment. Perches should be broad and flat, of proper height, and the floor upon which the birds alight 
should be covered with earth or sand so the feet will not be bruised. The affected birds should be treated 
by paring off " the thickened epidermis, without causing bleeding, and applying Davis Veterinary 
Liniment. In the absence of this the affected part may be painted with tincture of iodine. 

Although injuries of this kind as a rule are not serious, still, if the bird is lame 
Superficial Sores, with heat or swelling about the toes or foot, measures should be taken to make 
Including Abra- it comfortable and prevent more dangerous conditions to develop. 
sions, Pricks, Cuts Treatment. — In case of much inflammation with heat and swelling, hold the 

and Fissures, foot in warm water (as warm as the hand can bear) for half an hour, adding 

hot water from time to time to keep up the temperature. Then apply Davis 
Veterinary Liniment to the injured parts in accordance with the directions on the bottle. This lini- 
ment should also be applied to abrasions, cuts and cracks, where the hot water treatment is unnecessary, 



SOME DISEASES OF THE FEET AND LEGS. , 257 

as it will insure rapid healing. Also confine the bird to a yard covered with soft earth or young grass 
for a few days and do not let it roost upon a perch until its feet have healed. 

Symptoms. — Epidermic scales on the anterior surface of the legs and 

Scabies Of the upon the upper surface of the foot become loosened and elevated by the for- 

LegS and Feet. mation of a whitish crust beneath them. The raising of the scales gives the 

Scaly Legs. legs a rough and enlarged appearance. Disease begins between the toes, 

running a very slow course. It gradually extends up the leg and along the toes 

until the whole shank and foot become involved. Both legs are usually affected at the same time 

and to about the same extent. If treatment is not resorted to the epidermic scales are detached and 

the fowl walks with difficulty. In severe cases a joint or even an entire toe may become detached, the 

birds lose flesh and die from exhaustion. 

Causes. — A form of scabies or mange caused by the mite known technically as the Sarcoptes 
mutans. Contagious, although not spreading rapidly. Asiatic breeds are most susceptible. It attacks 
fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage birds, but has not been seen in ducks or geese. In 
the production of scaly legs this mite penetrates beneath the epidermic scales on the upper surface 
of the foot and the front of the shank. By burrowing, an irritation is set up leading to an exudation 
of serum. If the crusts are removed and the under surface examined with a lens they are found to con- 
tain a large number of depressions, in each of which a female egg containing Sarcopt is lodged. The 
larva, males and younger females are found wandering beneath the crust. 

Treatment. — Adopt prompt and energetic measures to eradicate it as soon as observed in a flock. 
Isolate the affected birds, and thoroughly clean the houses that contained them. Scald roosts and wood- 
work with boiling water, or cover them with phenalated whitewash. The treatment is the same as with 
scabies of the body, except that the loosened scales must be removed in order to bring the remedy in 
contact with the mites. To accomplish this soak the legs for a sufficient time in warm water to which 
soap has been added. When thoroughly softened the loose scales may be removed without causing 
bleeding. Another way is to apply a coating of soft soap to the affected parts, leaving it to act for from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. Then place the legs in warm water, soften the scales and remove, by 
gentle rubbing and friction. Then dry and treat the legs by applying Davis Veterinary Carbolic Salve 
to the affected parts as per the instructions given with the bottle. If this is not at hand, use carbolic oint- 
ment (1 to 10), or balsam of Peru. Davis Veterinary Carbolic Salve will be found very prompt and 
efficacious in its action, and the disease is not difficult to cure if it is used, and at the same time the 
preliminary treatment is careful, the loose scales and crusts all being removed 




Slg. 17 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES WHICH ARE APT TO AFFECT 

DIFFERENT SETS OF ORGANS. 



Among the More Prominent of Such are Tuberculosis, Infectious Leukamia, and Fowl Cholera. 

Tuberculosis in birds is frequently mentioned in medical literature. An eminent French veter- 
inarian says: "Tuberculosis is a frequent disease with birds of the poultry yard. It occurs with them 
in an epidemic form. It attacks fowls, pheasants, pigeons, turkeys, peacocks, guinea fowls, etc., and 
it may even be produced in small birds experimentally." Many cases of the disease have been reported 
as the result of autopsies of fowls in Germany, but comparatively few in the United States. 

Symptoms. — As the symptoms of tuberculosis in birds are synonymous with those common to 
other diseases, it is not quite possible to accurately determine the presence of the plague by diagnosis. 
There is rapid and progressive emaciation, evidenced by the loss of weight, wasting of the muscles and 
prominence of the bones. Comb becomes pale, bird grows languid, dull and sleepy by degrees. In the 
latter stages a persistent diarrhea appears, increasing in intensity until exhaustion causes the death of 
the victim. 

The symptoms indicated are those observed when the trouble is confined to the internal organs. 
It, however, also often affects the joints and bones, causing lameness, swellings of the joints and deform- 
ities of the bones. Ulcers also may form containing bacilli. The skin and external mucous membranes 
are often affected in parrots, but rarely in other birds. 

Causes. — Like the tuberculosis in the human, the disease, in birds is caused by a bacillus. It resem- 
bles that of man, but is larger, more vigorous and hardy, and grows better outside the body. It is a very 
contagious disease and usually appears in a flock as a consequence of bringing in new birds. In other . 
words, it results from contagion carried by birds from other diseased flocks. Many outbreaks also have 
been attributed to infection from eating the sputum of persons affected with consumption. Some 
authorities admit the plausibility of this while other deny it. Certain it is, however, that. poultry and 
pigeons experimentally are not easily infected with the tuberculosis of people, cattle and other animals 
which are classed together as mammals. Although it may sometimes be accomplished, it is equally 
difficult to transmit the disease from one bird infected in this way to others. Hence the danger to birds 
from human virus is not great. On the other hand, the bird or avian tuberculosis spreads rapidly 
from bird to bird, and is easily transmitted experimentally to birds, but has little effect upon most mam- 
mals which are very susceptible to human tuberculosis. Consequently, all symptoms and experiments 
demonstrate the fact that there is a wide difference between avian and mammalian tuberculosis. Still, 
as has been stated, the disease in rare instances may be transmitted from one to the other of these species. 
The tuberculosis in birds and mammals are, in fact, two varieties of the same malady, the bacilli of which 
through a long series of years of separation have grown apart. A very interesting fact is that parrots 
are usually affected with the mammalian form of tuberculosis. It has been shown by experiments 
that it is very difficult to infect fowls and pigeons by inoculation, but rabbits, guinea pigs and dogs 
readily contract the disease by such inoculation. From the various facts recorded it is concluded that 
the tuberculosis in parrots is identical with tuberculosis or consumption in man ; that parrots are infected 
from diseased people, and may in turn affect other people. The germs of the disease are found in enormous 
numbers in the discharge from the ulcers, in the secretions of the nasal passages, and often in the excre- 
ment. The cages are soiled with these different excretions, which soon become dry, are reduced to dust, 
and then disseminated through the air of the apartment by the flapping of the wings of the bird. Man 
in breathing this atmosphere takes the germs into his lungs, and in this way becomes infected. On 

— 258 — 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 259 



the other hand, as poultry and pigeons do not readily contract tuberculosis from persons, it seems reason- 
ably certain that mankind is in no great danger of becoming infected from these birds. It is well to take 
reasonable precautions, however. 

Diagnosis. — It is well to have the exact nature of the disease confirmed by. an expert. A micro- 
scopical analysis, showing the presence of the bacillus tuberculosis, is the most reliable and satisfactory 
evidence. 

Treatment. — There is no cure. Eradication of tuberculosis in birds from an infected premises 
can only be attempted with a fair prospect of success when all the birds are killed. Ulceration of the 
intestines is likely to exist in any individual preserved, and thus the bacilli are constantly distributed 
anew. There should, therefore, be no attempt to save any birds from an infected flock. Kill the birds 
and dispose of them either by burning or deeply burying. • Carefully disinfect the premises. Sweep 
and scrape every bit of the manure together and saturate it with a 5 per cent solution of Phenalin 
or mix it with lime. Wash the floors and woodwork with boiling water or with a hot solution of carbolic 
acid or a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin. Feeding troughs, drinking vessels and nests should be treated 
in the same manner. All yards used for penning birds should be sprinkled with the carbolic acid solution. 
After the cleansing and disinfection open the premises to the sun and air for a month, if possible, before 
introducing new birds. It is then advisable to cover the walls and roosts with whitewash to which has 
been added 2 ounces of Phenalin or 4 ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon of water, and ventilate a 
few days longer before the houses are used. If you scrupulously enforce these measures you may be 
reasonably certain that the contagion will be destroyed and that the new flock may be safely introduced. 

A disease of the blood quite common among fowls. The blood is light colored 
Infectious or pale, owing to a considerable decrease in the number of red corpuscles and 

Levkamia. an increase in the number of white corpuscles or leucocytes. The' disease fre- 

quently has been mistaken for fowl cholera, and has been observed in Rhode 
Island, Maryland, District of Columbia, and Virginia. Fatal outbreaks of this disease have been observed 
in large brooder houses among incubator chickens from one to three weeks old. 

Symptoms. — Considerable elevation of temperature, reaching three degrees or more above normal. 
Drowsiness; general debility ; paleness of the mucous membranes and of the comb, wattles and skin about 
the head. The fever is of a continuous type, usually resulting in death from four to five days. In some 
cases the duration of the disease is longer, and two or three weeks ma}' elapse before the death of the 
bird. Excessive emaciation is then present. A microscopical examination of the blood shows a marked 
diminution in the number of red corpuscles and an increase in the number of white ones. 

Causes. — The disease is infectious and caused by a micro-organism technically named Bacterium 
sanguinarium. It is a non-motile, rod shaped organism, which is found in the tissues of the fowl. 
The disease in natural outbreaks probably is taken into the body with the feed. If good, sanitary 
conditions are observed it does not spread very rapidly. In experiments where healthy fowls were 
placed in cages with diseased ones they did not in a single instance contract the disease. When 
cultures of the germs and diseased viscera were fed, only about one-half of the fowls became affected. 
In spite of this the mortality in some instances has been great, demonstrating that the destructive- 
ness of the disease under conditions favorable to its propagation is great. But the germ is not a very 
virulent one, and, as mentioned before, the outbreaks appear to occur where the requirements of ordinary 
hygiene are not strictly complied with. This malady therefore may be looked upon more than anything 
else as a filth disease, and, as the germ in some respects resembles the common intestinal germ known as 
Bacillus coli communis, it is not improbable that outbreaks may occur from filth without the necessity 
of importing the contagion upon the premises. 

Treatment. — Prevention of filth diseases is much easier than their cure, and this malady is no 
exception to the rule. Cleanliness, good feed, pure water and ventilation are conditions antagonistic 
to the propagation of infectious leukamia. Davis Poultry Food, increasing as it does the assimilative 
and digestive powers of the fowls, insuring a healthy, normal circulation, free from obstructions of any 
kind in the way of accumulations of filth and impurities in the alimentary canal, will do good work 
in helping to prevent and insure against this form of disease. When this disease appears the poultry 



260 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 



houses should be cleansed and whitewashed. The floors should be sprinkled with Phenalin — one of the 
remedies contained in the Davis list of standard preparations; or, if this is not at hand, use carbolic acid 
in a solution of 5 per cent strength. Other efficient disinfectants may be used if more convenient. The 
sick fowls must be removed and isolated. Quinine in the dose of 1 to 2 grains may also be used for the 
sick fowls with good results. Sulphate of iron (copperas) in the drinking water is thought to be a good 
prophylactic remedy. Probably any stimulating and tonic treatment will prove beneficial after proper 
sanitary surroundings are secured. Davis Poultry Food, as indicated, may be used with excellent results. 
By experiment it has been demonstrated that the germ in this disease is killed in five minutes 
by a 1 per cent solution of Phenalin, and in ten minutes by lime water. Sulphur fumes were also 
effectual by three hours' treatment. It may also be destroyed by 136 4 degrees Fahrenheit, and, con- 
sequently, scalding water may be used to cleanse drinking and feeding troughs and other infected uten- 
sils. The disease seems to be one of the most common to which fowls are subject, and there ought 
therefore to be plenty of opportunity for making experiments to determine what kind of treatment 
will prove most effective in any particular locality. 

A contagious disease of birds caused by bacteria, transmitted by cohabitation 
Fowl Cholera. and inoculation. Symptoms are high fever, great weakness and prostra- 
tion; and the attack usually results in the death of the fowl. It is a common 

poultry disease all over the world, and is mentioned in some of the oldest works treating of the 

diseases of animals. 

General Characteristics. — All varieties of domesticated poultry, chickens, ducks, geese, pigeons, 
turkeys, and also caged birds, such as pairots and canaries, are subject to the attacks. Even some 
species of wild birds are affected by the disease. 

As a rule the infection occurs by taking feed or drink contaminated with the excrement of sick 
birds. Birds may also be infected through wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the germs in the form 
of dust supended in the air. Germs may be taken into their bodies by consuming particles of flesh and 
blood from the carcasses of affected birds that have died or been killed. The disease, as a rule, is intro- 
duced upon a farm or in a locality with new birds purchased for improving the stock, or with eggs for 
hatching. Wild animals or wild birds may disseminate it when it exists in a district. It is commu- 
nicable by inoculation to rabbits and mice. Guinea pigs are not very susceptible to it; the young 
animals may die but the adult ones usually have nothing more than an abscess where the inoculation 
has taken place. 

Symptoms. — The sick birds generally stop eating, or the appetite is very much impaired, although 
there are instances where they continue to eat almost till the time of death. The earliest indication of 
the disease is a yellowish discoloration of the urates, or that part of the excrement which is excreted by 
the kidneys. In health this is a pure white, though it is frequently tinted with yellow as a result of other 
disorders than cholera. This yellowish color of the urates therefore is not an absolutely certain proof, 
but is a valuable indication when the disease has appeared in a flock and an effort is being made to check 
its course by isolating birds as promptly as possible after the infection has taken place. In some few 
cases the original symptom is a diarrhea in which the excrement is passed in large quantities, consisting 
almost entirely of white urates mixed with colorless mucus. Generally the diarrhea is a prominent symp- 
tom. The excrement is voided frequently and consists largely of urates suspended in a thin, transparent, 
sometimes* frothy mucus. The urates are of a deep yellow color, which in' the more advanced stages of 
the disease may change to greenish or even a deep green. Soon after these first symptoms appear the 
bird separates itself from the flock, it no longer keeps itself erect, the feathers are roughened or stand on 
end, the wings droop, the head is drawn down toward the body, and the general outline of the bird 
becomes spherical or ball shaped. Great weakness now sets in; the bird becomes drowsy and may 
sink into a sleep lasting throughout the last day or two of* its life. It is difficult, if not impossible, to 
arouse it from this. 

These are some of the most prominent symptoms indicating this dangerous and destructive 
disease. It may be added that the affected birds rapidly lose in weight; they become so weak that a 
slight touch causes them to fall over, and they walk with great difficulty. Death may occur without 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 261 



a struggle of any kind or there may be« convulsive movements and cries. The disease may rapidly run 
through a flock, destroying the greater part of the birds in a week; it may also assume a more chronic 
form, extend slowly, and remain upon the premises for several weeks or months. 

Treatment. — For the treatment and cure of chicken cholera there is no better remedy in the world 
than Dr. Fillmore's Chickolin, and Davis Poultry Food. In order to be of benefit and bring about a 
cure, it must, however, be used in the first stages of the malady, before it has gained any considerable 
headway. No remedy will be of very much benefit after the disease has been allowed to spread through- 
out the poultry yard. We recommend Dr. Fillmore's remedy because, after exhaustive tests, it has 
been found to be superior to all the other preparations on the market. Tests in our laboratories and 
practical tests by many of the country's foremost poultry breeders have demonstrated its value as a 
curative agent par excellence in that most difficult and fatal of all diseases that attack fowls — 
chicken cholera. Should you, however, not have this preparation at hand, you may try sulphur, copperas, 
capsicum, alum and resin, given either alone or mixed together. These remedies may have either a 
stimulating or astringent effect, or both, depending upon the combination used, but Davis Poultry 
Food gives best results. A solution made by diluting one dram of carbolic acid or hydrochloric acid, 
with one quart of water has also been recommended. This should be given adult birds in the dose 
of a dessertspoonful. 

Stringent sanitary precautions, it will be understood, are the proper manner to prevent and combat 
cholera. You should remember that it is a contagious disease and that it is nurtured on germs which 
in some manner are brought upon the premises from some other place where the disease exists. Newly 
purchased birds, eggs, wild birds, and other animals, may introduce the disease on a farm. By all means 
guard against the introduction of contagion into your flock. Isolate and quarantine newly purchased 
birds for two weeks before they are mingled with your flock. If you hatch eggs from other yards keep 
the nest and the young birds isolated until you are sure that they are healthy, keeping the chicks apart 
and watching them carefully for the first ten days. 

Dogs and other animals should be kept out of the poultry yard if possible. Birds which 
have been exhibited at shows should ^ be quarantined for ten days after their return. If in spite of all 
precautionary measures the disease should appear, isolate, disinfect, and always have a supply of Dr. 
Fillmore's Chickolin at hand, so that you may be prepared to treat the patients at once and nip the disease 
in the bud. The remedy is inexpensive, its price being only 50 cents a package, with full directions 
for its use. It is also very highly recommended for gapes. In isolating infected birds yoti need not try 
to secure a very wide separation. Ten feet is sufficient distance to prevent the communication of con- 
tagion from cholera, if it be not in some way carried from pen to pen by attendants or animals. The 
atmosphere does not carry it to any appreciable distance. 

For efficient and thorough disinfection there is no better remedy than 
Disinfection. Phenalin. Always have a quantity of this inexpensive, harmless and extremely 

effective and efficient purifier and deodorizer at hand; use it for spraying the 
floors, roosts, cracks and walls of your poultry house, carefully following the directions given on the 
package, and you will be more than pleased with the results. Should you, however, not have it on 
hand, try a solution made by mixing 1 pound of carbolic acid with 24 pounds-, or 12 quarts, of hot 
water. Or 1 pound of sulphuric acid to 50 quarts of water may be used. The latter is the cheaper 
but is more dangerous. Phenalin should be given the preference over either of these two, as it is far 
safer and more reliable, and does not cost any more. Sulphuric acid is dangerous to use, and in 
preparing the solution, when this agent is used, you must be very careful that it does not splash into 
your eyes, burn your hands or clothes by contact. If possible move the birds into new runs and new 
houses when the scourge appears among them. Before moving separate all which seem to be sick and 
put these by themselves. Thereafter saturate the floor of the old house and all of the manure about it 
with the disinfectant chosen. In applying it you may use a watering can, just as you use -for watering 
flower beds or gardens. Confine the healthy birds of the flock to a small run, and, if possible, disinfect 
the poultry house by sprinkling at least once a day. Sweep up, disinfect and remove the droppings 
every day. Have the building whitewashed. The disinfecting properties of this application may be 
enhanced by adding x /± pound of carbolic acid to each gallon of lime. 



INJURIOUS HABITS AND VICES. 

Watch your flock carefully, and if any bird shows signs of disease remove it 
How to Eradi- at once. If you are careful in this way you may arrest an outbreak of fowl 
cate Cholera. cholera in a very short time. Use Dr. Fillmore's Chickolin promptly upon 

discovering the first signs of the trouble. Persevere with these precautionary 
measures for two or three weeks, and if in the course of that time no more birds become sick the danger 
may be considered passed. The difficulty in arresting outbreaks in fowls usually is that the birds are 
being allowed to roam over too wide a range. When at last the disease is recognized, the contagion is 
widely scattered through the droppings of the affected birds. It is impossible to disinfect a large range, 
and the birds will pick up the infection one after another when roaming about at will. If you desire 
to kill sick birds in order to get rid of the contagion as quickly as possible, dig a deep hole, put the birds 
therein and kill them there, so that their bodies and blood may both be buried. The blood is very 
virulent, and if remaining on the surface may be the cause of another outbreak of the cholera. 

cannot be recommended as a preventive. Davis Poultry Food, aiding the 
Vaccination digestive and assimilative powers, insuring perfect circulation, strengthening 

and invigorating the nervous and lymphatic systems, is the only agent in exist- 
ence which is reasonably sure to prevent cholera and all the other maladies common among our domestic 
fowls. No thrifty, progressive, up to date poultry breeder or farmer can afford to be without it. It 
is the king among its fellows, the remedy par excellence, insuring abundant health and vitality to the 
domesticated feathered tribes that roam our yards and pastures, supplying eggs and meat for our table, 
and dollars for the farmer's pocket. 



INJURIOUS HABITS AND VICES. 

Among Them are Egg Eating, Feather Eating and Feather Pulling. 

<• 

This is one of the most costly and troublesome of the acquired habits of poultry. 

Egg Eating. It begins generally by the accidental breaking of an egg in the nest, but spreads 

rapidly among the flock, until many of the eggs laid are purposely broken and 

eaten by the hens. Heavy birds are more liable to contract the habit, because they are more apt to 

break their eggs by stepping on them than lighter birds. When a hen breaks an egg she not alone eats 

its contents in the nest, but often carries large pieces of the shell about the house or yard, fighting with 

other birds, all eager to get a share. Thus is spread the knowledge of how appetizing are eggs and egg 

shells, and one bird becomes the teacher of another. 

Whatever conditions contribute to the breaking of eggs in the nests naturally may be considered 
contributive to the contracting of the egg eating habit. Thin shells break most easily, and it is 
therefore obvious that a deficiency in the shell making constituents in the feed. is a factor. Again, 
an egg may be broken for want of a proper" quantity of straw in the nest to protect it from contact 
with stone or wood. 

Davis Crushed Oyster Shells, Davis Crushed Clam Shells, and especially Davis 

How to Pre- Mico Spar Cubical Grit are all excellent shell producers, and by feeding any 

vent and Cure of these preparations to the hens you will insure a thick, strong shell upon the 

the Habit. eggs, which they will not be able to break. Supply the nests with sufficient 

straw, and use artificial nest eggs. Have the straw in the nests preferably of 

a dark color, so that a broken egg may not attract the hen's attention. If the habit is acquired, however, 

it is well to have the nests reconstructed so that the eggs will roll beyond the reach of the hen when laid. 

You may also use artificial eggs about the nests and houses, permitting the hens to pick at them and 

get the idea that they are no longer able to break shells. Or blow out the contents of a few eggs through 



INJURIOUS HABITS AND V ICES. 263 

a small hole in the ends of the shell, fill the space with a paste of mustard, capsicum, aloes, or other 
disagreeable compounds, and the hens in attacking them will get so nauseated that in the future they 
will leave all eggs severely alone. Remove confirmed egg eaters from, the flock and, if not too valuable, 
kill them for table use. 

Fowls may acquire the habit of extracting and eating their own feathers or 
Feather Eating and pulling the feathers of other members of the yard. Spring and molting time 
Feather P U 1 1 i n g. favor contracting of this vice. Indications of its existence are loss of plumage, 

disheveling of the plumage, barrenness and redness of the skin over the back 
and on the upper thighs. On watching the birds you may discover them in the act of catching one or 
more feathers in their beaks, tearing them out and swallowing them. Young growing feathers having 
quills filled with blood seem to be delicacies. 

Causes. — Improper rations; insufficient exercise; idleness; irritation of the skin caused by 
animal parasites. Anything contributing to the acquiring of an abnormal appetite may become a 
contributive factor in the contracting of this vice. 

Preventive and Curative Measures. — Give the fowls a free run. Make them scratch for a large 
percentage of their feed. This aids their digestion and occupies their time. Very often the habit is 
due to insufficient animal matter in the ration, or to feeding too long on a single kind of grain. It 
is therefore important to properly balance the ration. Davis Meat Meal, Davis Meat or Beef Scraps 
and Davis Bone Meal or Coarse Ground Bone, fed into a varied ration of grain, vegetables, skim milk 
and green feed will speedily correct the evil. In order to insure the perfect digestion and assimilation 
of the birds, which may have become impaired by the vice, give the fowls Davis Poultry Food regu- 
larly, mixed in the feed ration. In order to speedily overcome the habit, try an application to the feathers 
of lard or vaseline, in which powdered aloes has been mixed. This has been found a very effective 
method. The bitter taste of the aloes probably is responsible for the good results attendant upon this 
treatment. If you vary your poultry feed as advised above, and supply the birds with a proper amount 
of animal matter in the ration by the use of the Davis Feeds recommended, you need hardly ever 
go to the trouble of applying this mixture, except in very aggravated cases. Examine the skin and 
feathers carefully for mites or lice, and if such are found apply the remedies recommended for parasites. 
In severe cases separate the most inveterate feather eaters from the remainder of the flock. Be sure 
always to feed plenty of grit, preferably Davis Mico Spar Cubical Grit. In order to be safe against 
indigestion and malassimilation feed Davis Poultry Food with the daily ration in the proportion 
recommended above. 




DISEASES OF HORSES, 



This disease is also called farcy, and exists in three forms: the chronic, acute, 
Glanders. and latent. It is a serious affection, malignant and contagious in its character, 

and complicated with both local and constitutional symptoms. 

Causes. — It is caused by a germ called bacillus of glanders, or, technically, bacillus malleii. It 
is ushered in by a state of exhaustion in the patient, the horse being underfed, overworked, or badly 
cared for in other respects. The bacillus is a tiny, rod shaped body, occupying about two-thirds of the 
diameter of the red blood corpuscles. Oxygen must be present if its life is to be sustained. It is 
unable to live through the process of boiling or freezing, and certain drugs, such as bichloride of mer- 
cury, 1-5,000, or a 1 per cent solution of Phenalin, will exterminate it. It generally makes its home in 
the lymphatic glands, rarely finding an outlet from the body in the milk or bile. It is a peculiar fact that 
some horses seem to be practically immune from the attacks of this germ, while it easily can be inocu- 
lated in certain members of the equine family, the ass being an exceptionally easy subject to infect. 
To guard against infection in the stable you should be very careful about the feeding pails, harness, bed- 
ding, currycombs, mangers and troughs; in short, every article which comes in contact with an 
animal suffering from this disease, as contagion is easily spread through such mediums. 

This is in many cases an insidious malady, but is also often revealed by cer- 
C hronic tain constitutional symptoms. In the last instance — which is the more common 

Glanders. of the two — you will find upon inspection that your horse is affected with ulcer- 

ation of the membrane of the nose. It will, at the start, appear in the form of 
small red spots. (Sometimes it may be a single spot at the outset, and sometimes there may be a num- 
ber of them.) In a little while these spots swell, each forming what is called a pustule, and this upon 
breaking leaves an ulcer of the kind we usually call chancre. These ulcers generally continue to grow 
and spread over a larger and larger surface, also deepening, and at times perforating the septum. The 
organs known as the false nostrils supply a favorite residence for these sores. In looking for the .dis- 
ease you should also examine the glands between the lower jaws, which you as a rule will find swollen 
and peculiarly hard to the touch, not painful and adhering to the jaw bone. Suppuration rarely exists, 
although in some few cases the glands may be found to discharge a moderate quantity of a thin, oil)'' 
fluid, which sticks to the fingers like glue. Also examine the discharge from the nostrils, and note its 
greenish yellow color; you will find it sticky as glue between the fingers, sometimes streaked with blood, 
but without odor, except when it is mixed with dead and decomposed substance. Often you will 
find it gluing itself to the outer part of the nostrils, when it should be carefully removed with a wash 
of Phenalin. 

Symptoms. — The patient does not do well ; its temperature runs high ; it becomes emaciated ■ 

the coat is staring; appetite up and down; there is a marked perspiration, exhaustion, lameness, shifting 

from one leg to another; coughing; sneezing; sometimes with the discharge from the nose turning more 

and more bloody as the case progresses. The visible mucous membranes (of the eyes, mouth, nose, 

rectum, etc.) may take on a slate color, and swellings in various parts are present at times. 

—264— 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 265 



If the patient suffers from this form, of the disease, you will be unable to dis- 

L a tent cover any external lesions, as there are none. The affection manifests itself, 

Glanders. breaking out in ulcers on the bronchial mucous membrane, or the membrane 

of the larynx. The only outward symptoms you will find are a peculiar 

labored respiration, dullness and sluggishness, staring coat, etc. The temperature often runs high, and 

lameness in some parts may be present, with a dead feeling over the organs which suffer. 

In the acute form of the disease you will find the symptoms of the other forms 
Acute Glanders, present in a more pronounced and aggravated way. The bloody hemorrhage 

from the nose becomes conspicuous, and if this is absent the other discharge 
is heavy and constant. The affection progresses with great rapidity; spots and ulcers form on the mem- 
brane of the nose; you will find a pronounced swelling under the lower jaws, and when you press thereon 
the horse will show symptoms of pain; the temperature runs high, often as high as 103, 104, or 105 
degrees Fahrenheit; respirations are rapid and labored; if you take the discharge from the nose between 
your fingers you will find it still more gluish and sticky ; often it accumulates under the nostrils and 
particles of dust and other material will adhere to the mass. (In this case always carefully wash off 
the stuff with a solution of Phenalin and water.) The obstructions thus forming in and around the 
tubes of respiration, if not removed, may become so dense as to cause death by suffocation. 

In this form of the affection, which is also known as cutaneous glanders, you 
Farcy. will find swellings or nodules — the so called farcy buds or farcy buttons — 

covering the skin. Their size varies from that of a pea to a hickory nut, and as 
a rule you will find them on the inside of the thighs, all the way up to the base of the tail ; on the back 
part of the hock ; on the sides of the neck and shoulders ; on the part of the sides of the horse where 
rests the saddle; on the chest; under the abdomen, and all over the head and face. If the case is acute 
these swellings in the course of a week or so break open and discharge a greenish yellow matter of oily 
and sticky consistency, while in chronic cases this symptom is absent, the swellings being hard to the 
touch, with no attendant pain. 

If you have paid careful attention to the various symptoms described you should 

How to Diag- be able to make a pretty correct diagnosis yourself. Keep in mind when you 

nose Glanders. examine the horse the swellings, ulcers, the sticky, oily discharges from the 

nostrils and sores, the high temperature, the exhausted and emaciated condition. 

You may, however, mistake nasal catarrh for glanders if you do not make a thorough examination. 

The disease is serious and calls for prompt treatment. 

Treatment. — Separate the patient or patients, watch them carefully and note how the various 
symptoms develop. Administer a good aloetic purge ; water the diseased animals from separate pails, and 
be very careful that no articles, such as blankets, harness, bedding, etc., that come into contact with them 
are afterward brought into contact with the healthy horses. You must scald the stalls with washing soda, 
l}/2 pounds to a pail of boiling water, using as big a quantity as is necessary. Afterward you should 
apply a wash consisting of a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin, or bichloride of mercury, disinfecting the 
stables regularly every month or two with sulphurous acid gas or chlorine, while the Phenalin wash may 
be applied as often as desired with good results. If you are not positive as to the nature of the disease, 
better have a veterinarian make a test with mallein, injecting 2]^ c -c. hrt° the side of the patient's neck. 
The veterinarian will take the temperature before the injection, and then continue to take it every two 
hours for at least fourteen hours after, going as far as twenty-four hours in aggravated cases. Then, 
if the horse suffers from glanders, the temperature will have risen 2 or more degrees, and there will 
be a local swelling at the spot where he introduced the mallein, which is painful to the animal when 
pressed upon. 

For the prevention of this disease Davis Stock Food, used according to directions, Will be found 
to be of the greatest possible value, stimulating as it does the digestive organs, aiding the assimilation 
and perfecting the circulation. If this preparation is used with the regular daily feed ration, it will 
practically insure the animals against contracting glanders. 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



also known as equine syphilis or disease of the coitus, is a contagious, venereal 
Maladie disease, often chronic, accompanied with discharge from the generative organs, 

du Coit, ulceration, and sometimes paralysis. 

Causes. — The fundamental cause apparently is the same phenomenon - 
which underlies venereal diseases of all animals. It occurs after copulation, and the contagion springs 
from certain conditons of the urethra of the male and the vagina of the female. It may take six or 
eight weeks from the time the infection took place before the disease becomes evident. 

Symptoms in the Female. — If you examine the mare, you will find that some three or four weeks 
after copulation there will be a discharge from the vulva or entrance to the vaginal tract. At the start 
it is transparent, but in a little while its color changes to opaque and yellow. Then there will be a swell- 
ing of the procreative organs, you will find the vaginal membrane folded over itself and covered with 
a thick, jelly like fluid. In some cases there may also be erosions and reddish spots on the gland. There 
is an inflamed condition of the clitoris, which often causes the mare to stretch herself and eject small 
quantities of urine. ^As the disease progresses you will notice the lips of the vulva opening, clearly 
showing the erected clitoris, and she will nervously switch her tail from side to side. Large swellings 
may break out on the legs and body, shifting position, disappearing, as it were, only to reappear shortly 
afterward in other spots. The mare will commence to drag her toes, cross her legs, and rock her body 
to and fro, and a serious condition of paralysis of the posterior extremities may ensue, a symptom which 
is often progressive in character, and going so far as to paralyze the muscles of the face, eyelids and lips. 
The ears of the animal will droop, she lies down and is at length unable to rise, she contracts bed sores, 
and, if you do not destroy her at this period, she will shortly succumb of herself to exhaustion and 
general debility. The case cited is of course an extreme one. 

Symptoms in the Stallion. — In the stallion it will not be so easy for you to discover the early 
symptoms. The same form of discharge as in the female is there all right, but the quantity is less, and 
the attendant swellings of the meatus and reddish spots over the sheath are often overlooked by all 
but the experienced eye. However, you will soon be able to make sure of the presence of the malady 
by the paralysis which occurs in the hind parts, and the symptoms of pneumonia which are often pres- 
ent before the end. If you examine the body of the patient after death you will find a general condition 
of emaciation and debility present in the affected organs and tissues. Swellings, thickenings and exu- 
dations between the muscles and glands of the organs, attended by sticky, jelly like matter, also often 
are present. In advanced cases the nerves are degenerated, and the brain and spinal cord visibly con- 
gested and diseased. You should look upon this as a very, serious disease, which is irregular and often 
chronic in its tendency, and which may cover a period of months or years — often running all the way 
from eight months to three years. The stallion is the greater sufferer, and, as he may spread the disease 
to all your mares, you should be very careful in your examination of the stallion which is to serve them, 
remembering that no less than 70 per cent of the affected animals succumb to the disease. 

Treatment. — Local treatment seems about the only one of any service. You should resort to 
stringent and disinfecting lotions; as, for instance, bichloride of mercury, 1-10,000; potassium perman- 
ganate, 1-100; silver nitrate, 1-100; sulphate of zinc, 1 grain to the ounce. Or in Phenalin, 1 ounce to 3^ 
gallon of water, you will find a very excellent antiseptic. Stimulating liniment, such as Davis Veter- 
inary Liniment, applied to the loins and surrounding parts, is also recommended. Some veterinarians 
advocate castration of the stallion and even spaying of the mare, but it seems both severe and useless, 
and, if the disease is of the acute kind, the remedy ordered by a number of European governments, 
namely, destruction of the stallion, seems the only effective one, and the only rational means of 
insuring your mares against the destructive contagion. 

Meanwhile it should not be forgotten that in all milder cases Davis Stock Food, aiding nature as 
it does in throwing out impurities and diseased tissue from the body, bringing about a powerful circulation 
of the blood to all parts, and centering especially about the parts affected, may be of the greatest assistance 
in overcoming the malady and saving valuable animals. Internally at the same time such remedies 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 267 



as belladonna, strychnine, potassium iodide, or Fowler's solution of arsenic, should be administered by 
a skillful veterinary 'surgeon.. 

also called Madness, or Equine Madness, is a dangerous disease, acute and violent 
Equine Rabies. in its tendencies, very contagious, and emphasized by a strain of functional 

disorders. Rabies, as is well known, is a disease which may be transmitted to 
man and all animals by inoculation, and is characterized by the peculiar reflex and nervous symptoms 
which follow in its wake. Plainly speaking, it is a dread of water, due to functional disorder, it being 
impossible for the patient to swallow the water on account of paralysis of the muscles about the throat. 
In the horse a period of from two to eight weeks lapses from the time of infection until the outbreak of 
the disease. 

Symptoms. — If your horse has become infected with rabies, you will, at the expiration of the 
incubation period, find him nervous, very excitable, and gradually growing violent and wild. He will 
kick and bite everything around him, and you should exercise the greatest care in attending to him, 
lest his teeth with their poisonous saliva come into contact with you. He will tremble, neigh, rub his 
body against the side of the stall, gnawing everything in sight, and often fracturing his own jaw in his 
mad antics. He loses his appetite; the pharynx and posterior parts will gradually become parabyzed; 
then ensue convulsions followed by coma, and he dies in the course of a week. 

Treatment. — First of all you should thoroughly cauterize the wounds with acids, caustics or red hot 
iron. This should be done, if possible, immediately after the inoculation, or as soon as you suspect 
that he has been infected. Then treat antiseptically, using 1 ounce of Phenalin to Y2 gallon of water for 
the wash, washing out the wound thoroughly every day until the danger period is past. The Pasteur 
treatment is excellent in the horse, as elsewhere, and you should have a veterinarian administer it to the 
patient, inoculating a specially prepared vaccine into his veins which will counteract the poison of rabies. 

This disease is popularly known as the bloody flux, and may be defined as an 
Dysentery. inflammation of the large intestines, developing malignant ulceration, causing 

frequent stools, and attended often with colicky pains of a severe nature. 

Causes. — You will find that if you are in the habit of keeping your horses in damp stables, which 
are ill ventilated, and perhaps located near swampy or marshy meadows, or where decaying animal or 
vegetable matters poison the verdure and air, or where the animals are compelled to resort to the drinking 
of impure, stagnant water, there will always be some among them suffering from this form of disease. 
Other causes, such as sudden chillings, drinking when hot and perspiring, indigestion, caused by the par- 
taking of unwholesome, improper feed, etc., may produce it. It may be of interest for you to know 
that in man dysentery is counted among the four greatest epidemics of the world, and whole regiments 
of an army have been known to be attacked by it. 

Symptoms. — You will notice symptoms akin to those of dyspepsia at the outset ; the patient will 
look dull and exhausted ; he will stand with his feet drawn together under him, back usually arched, 
manner listless; there are diarrheal discharges ; there is excessive thirst, and often the belly is swollen 
and tender to the touch. As the disease progresses you will find the feces turning liquid, containing 
blood stained mucus of fibrous character, with shreds of mucous membrane, the discharges being of a 
peculiar fetid, offensive odor. The patient will soon commence to lose flesh, spirits droop more and more, 
and complete emaciation and general exhaustion and debility precede death. The affection is popularly 
known as bloody flux on account of the bloody nature of the evacuations in the latter stages, and 
because at this point the discharges become involuntary, the animal losing control of the function 
completely. The milder cases may recover, but there is little hope for the cases upon which ulcera- 
tion and bloody discharges attend. Ten days to four weeks is the usual period elapsing from the 
inception to the termination of the attack. 

Treatment. — You should lose no time in calling in a competent veterinary surgeon. Now try 
to get rid of the irritating, poisonous substances in the bowels by a purge of linseed oil. Let the veterina- 
rian administer this. Morphine, to relieve the pain- and straining, is excellent. Davis Scour Cure, used 
according to directions, administered every two or three hours, is very beneficial. If you have not this 



268 DISEASES OF HORSES. 



remedy at hand you may use large doses of bismuth (2 to 4 drams) every two or three hours. These 
remedies serve as internal antiseptics. The veterinarian in attending to the patient' will make his choice 
between zinc sulphate, copper, alum, chalk, tannic acid, lead acetate, etc. Moist heat should be applied 
to the belly, containing preferably a solution of Davis Veterinary Linament, in order to soothe the pain 
and overcome the straining. Injections may be good, but should be administered by the veterinarian; 
or have him prepare a suitable solution of quinine or silver nitrate, and instruct you how to go about 
the iffjection. A cocaine suppository used before the injection often does good work. Let the diet of 
the animal be light, consisting of such feeds as bran mashes, oatmeal gruel, etc., adding thereto 2 
tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food, mixed with each feed. 

or Cerebrospinal Fever, is a contagious disease, which is especially characterized 
Cerebrospinal by an inflammation of the membranes of the spinal cord. Its course is irregular, 
Meningitis, and it may terminate fatally in the course of a very short period. 

Causes. — All we know about it is that it is produced by a germ, one which 
we as yet know but little about. It is ascertained, however, that bad sanitary or hygienic conditions, 
foul, damp or dark staples, heat, overwork, and similar debilitating influences contribute to its develop- 
ment in the system. 

Symptoms. — You may leave the horse well and hearty in the night, and when you come out to 
feed the stock in the morning you will find him down. Or you 'may find a number attacked 
simultaneously — one dead, another dying, a third down and unable to rise — all unable to eat on account 
of the paralysis of the throat which is one of the main symptoms of the affection. Great exhaustion is 
apparent, the tail is limp and lifeless, the paralysis gradually extending toward the hind quarters, and 
death quickly ensues. The disease usually terminates fatally. 

Treatment. — You should not attempt to handle this disease yourself, but should immediately call 
a competent veterinarian. The affection is so grave that treatment rarely seems of any avail. The 
drugs used as counter agents are quinine, ergot, belladonna, potassium bromide, morphine, hypodermic- 
ally injected, etc. Let the veterinarian select and apply these. Locally you may use cold applica- 
tions, ice, etc., to the head. In milder cases, before the disease has become acute, and as a preventive, 
you may use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific. Given regularly it will be of material assistance, and if 
the horses are otherwise kept in good health and strength, by nourishing, proper feed, Davis Stock 
Food being a part of the daily ration, it will be the means of saving many an otherwise doomed animal. 
Always keep a supply of it on hand. 

This is a constitutional affection, caused by the system absorbing decaying 
Septicemia, and putrid matter from a wound. This poison enters the blood and .causes 
(Blood Poison.) the general infection of the entire system. It may interest you to know that the 

real cause, as it were, are bacteria, which have developed in the ferment or decom- 
position of the matter in the wound or glands. If the wound be a slight one, and the bacteria conse- 
quently only are present in small number, they will be destroyed when entering the healthy blood of the 
body, but if the wound be severe, and the putrid matter of such volume and character as to allow the 
bacteria to develop in large numbers, they will be victorious and cause blood poison. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms depend upon how severe is the infection. As a rule they arrive with 
a chill, quickly followed by fever, and the temperature runs up as high as 105 and 106 degrees Fahrenheit. 
The patient now becomes dull, listless and prostrated; there may be streaks of blood «in the urine and 
feces; perspiration is absent, and the skin is hot, dry and feverish. The visible membranes of the mouth, 
nose, rectum, etc., take on a dirty color of pale yellow. The beat of the pulse diminishes appreciably, 
becoming weak though quick; the breathing is labored and weak, and often bloody diarrhea sets in. 
The so called lymphatic glands, by which the septic poison enters the blood, same as by a wound, swell 
all over the body. It is a very dangerous affection in many cases, and, should the symptoms be severe 
and the constitution of the patient at the same time run down, fatal termination may ensue, while, 
if the animal be in fairly good condition, and the case comparatively mild, it may recover. (Always keep 
your stork in good condition, by proper feed and care, adding Davis Stock Food to the regular ration. 
It is ever a paying investment.) 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 269 



Treatment. — Little can be done locally but to keep the wound open, clean, well cauterized, remov- 
ing as much as possible of the poison as promptly as possible after the affection. If you do not know 
how to do this, call in a good veterinarian immediately and watch him remove the parts of the wound 
that are gangrenous, then cauterizing and applying a good antiseptic. Next time you may be able 
to do it yourself. It will be good policy for you to wash all putrid and other wounds you may discover 
in otherwise healthy animals with a solution of Phenalin and water, following the instructions given with 
the remedy. This you ought to do even before you have ascertained that blood poison has set in. Then, 
if you see that your horses are surrounded by good sanitary and hygienic conditions, fed properly, 
the addition of Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls mixed with each feed being allowed, your stock 
will be almost entirely proof against this affection, and if it should occur the animal's power of resistance 
will be so great that the bacteria are unable to obtain any foothold. 

is another form of the same affection, due also to the absorption into the blood 
Pyemia of the poisonous matter from a wound, characterized by the formation of 
(Blood Poison) cysts or abscesses, with suppurative inflammation. Various parts of the body 
may be infected, causing general systemic or constitutional disturbance. 

Causes. — It is due to bacteria or pus microbes, which have entered the blood through the putrid 
wound. In this instance these minute pests seem to group themselves together in families, taking up 
their residence in various organs, and immediately commencing to reproduce in great numbers, 
producing suppurative inflammation. . 

Symptoms. — Among the most conspicuous visible symptoms are the usual chills and subsequent 
fever; the temperature runs up to 102 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit. The chills come on spasmodically, at 
intervals, and the temperature is higher than in the ordinary stage of perspiration. The pulse is rapid, 
weak and irregular, or intermittent. Thirst, diarrhea and loss of appetite, with attendant exhaustion, 
prostration and general debility, set in. The breathing becomes quick and labored, and in the last 
stages there may be delirium, with the pulse very weak and intermittent. In passing into death the 
patient is generally in a state of semicoma. In order to enable you to distinguish between septicemia 
and pyemia let us add that, while the chill which ushers in the first is but a slight one, the chill in the 
second is marked and distinct ; also that, while in septicemia there is but one chill at the outset, in pyemia 
the chills come and go. The perspiration in septicemia is but slight, while in pyemia it is profuse; 
in septicemia the temperature at once jumps up to 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit, while in pyemia 
there is a gradual rise. The first develops rapidly ; the latter more slowly ; in pyemia the heart beat is 
not so strong and distinct as in septicemia ; finally, the abscesses forming in pyemia easily distinguish this 
form of the disease from septicemia, for they are never found in the latter. It is a dangerous affection, 
which often results fatally. 

Treatment. — You should lose no time in calling in a good veterinarian when you discover that one 
of your valuable horses has been poisoned in this way. There are two kinds of treatment for the affection, 
one the preventive, the other the medical treatment of developed cases. The first, here as elsewhere, 
is by far the better, and simply consists in cleanliness, proper sanitation and hygiene around the stable, 
pure air, sunlight, regular disinfecting of the stalls and stable with such an antiseptic agent as Phenalin, 
correct feeding, and a nourishing ration, with Davis Stock Food added in the usual proportion, to keep 
the animals up to a high standard of vigor and strength. The treatment for the developed case is guided 
by the direction of the intelligent veterinary surgeon you have called to your assistance, and will con- 
sist in internal antiseptics, such as bromine, quinine, oil of turpentine, or carbolic and salicylic acids. 
What you can do to aid him is to administer a careful, stimulating ration, with 2 tablespoonfuls of 
Davis Stock Food added, to counteract the weakness and prostration which are part of the symptoms. 

This disease is more commonly known among us as lockjaw, and is attended by 
Tetanus. spasms and cramps, and other functional disorders, verging into delirium. 

Causes. — A number of cases are recorded in which it was impossible to 
discover any cause, and these have been given the name of idiopathic tetanus. More often, however, the 
affection accompanies wounds, generally punctured wounds of the limbs. It also has been known and 
is frequently found to follow the entering of foreign substances into the tissues underlying the skin, 



270 DISEASES OF HORSES. 



as. for instance, wood splinters. Again, castration, docking, ringing, or any other operation may bring 
it about ; abrasions produced by the harness or saddle, or fractures of the vertebra, or any other small 
wounds may cause it. It is due to virus produced by a bacillus inhabiting the earth, manure piles, decom- 
posing, putrefying fluids, etc. In finding its waj'- into the wound this minute pest immediately enters 
the blood and sets upon its work of destruction. 

Symptoms. — It usually takes about ten days after the infection for these to show. You will 
then note a slight stiffness of the neck, and there may be some difficulty shown by the animal in the process 
of mastication. You are alarmed by the suddenness of the symptoms that now follow. You go to feed 
the horse in the morning and notice that he seems awkward and stiff and refuses to eat. He persists in 
keeping his nose in the air, the tail slightly lifted and turned to the side; the hind legs are more or less 
stiff and kept noticeably wide apart, the gait straddling, head extended. In taking the horse out you 
find that he is peculiarly nervous and excitable, refuses to back, and as you turn him about the mem- 
branes are thrown over the eyes. If it is a severe case he will set his teeth, saliva will flow from his mouth, 
and so firmly are the jaws clasped together that you will not even be able to force the blade of a knife 
between the teeth. From this circumstance the disease takes its name, lockjaw. The temperature 
may run up to 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit, and immediately preceding or following closely 
after death it may reach as high as 110 or 112 degrees. 

Treatment. — You should, not attempt to handle the case yourself, but immediately you become 
aware that the disease is present call in a competent veterinarian. He will prescribe such drugs as opium 
in large doses, aconite, chloral, belladonna, callabar bean, Indian hemp, alcoholic stimulants, ether, 
chloroform. You should be very careful not to excite the patient. • If you live in the country turn him 
out and leave him alone between treatments ; if 3^ou are a city man put him in a dark box stall and leave 
him alone. Let one trusted, quiet and careful attendant' administer to his needs, and keep all others 
away from him. Solid medicines are not advised for this disease, but the veterinarian will prescribe 
liquids concentrated as much as possible, administered with a syringe. Suppositories also are useful 
in such cases, and should be made up of morphine and atropine, \^ or 1 grain of each, used twice a day. 
They have the advantage over medicines given by the mouth that they do not produce irritation of the 
bowels. It is said by some that a sudden fear producing a distinct shock will cure tetanus, and the 
old inhabitant will advocate such measures as shooting off a gun over his head, or throwing water over 
him; also throwing him bodily into some stream or shallow water. Others have it that the placing of 
a sheepskin over his loins, letting it remain there until it rots, will cure him. We, however, place no 
faith in these versions. All the intelligent breeder can do in handling a case of tetanus is immediately 
the first symptoms show themselves to call in a veterinarian, and keep the animal very quiet and 
comfortable, and after the veterinarian has visited you and given his instructions follow these implic- 
itly. In some cases it will be advised to feed the patient through the rectum in place of the mouth, 
or perhaps to leave off feeding at all for the time being. In whichever way ydu may be advised to 
administer the feed (which should consist of gruels, etc.), you should always add 2 tablespoonfuls of 
Davis Stock Food to it, in order to keep the patient's digestion and circulation in order as far as possible. 
You may leave the pail containing the mixed gruel and stock food at the head of the patient, and, 
although he would not eat while you were present, he will often be found to have sucked it up 
during your absence. Tetatine is the name of an antitoxin for this disease, which has been used with 
different degrees of success. If properly used in the early stages it is often very successful. 




CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 

-The most common name for this disease is dropsy, but it also is known under 
Purpura various other names, the most common being purpura, scarlatina, and petechial 
Hemorrhagica. fever. It is a constitutional disease, originating in the capillaries and blood, 

marked by spots on the mucous membranes and swellings under the skin on 
different parts of the body. The blood leaves the vessels in the various organs, as the lungs, spleen, 
kidneys, and the tissues underlying the skin. A sticky, jelly like mass will develop, and the blood 
becomes darker than when in a healthy condition. Th.e skin and mucous membranes also become 
similarly affected, and there may be hemorrhages here and there on the surface. 

Causes. — The affection may be a primary one, which means that it has not been produced by 
or is not a complication springing from some earlier disease, but just as often, in fact, more often, is the 
latter the case, it being of secondary nature. Unhealthy sanitary conditions, bad drainage, dark, damp, 
ill ventilated stables, or enervating and debilitating conditions or diseases may produce it. At times 
it comes on without any previous symptoms at all. 

Symptoms. — Where the disease is primary, in other words, not produced by an earlier affliction, 
they come on with a rush, so to speak. The horse loses its appetite, it shows symptoms of fever, legs 
become stiff and diarrhea may set in. If the case is a secondary one, you will find that, as the primary 
cause subsides, be it influenza, pneumonia, bronchitis, or any other debilitating influence, the convales- 
cence of the patient is interrupted with the appearance of swellings on the legs and under the 
belly; they also may appear on the skin all over the body, but as a rule along the thighs, under the 
belly, between the fore legs, and sometimes around the nostrils. They maybe big or little, hot and tense, 
and often sensitive or even painful to the touch. As the disease progresses they either disappear or 
run into each other, becoming even and uniform. If it is the head that is affected, the swelling may 
extend as high as the eyes; if the legs, the walk is stiff, jerky and difficult. The skin may dry and crack 
in spots, the rents becoming bloody, the patient is languid and prostrated, disinclined to move. There 
is not very much of a rise in the temperature to start with, but as the affection progresses it may run 
up considerably; the pulse, at first not very rapid, in the latter stages often doubles its beats; breathing 
is labored, especially when head is swollen ; ribs become prominent as the emaciation progresses ; swellings 
on the body and also that of the head in severe cases continue to go on, until the animal often presents 
a most ungainly appearance. The urinary organs, penis and sheath may become so large that urination 
and locomotion are interfered with. Often the sudden disappearance of these swellings is thought a 
favorable symptom, and it is thought that the disease is over; but only to be- found that the patient 
lies down and dies in the course of the next few days ; glottis of the lungs, gangrene of the lungs or internal 
hemorrhage bringing about the fatal termination. The time from the inception to the termination 
of the disease varies, but the average is three or four weeks. If the condition of the animal was good 
when the attack commenced, and the time of the year is favorable, recovery may result from careful 
treatment. It is, however, a fact that from 60 to 70 per cent of the animals die, and it has also been 
demonstrated that at times severe cases may recover and mild cases die. 

Treatment. — In the more severe forms of the disease it is always best for you to call in a veterina- 
rian. The treatment must be local as well as general, aiming at restoring a normal, healthy tone to the 
blood and blood vessels. You should be careful about the sanitary and hygienic conditions of the stable, 
feeding the animal on a nourishing but not too heavy ration, including double feeds of Davis Stock Food; 
this being of the utmost importance. The drugs recommended for the more severe forms of the affection 
are iron preparations, turpentine, alcohol, potassium chlorate, etc. A veterinarian of considerable practice 
and repute has advised strong coffee, 1 pint; potassium iodide, 1 or 2 drams; given three times- a day. 
Potassium nitrate, given in the feed and drinking water is also recommended. If the head is much 

—271— 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 



swollen, use the fluid extract of mix vomica, 30 minims; spirits of turpentine, 15 to 30 drops; alcohol, 
1 ounce; give this as a dose every three or four hours with a syringe. In the milder cases you may 
confine yourself to the general course of remedies indicated above, and at the same time assist with 
local treatment, such as rubbing, massage, and molding the swellings with cold water, stimulating 
liniments, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, and hot water. You must not cut the swellings; if you 
do, gangrene is apt to follow. If there are wounds or abrasions anywhere on the skin you should wash 
them out with a good antiseptic, preferably Phenalin, and dress with the liniment. 

is an affection of a congenital nature, characterized by frequent or habitual 
Bleeder's Disease attacks of bleeding. 

Causes. — There may be a hereditary predisposing tendency to the affec- 
tion, or it ma)' be due to neurotic debility or a plethoric condition of the blood, or attendant on various 
nervous disorders. 

Symptoms. — Especially prominent among these are the bleedings from the membranes of the nose, 
the mouth, the lungs, the stomach, the intestines, and the genito-urinary organs. It is often difficult 
to arrest these bleedings, which may be due to either plethora, congestion, or nervous debility. The 
malady is a serious one, and is often followed by death, although life sometimes may be prolonged for 
an indefinite period. 

Treatment. — Potassium chlorate, fluid extract of hydrastus canadensis, mineral acids, etc., also 
tincture of the chloride of iron, are recommended, and may be obtained at the drug store. Mechanical, 
practical means and appliances are recommended, and you should resort to simple, common sense 
home remedies whenever possible. You will find that if you keep the system and organic functions, the 
digestion, circulation and their auxiliaries in good condition, by using Davis Stook Food regularly 
witn a nourishing ration, suitable to the condition of the animal, you will be able in the majority of 
instances to stay this exhausting and destructive affection before it gains the upper hand. 

which is technically called cashexia ossifraga, is a constitutional disorder, 
Softening of due, as a rule, to an insufficient supply of the calcareous salts in the bones of 

the Bones, the mature animal, resulting in softening and deformity of the bones. 

Causes. — It is an affection more common with the cow than the horse, 
is limited to animals of mature age, and may be due to an insufficient or improperly distributed amount 
of salts in the feed. Arid seasons, when the ground is dry, may bring it about, there being an insuffi- 
ciency of moisture in the soil to dissolve the salts. If your pastures are wanting in lime salts, if your 
grazing lands are constituted mainly of a sandy, swampy, turfy consistency, you may find this affection 
among your horses. 

Symptoms. — There is at the outset a constant hunger, or abnormally developed appetite. The 
patient maybe found in the act of devouring foreign bodies, never before included in its diet, gnashing 
sticks and straws, licking the walls in the stable, especially if you have recently applied a coating of 
whitewash, or he may show a desire to lick your own clothing as you tend him. Stiffness ensues later, 
the animal crosses its legs and they often become entangled, and a cracking or snapping as of dry, loose 
joints may be heard between whiles. He throws himself down in his stall or in the field, as the case may 
be, and it is difficult to make him rise again. The voiding of urine and evacuations cause evident pain. 
As the disease progresses fever is apt to ensue, with increase in pulse, and exhaustion and emaciation 
gradually become apparent. The ligaments binding the joints together may loosen from their 
attachments or be absorbed by the bone, and as a consequence there may be discoloration and fracture 
of the bones of the hind quarters and pelvis. The pelvis often breaks down, and the ribs may become 
fractured. It is, however, not an especially dangerous affection, and if taken in hand in time, the patient 
being properly tended and fed, a cure may result. On the other hand, if neglected and allowed to run 
its own course, death from general debility and prostration often occurs. 

Treatment.— Feed of improper consistency or quality is, as- was indicated above, the usual 
cause, and the treatment hence should consist in correcting this. In other words, you must change the 
pasture and vary the ration. Davis Stock Food, fed regularly with each meal in accordance with directions, 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 273 



will go far to make up the deficiency and speed the recovery. Also feed Davis Bone Meal twice a day. 
Grains, such as oats or dry clover, also fruit, are very beneficial and will help as corrective agents. Oil 
cake, included with the other feed, is good. Davis Stock Food as a stomachic, aiding the digestion and 
stimulating the assimilation, is, as indicated, quite indispensable for the correction of this form of ailment. 

is another form of the same disease, in so far as it consists in a softening of 
Rickets the bones. It is, however, a disease of youth, of constitutional character, 

affecting nutrition, and the animal may be born with it or it may be developed 
very shortly after birth. 

Causes. — As before, there is a lack of the calcareous salts in the bones, this reacting upon their 
form and- structure, impairing their growth and shape. It is a disease often met with in young foals, 
and its primary cause may often be traced to improper nourishment in the uterus of the mare. 
Insufficient feed, such as when after birth the foal is not allowed to suck its mother more than once or 
twice a day, or where the milk fop some reason or other (generally improper feeding of the mare) does not 
contain the variety and quantity of the principles necessary to the healthy development of the bones and 
tissues in the young. 

Symptoms. — It is not, as is believed by some, a local disease, confined to certain bones and tissues, 
but is a constitutional disorder, affecting all the bones of the body, including the tissues that surround 
them. There are the cases in which the pelvis becomes narrow, the spine twisted or curved (if curving 
downward, it is called saddle back; if upward, carp back or roach back; if the side, scoliosis). Often you 
will find that the bones have become softened so much that they will readily change their shape or form 
whenever a slight pressure is brought to bear upon them.- The limbs will bulge and bend under the 
weight of the body, thus originating the popular names of knock kneed, cow hocked, pigeon toed, bow 
legged, etc., and the animal often presents an appearance that is at once grotesque and pitiable. If 
it is the breast bone that protrudes and stands out, we call it chicken breasted. The ribs of the poor 
animal also may bulge out prominently at the sides, so much so that you can plainly see the enlarge- 
ments at the junction of the false and true ribs. The belly also protrudes, and pot gut is the common 
name given to this form of the malady. Other symptoms attendant upon the disease are loss of appetite; 
f everishness ; general debility; inability of the patient to walk; teething delayed; teeth breaking through 
irregularly; muscles flabby and soft; flatulency and diarrhea may be present; also nervous disorders 
of various kinds, causing the patient to appear uneasy and apprehensive. As a rule this condition does 
not terminate fatally, but it often results in a deformed and otherwise unsound animal, conditions which 
may or may not interfere with its future usefulness. The constitution, thus early weakened, may also 
leave it in such a condition as to be especially liable to future affections. 

Treatment. — In order to empty the bowels of any undigested material contained therein, first 
administer a purgative or laxative. Linseed oil in moderate quantity, and combined with potassium 
bicarbonate of sodium, given in the form of an emulsion, adding to the compound 1 tablespoonful of Davis 
Stock Food, may be used with good results. Then you can give the patient preparations of lim'e water 
or iron, twq or three times a day if the stomach permits it; this, in moderate quantity, admixed 
with cod liver oil, will prove very efficacious. It also will be well for you to give a small quantity of Davis 
Bone Meal with each feed, Davis Stock Food, where a tonic is necessary, and, above all, 
pure, fresh air, moderate exercise and proper nourishing feed, in which the elements which go 
to make up the structures and tissues of the body- are correctly admixed, the milk of a correctly fed 
mother being, of course, preferable to all others. If there is no other way, you may substitute this 
with pure, sweet cow's milk, adding a small quantity of lime to it. It is, however, far better that you 
take measures to prevent the disease long before it occurs, which you can do simply by feeding the 
pregnant mare with especial care and attention to the details in her diet — nourishing, strengthening 
feed, to which is added Davis Stock Food, a heaping tablespoonful to each feed. If, however, the 
disease has been contracted, treat as above indicated, aiding nature in correcting deformities by the use 
of padded splints, bathe the inflamed parts with a solution of Phenalin and water, and dress the sore 
and swelled or deformed parts with Davis Veterinary Liniment, or if you have not this at hand, resort to 
any other good liniment. 



Sigr. 18 



27 » CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 

scientifically known as Osteoporosis, is a porous condition of -the bone, enlarging 

Big Head, the bone proper^ and atrophying its substance. Climate and soil are factors 

in bringing about this condition, the absence, of some of the salts necessary for 

the sustenance of the animal body being absent; presumably the soil substance is lacking in some of the 

itial ingredients for the formation of the bone. It is possible that the underlying cause of the disease 

and atrophy of the structures is a specific germ. In some districts of the United States it is very common 

as well among high bred as common work horses. 

Symptoms. — The patient is in poor condition, feeds poorly, and his belly often presents a peculiar 
tucked up appearance. The legs stiffen with the progress of the disease, there is no action of the knees 
at all and he is forced to adopt the so called dog trot gait. The parts around the jaw seem to enlarge and 
pressure on the diseased bone tissue causes evident pain to the animal. In young animals the roots of 
the molar teeth give prominence to certain parts of the face. There may also be lameness present, 
supposed to be rheumatic in its nature, which shifts from one place to another and is difficult to localize 
and treat. As the disease progresses the patient may lie down and be unable to get up; he appears 
exhausted and emaciated, the bones of the jaws continue to increase, and the condition grows from bad to 
worse. If the patient is young and vigorous he may recover, while the affection often terminates fatally 
in older and poorer animals, it becoming necessary to kill them at the advanced stage in many instances. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment is of but little avail. Turn the animal out to roam the pastures 
at will; in other words, liberate him to find the grasses and plants containing the salts which his body 
is in need of. Where soreness and pain in the joints is evident, give a liberal ration of ground oats, 
to which add Davis Stock Food in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls with each feed. This is always 
an excellent adjunct, of great assistance and value, and will do much to promote a speedy recovery. 
Sometimes you will find that a good physic, followed by cod liver oil with calcium phosphate, will be of 
assistance in the treatment. Locally you may use anodyne liniments. As a soothing, stimulating 
liniment you will find Davis Veterinary Liniment the- best. 

_.. , This disease is divided into two separate forms, one of them called diabetes 

millitus,,the other diabetes insipidus. 

— . , This affection may be designated as a disorder of the digestive and assimilative 

-_ ... organs, causing sugar to accumulate in the blood to be voided with the urine, 

and the amount of which rapidly increases from day to day. 

Causes. — Overfeeding is mentioned among the principal causes responsible for this affection ; all 
corn or starchy feeds, which are rich in carbohydrates and peptones, are likely to bring it about, especially 
if you exercise the animal but little. It may also be caused by faulty action of the liver and its 
auxiliaries, and pregnancy as well as certain poisons peculiar to the generative organs may produce it. 

Symptoms. — These are often slow to show themselves to any but the experienced eye, and as 
first indications that your animal is affected you may become aware of a perceptible loss of strength, 
impairment of the digestion, passage of great quantities of urine, which, when analyzed, are shown to 
contain sugar; there is a constant thirst; the horse is exhausted and emaciated and the least exertion 
seems to fatigue him; there may be an abnormal appetite, but still the general debility of the system 
seems to become all the time more marked and evident. The mouth is dry, saliva scantily secreted, 
the skin harsh and dry to the touch, urine pale and watery, emitting a sweetish odor. The majority 
of cases terminate fatally. 

Treatment. — You should not attempt to treat the patient yourself, but as soon as you become aware 
that one of your horses suffers from diabetes" call in a good veterinarian. If the case is a mild one and 
is discovered in time, good grooming and a careful diet, avoiding all feeds containing sugar, and the adding 
of Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each daily feed, may bring about recovery. Among the drugs 
which the veterinarian will prescribe are potassium bromide, lithium salts, opium, etc. / 

^ . , In scientific language we call this form of affection polyuria or chronic diuresis. 

T . . , It is chronic in its course and accompanied by abnormal thirst, exhaustion and 

" * emaciation, and the voiding of a large amount of pale urine. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 275 

Causes. — It has not been possible to accurately define the causes, but it would seem that some 
injury or disorder of the nervous system, perhaps tumors of the brain or other irritating affections, 
are responsible. 

Symptoms. — As in the case of the first form of diabetes, the symptoms at the outset are obscure 
and hard to discover. The passage of large volumes of. urine, and great thirst, first indicates that the 
animal suffers from the affection; here, as in the first instance, the urine is watery and pale, mouth 
and skin dry, appetite fairly good, and the patient seems in good condition. 

Treatment. — A good veterinary surgeon should be called. It is a difficult disease to treat, and 
but few of its victims recover. TDavis Stock Food in the daily feed ration should be used as before. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

is a term used by the physician, and implies the art of discovering disease by 
The Physical means of the senses, more especially by the eye, ear and touch. Aided by 

Diagnosis modern instruments he is able to look into, listen to, or feel the condition, 
activity or respective state of the various organs of the animal body. The size, 
form, color, position and state of each part, together with the movements, etc., are noted and deter- 
mined. By laying the palm of the hand and fingers on the diseased spot the nature and stage of the 
trouble may be discovered through the sense of touch. The heart beat, the condition of swellings, the 
frequency of respirations, the location of pain or soreness, etc., may be ascertained in this way. Tech- 
nically this is known as palpitation. Through these means, eye, ear and touch, we are thus able to 
find out the condition of the various organs belonging to the respiratory system, the ear, however, being 
.the medium most generally employed by physicians in diagnosing and determining the nature of pul- 
monary or lung diseases. The sounds heard within the normal chest vary in nature. In breathing, 
the inspiratory part of the sound is low, soft and breezy, while the expiratory sound is pitched in low, 
feeble accents, its rhythm being soft and blowing. It cannot always be heard. This respiratory 
murmur may become altered in intensity, rhythm, and character. Thus, for instance, when the 
respiration is exaggerated or increased, it may denote a want of action of some other portion of the 
lung, and it is, therefore, an indirect evidence in some part of the lung tissue. The volume or intensity 
of the breathing is diminished in old animals, the period of the inspiration and expiration being shorter. 
The rhythm of the murmur heard in the chest from the act of breathing, also may alter in various 
ways; or the quality of the sounds may change, becoming in turn harsh, soft, high or low pitched. 
Although these are technical terms, they may in a measure be understood by the laity. Thus what 
is called harsh respiration is where both the in and out breathing murmurs have lost their usual 
softness, this, as a rule, indicating a congested condition of lung tissue. By bronchial respiration 
is meant a condition of the organs where the in breathing "becomes high pitched and tubular, while 
the out breathing is even more high pitched, prolonged and tubular. Cavernous respiration is indi- 
cated by a blowing sound of peculiar nature. It is heard, as a rule, over a cavity communicating 
with the bronchial tubes. Amphoric respiration is indicated by a blowing kind of breathing, which 
is heard over a large cavity with firm walls, and which is of a sonorous, musical quality. 

In rales we have another technical term, which is invented for the convenience of the veterinarian 
and physician, consisting of sounds peculiar to a diseased condition of the respiratory organs, and never 
present in health. According to their character, and the conditions under which they appear, they 
are divided into several classes, primary among these being dry or moist rales. Again, depending upon 
their situation, we divide them into bronchial, cavernous, laryngeal, pleural and vesicular rales. Dry 
rales are produced when the bronchial tubes are clogged or narrowed from a thickening of the mucous 
membrane, especially when the mucus is of a consistency that cannot be broken up by the air. If 
occurring in the smaller bronchial tubes they are high pitched, and we then denominate them whis- 
tling or sibilant sounds; if occurring in the large tubes,, they are low pitched, and we distinguish them 



276 DISEASES OF THE NOSE. 



under the name of sonorous rales. The breathing does not interfere with the position of dry rales. Moist 
rales are caused by the inhaled and exhaled air passing through fluid matter which is readily disturbed 
and displaced by the air. In the large tubes we call them large bubbling or mucous rales; in the small, 
ill bubbling, subcrepitant or mucous rales. This kind of rales are acted upon and influenced by the 
breathing, and as the mucus is loosened in the tubes and coughed up, they may change their position 
from one place to another. In laryngeal rales are indicated those heard over the larynx and trachea; 
they may be cither dry or moist. Moist rales, in this connection, are known as death rattles. Bronchial 
rales vary in character, and may be either dry or moist. We denominate the dry variety the sibilant or 
sonorous, while the moist are large or small, bubbling or mucous rales. With vesicular rales is meant 
a very fine sound or a series of very fine sounds, which are heard only when the air is inhaled. We- 
also call it a crepitant rale, and the noise it produces resembles that following the throwing of a handful 
of salt on the fire. This is the sound heard in the chest during the early stages of pneumonia. The 
so called cavernous or gurgling variety of rales may be heard over lung cavities containing liquid, when 
these open into the bronchial tubes. ■ Pleural rales are murmurs in the chest, caused by the rubbing over 
each other of the two hardened layers of the pleura. Sometimes they are dry and sometimes moist. 
In the dry state there is a friction sound, which denotes the early stage of pleurisy, and when this dry 
friction sound changes into a moist and watery murmur it means that the third stage of the disease has 
been reached. The way for you to go about in endeavoring to locate and distinguish between these vari- 
ous sounds is to either place your ear against various places of the chest, changing around until you strike 
upon the spot where the disease is located, or, if you have gained considerable skill in diagnosing dis- 
ease in your animals in this way, you may be able to make a pretty correct diagnosis by placing the 
ear to the nostrils. This is the method preferred by the skilled veterinarian. 



DISEASES OF THE NOSE. 

Two forms — acute and chronic. The acute form is also called coryza, or more 

Catarrh Of simply, cold in the head, and consists of an acute catarrhal inflammation of 

the Nose. the membrane of the nose. It is indicated by a feverish condition of the 

system, the discharge from the nasal chambers being excessive and often offensive. 

Causes. — Changes in the weather are apt to produce the so called idiopathic or primary form of 

coryza; more especially inclement weather in the autumn and spring, when the skin, is exposed to cold 

or wet. It has also been met with as a result of the inhaling of poisonous gases, dust or smoke, or 

, moldy hay, and dirty, unfit feed may bring it about. As a rule it is complicated with other functional 

disorders of the general system, more usually in the form of ulceration of the membranes of the nose, 

glanders, bronchial affections,' or a general state of nervous debility. 

Symptoms. — As has been indicated above, there are two stages of the disease, known as the dry 
and moist stages ; also called simply the first and second stage, the distinction being that the condition 
of the organs of respiration vary from dry to wet or moist. The affection generally sets in with a cold 
in the head, the patient appearing listless and disspirited, as if suffering from a severe headache; appe- 
tite is impaired; there are chills and shivers, then fever, elevating the temperature a number of degrees. 
The membranes turn red, dry, thickened and irritable, and the animal has frequent spells of coughing 
and sneezing. Its condition may remain in this way for a number of hours or for several days. This 
is the first, or dry stage, of the disease. In the second, or moist stage, we have a much swollen, shiny 
and red mucous membrane of the nose, complicated with a discharge, at the outset consisting of thin, 
watery matter, and later on changing into a thick, sticky, gluish mass, whitish in color, as a rule, on 
account of its connection with the white blood corpuscles, although in some cases it may turn yellow 
and putrid, with offensive crusts adhering to the nostrils. At this point the membrane of the eye may 
be infected, taking on a red and dry appearance, which is soon relieved by a discharge, at first thin 
and pale, then turning into a sticky, pus like matter. In the milder forms the disease may run its 



DISEASES OF THE NOSE. 277 



course in a week's time, but if the attack is severe twice that period or more is consumed. If your 
animal is in first class condition, in other words, if you took proper care of him in health, looking after 
his sanitary and hygienic well being and seeing that his diet was the correct one, nourishing and 
strengthening in substance, with 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food added to each feed to keep the 
digestion and assimilation perfect, he has a good chance to recover; but if he was poor in condition, 
his constitution run down and his powers of resistance weak, you have an equally good chance of losing 
him; the moral of which is that it always pays to keep the stock in good condition, strong, active 
and vigorous. 

Treatment. — You must treat the patient both locally and constitutionally, as it were. Or, if 
the case is a simple one, not complicated in any way, simple, common sense nursing, with Davis Dis- 
temper Cure added to the feed in the proportion described on the package, may be all that is necessary. 
You should keep his body warm by application of bandages and blankets. Give the patient a stall by 
himself where the air can be kept pure and fresh, without drafts entering. ' If he is uneasy or gives evi- 
dence of pain, you may relieve him by administering a moderate dose of quinine, camphor or opium. 
If you have the facilities, you may also resort to steaming; for instance, you can prepare a remedy for 
steaming by filling a pail three-quarters full of bran, then pour hot water on it, finally changing the steam- 
ing mass into a feed bag, and place this in such a way that the animal is compelled to inhale the steam. 
Be careful not to encase the breathing organs of the horse too completely, but allow as much room 
as will enable him to inhale the air at the same time he sniffs up the steam. If there is much fever, use 
Bradbury's Brazilian Specific — one of the Davis Preparations, guaranteed excellent as well as harmless 
in cases of this nature. It is a splendid fever remedy. Let the diet consist of bran feed, easily digested, 
to which you have added Davis Stock Food in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. 
If there are symptoms of constipation, rectal' injections, or a tartar emetic given in the drinking water 
will give relief. Easy digestion and assimilation, as insured by the regular use of Davis Stock Food, 
-should always be made an. object. It reacts upon the entire constitutional circulation, and amounts 
(when used properly and in time) to little less than an insurance policy for 75 per cent of the diseases 
common to our domestic animals. 

is the more serious affliction of the two. It is also sometimes called nasal 
Chronic Catarrh gleet, and it may be defined as chronic inflammation of the membrane which 
of the Nose lines the inside of the nostrils. It is generally complicated with excessive dis- 
charge from the nose, and there may be alteration of the structure of the organ 
gradually occurring as the disease progresses. 

Causes. — Sometimes it follows in the wake of an attack of acute catarrh of the nose, often also 
some special cause produces it; as, for instance, decayed, putrefying teeth, irritating substances which 
have become lodged in the nose, ulcerations in the passages, glanders, or anything acting upon the mem- 
brane in such a way as to produce profuse secretion, followed by an increasing discharge of a sticky, 
pus like nature. The disease is more rare than the other form, and naturally, being of a chronic 
character, more serious in its ultimate results. 

Symptoms. — The veins of the membranes of the nose may be swelled, large^ dark blue, stained 
with blood. A discharge of thin, watery matter accompanies the first stage, this matter gradually gain- 
ing in consistency and yellowish or greenish yellow in color, often containing dead tissue. Should 
the patient keep its head lowered for any length of time, as when in grazing, this flow of matter from the 
nostrils is perceptibly increased. Should the secretion of matter be due to the presence of one or more 
putrefying, decaying teeth in the mouth, its odor will be strong and offensive. If the cause is accumulation 
of pus in the sinuses, no matter what is the nature of the agent responsible for this, it is at times indi- 
cated by a swelling of the bones of the head over the affected part. As stated, this is a slow, dangerous 
'disease, which may extend its course over a lifetime, and cannot be too carefully guarded against. 
Neglect is often the original cause of its contraction. 

Treatment. — Patience truly becomes a virtue in the treatment of this condition, for treat as you 
will, the fact remains that a large percentage of animals so afflicted can only be temporarily relieved, 
but never get well. If you find that the discharge comes from the membrane of the nose, no pus being 
present in the sinuses, inhalations may be resorted to. If you do not know exactly how to go about this, 



THE LARYNX. 



better call in a veterinarian, have him show you the way and then you may be able in the future to look 
after the patient yourself. If there are no serious complications, such simple remedies as tar deposited 
on a heated shovel, or juniper berry, or sulphur, put before the patient in such a way that it inhales the 
fumes arising, may give immediate relief. Steam from a solution of Phenalin and water, or, if Phenalin 
is not at hand, you can use plain carbolic acid and water, creolin, etc., for steam inhalations. If fever 
is present, use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific. Blisters, such as Davis Veterinary Blister, applied over 
the nasal chambers (above the nostrils) may do good. A very simple remedy, which often brings great 
relief to the sufferer, is the blowing into the nose of iodoform in powder form. Internally give Davis 
Distemper Cure, together with a plain, nourishing ration. In order to keep the digestive and 
assimilative processes healthily active, and to keep the animal in fair vitality, thus increasing its 
resistive powers 50 per cent, you should always add Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, 
to the ration. In all cases where there is a virulent discharge from the nose the animal should not be 
permitted to drink from the common stock trough. 

which in technical language is called epistaxis, indicates a systemic dis- 
N0S8 Bleed, order, sometimes local, and sometimes constitutional, which causes bleeding 

from the nose. 

Causes. — It may be a general run down condition of the system, causing impoverishment of the 
blood and nervous debility, or there may be some foreign substances lodged in the nostrils, setting up 
irritation, or the hard bumping of the nose against an external object may produce it. Ulcers of the 
nasal cavity may also bring it about. Your horses will be more likely to fall victims to this affection 
in the summer time, especially after they have been driven or worked hard. There is a congestion 
in the lungs or some part of the membranes of the nose, and it is relieved by bleeding. If the blood 
originates simply from the mucous membrane of the nose, it will flow in a clear, unobstructed stream or 
in rapidly succeeding drops, but if the lungs are at fault, it will look dark and frothy, the reason 
being that it is now mixed with the air in the tubes. 

Treatment.— Relieve the patient of all strain, keep him quiet and at his ease; apply ice or ice cold 
water to his face in a gentle, soothing way, and blow tannin and the like up into the nostrils. In severe 
cases it may be necessary to plug up the nostrils for a while. Internally give Davis Stock Food, 2 table- 
spoonfuls to each feed. If the affection, as is sometimes the case, should turn out to be a complication 
of some other disease of a grave nature, call in a veterinarian. But this is not often the case, although 
usually the general system is run down on account of overwork and incorrect diet. 



THE LARYNX. 



T ... commonly known as sore throat, is a condition which may be either acute or 

™ ° ' chronic, or run its course from the first to the second, if the case is neglected. 



Acute Form 
of Laryngitis 



means a severe inflammation of the membrane which lines the larynx. It 
is indicated by a feverish condition of the system, cough, and sometimes 
difficulty in swallowing, complicated with catarrhal inflammation. 
Causes. — Exposure to wet and damp weather, cold slush underneath the foot, chills, especially 
when the animal is covered with a comfortable coat of hair and is easily made to perspire. It is 
essentially a fall and spring disease, or it may be said to be an affection primarily caused by any 
changes in the atmosphere from cold to warm and vice versa, with accompanying storms, rains or other 
inclement conditions of the weather, reacting upon the blood. In rare instances inhalation of smoke, dust, 
or irritating gases may be to blame. Or there may be some unnatural pressure or mechanical injuries 
of the parts. Again, it is occasionally associated with catarrh of the nose, influenza, strangles, etc. 
Symptoms. — A feverish condition associated with chills, the pulse being rapid, the temperature 
running up to 104 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit, are among the earliest symptoms. There is also a cough, 
at first sharp and hard, but as the disease progresses, loosening and accompanied with expectoration. 



THE LARYNX. 279 



At times the patient may modify or suppress it on account of the attending pain. Often you will find 
the animal extending its head into the air, holding it in a horizontal position ; if you press on the throat 
over the larynx it will cause him to wince and cough. You should not make this experiment except 
when you wish to make an examination or diagnosis, as it causes pain and irritation to the patient. The 
appetite is very much impaired, and the patient is often unable to partake of solid nourishment. Glands 
are swollen, temperature-high, and the irritation and cough continues. 

Treatment. — Counter irritants, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, or for want of this, mustard, 
a number of applications, one after another, if necessary, will prove beneficial and give much relief. 
In treating internally you should avoid all bulky medicines, and feed Davis Stock Food, 1 tablespoonful 
to each feed. Davis Distemper Cure also is recommended as a positive cure for this condition. 
Steaming hot water, medicated with Phenalin, and used as an inhalation, may be found of 
much benefit in this connection.^ If the fever during the course of the disease is high, with 
the membranes dry and harsh, use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, or, for want of this standard fever 
remedy, potassmm nitrate with small doses of tartar emetic may be given in the drinking water, 
three or four times a day. It will also be well for you as part of the treatment to feed bland and easily 
digested feeds, to which add Davis Stock Food^in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. You 
should also be careful to keep the manger perfectly clean, washing it out thoroughly, as otherwise par- 
ticles, wet with the discharge from the throat, may be left therein as a source of infection. A good 
plan is to feed the patient out of a clean pail, coaxing it ,to eat. Davis Stock Food is exceedingly 
appetizing, and therefore will materially further this end. 

is generally the result of the earlier or simpler stages of sore throat neglected, 
Chronic Laryngitis and for this reason enters into a chronic state, involving the lining membrane 

of the larynx, with the submucous tissue, a chronic state of inflammation with 
a persistent cough being present. 

Causes. — As stated, it may be the result of a neglected cold, or, again, any other disease of the lungs 
or throat may be the originator, while at times it is itself a primary disease without forerunner of any kind. 

Symptoms. — Among the symptoms you will find the dry, hoarse, persistent cough most marked 
and suggestive of the malady. In other respects the animal may be in apparent good health, with good 
appetite and no appreciable loss of strength. But should you take him from the warm stall out into the 
chilly morning air, he will immediately start to cough, and the attack will be attended with a white, 
gluish discharge from the nostrils. Throughout the disease there will be tenderness and pain over the 
laryngeal region, and an appreciable thickening of the membranes due to the veins being more or less 
clogged up in the vicinity. It is needless to state that this disease, especially in old animals with 
lowered vitality, is difficult to cure. The way to avoid it is to keep the system in healthy, vigorous 
condition at all times by allowing your animals a "wholesome nourishing ration, to which Davis 
Stock Food is added. 

Treatment. — This is about the same as in the acute stage of the disease. Relieve the cough 
with Davis Distemper Cure. Throughout the disease double the amount of Davis Stock Food allowed 
with each feed, making it two tablespoonfuls instead of one. 

is a peculiar hissing or whistling sound emanating from the respiratory tract, 

Roaring due to an irritation or otherwise diseased and congested condition of the parts. 

It is also called chronic whistling. 

Causes. — Roaring is often brought about by debility or degeneration of the surrounding tissues. 
Again, there may be tumors present in the nose, the nasal membranes may be swollen or thickened for 
some reason or other, giving rise to the sound by congesting or obstructing the passages ; or it may be 
a tumor in the chest or bronchial tubes or fracture of the cartilage of the trachea that is to blame. Some 
veterinarians also claim that the affection may bedue to hereditary causes, and that horses with straight, 
Roman noses and long, thin necks are more liable to contract the disease than others. The fact remains 
that any congestions or obstructions of the respiratory organs, nose, lungs, throat and bronchial tubes 
may produce this condition. In the more serious cases there is never much hope of complete relief or 
recovery from this abnormal condition, although relief may be afforded, and the animal remain quite 
useful in spite of its handicap. 



280 DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI. 

Symptoms. — The affection is characterized by two different kinds of sounds, and according to 
the tone and quality of which it is defined as either whistling or roaring, the patient taking the name of 
a whistler or roarer. When the pitch is high and sibilant we call it whistling, when lower and 
more sonorous, it is roaring. Take your horse, afflicted with the disorder, out for a brisk ride, gallop 
him up a hill, then bring him to a sudden stop, bend down and listen to his breathing, and you will 
be able to tell whether he suffers from the one or the other form of the affection. In heavy work the 
sounds often may be heard distinctly, making a diagnosis possible. 

Treatment. — Often a good blister, such as Davis Veterinary Blister, may be used with good results. 
Great relief may be afforded, but no complete treatment for this affliction has so far been discovered. If 
you have recourse to a first class veterinarian the operation of tracheotomy or laryngotomy may be 
resorted to, but the tubes inserted as part of this operation produce a great deal of inconvenience. They 
cause the air to enter directly into the lungs, without being heated, and as it is often filled with dust 
and other impurities, it is obvious that much mischief is done. Tubes, if put in permanently, have to be 
taken out every three or four weeks, or of ten er, to either be thoroughly cleansed or a new tube inserted. 
This, of course, takes time and considerable skill, a veterinarian being necessary at the start. 

In order to make the patient as useful an animakas possible in spite of his affliction you should 
keep his digestive and assimilative powers up to a high degree of efficiency by adding Davis Stock Food 
to every feed. 



DISEASES OF THE BRONCHI. 

This may be simply defined as an affection of the breathing organs, including 
Bronchitis. the bronchial tubes, trachea and larynx. In the horse we divide it into Acute 

Catarrhal Bronchitis of the Large Tubes, Chronic Catarrhal Bronchitis, Acute 
Capillary Bronchitis and Bronchiectasis. 

The disease which you usually call simply cold on the chest, is an inflammation 
Acute Catarrhal of the membrane which lines the larger and middle sized bronchial tubes. 
Bronchiti S. Causes. — It may be caused by an exhausted, debilitated condition of 

the general system, poor blood, nervous debility, chills, impure air, sudden 
changes in the atmosphere, or any foreign bodies lodging in the bronchial tubes and setting up irritation 
may bring it about. It also may be secondary to the other ailments peculiar to the respiratory organs. 
Symptoms. — The milder forms of the ailment, where the tubes are not affected, are often unac- 
companied by any pronounced symptoms, and it is only the more severe stages that are easily recog- 
nizable. Sore throat, chills, shivering of the body, however, mark "the approach of the malady; as the 
ailment progresses the pulse appreciably softens and weakens, its beat being feeble and rapid, there is 
high fever and the temperature may run up to 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit, with quick and labored 
breathing. The appetite often decreases, the visible membranes of the mouth, nose, rectum, etc., redden, 
the urine is highly colored, often scanty in volume, the cough is at the outset harsh and dry, hacking and 
hard, but soon loosens and followed by expectoration or a frothy, yellow mucus, which attains a sticky, 
pus like character. The expectoration brings relief to the patient and it rests easier. If not attended 
by complication, and if you take good care of the patient, the horse, as a rule, will recover. 

Treatment. — This should be both of a constitutional and local character, and you should try to 
aid the expectoration and discharge by administering inhalations of camphor, Phenalin, or ammonium 
carbonate; tartar emetic is often of great benefit, as it hastens the secretions. Sedatives or opiates 
may be used with benefit in some cases, while in others carbonate of ammonia, or muriate or chloride 
of ammonia are recommended. Let the local treatment consist in counter irritants, such as Davis 
Veterinary Liniment, applied around the chest, preferably under a dressing of oiled silk or the like, which 
may be held in place by a six-foot flannel bandage. This, over the liniment, is an excellent counter irritant, 
as the air cannot penetrate the silk, and a constant state of sweating is thus being kept up underneath. If 



DISEASES OF THE BRONC HI. 281 

the appetite is poor, you may stimulate it with Davis Stock Food, added in the proportion of 2 table- 
spoonfuls to each feed, which is excellent as a stimulator of the digestion and assimilation. If great 
exhaustion should ensue, you may give the patient a dose of whisky, alcohol or quinine. Let the tem- 
perature of the stall be about 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit, the air being pure but no drafts present. 
The patient should be blanketed and otherwise kept snug and comfortable. Before you apply the liniment 
and bandages it is well to give the parts a good rubbing with the hand. A moderate quantity of 
potassium chlorate in the drinking water has a cooling, quieting effect, relieving the fever and nervousness. 
The alcohol, whisky, etc., recommended in cases of great exhaustion and debility, may be administered 
effectively in the drinking water. If you are not somewhat familiar with the various drugs recom- 
mended above, and do not know how to administer them, you must call in a. veterinarian and have him 
do the treating at the outset. You should feed the patient on easily digested feeds, such as steamed 
oats, bran mashes, fresh grass, carrots, apples, etc., always including Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 
to each feed, with the regular ration. 

In this case the membrane lining the larger bronchial tubes is in a chronic state 

Chronic of inflammation, and there is a more or less pronounced constant cough. 

Bronchitis. Causes. — Old animals are most susceptible to the affection, and it is gen- 

erally found that a sequence of attacks in the acute form are responsible for 
the chronic termination. Any form of lung or throat disease may be followed by it. Again, where 
chronic disorders of the heart are present, causing the blood to be retarded in the lungs, this affection 
may result as the consequence of the irritation set up in the bronchial mucous membrane. In rare 
cases it is of specific origin, or it may be a complication of renal diseases. 

Symptoms. — Most pronounced among these is the sharp, irritating, distressing cough, which is 
attended by whitish or yellowish white expectoration of varying consistency, especially evident in the 
fall and spring, or whenever there are abrupt changes in the weather. If the patient is old and 
suffering from heart disease, its breathing may be peculiar, enhanced by much puffing and blowing when 
it is obliged to exert itself in any way, as in pulling heavy loads over bad roads or being driven rapidly 
up hill. The temperature remains uniformly normal, no appreciable rise being present. The condition 
may be much relieved, but a complete cure is difficult, especially when the horse is old and its 
condition poor. 

Treatment must be selected to suit the varying symptoms and complications. It is often found 
that a change of air and surroundings, much as in the human being suffering from exhaustion or nervous 
disorders, etc., is greatly beneficial, and if you live in the city and have the facilities, you may, with advan- 
tage, give your sick horse a vacation in the country. If the expectorations and discharges are excessive, 
have a veterinarian prescribe a suitable solution of muriate of ammonia and senega, or iodide of 
potassium with nitric acid, you guiding yourself entirely by his directions and advice. Turpentine, 
administered in moderate doses, from 15 to 30 minims in alcohol, may be given with good results. 
Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, used in accordance with directions, is excellent in cases of this nature, and 
should always be kept on hand. Zinc is recommended by veterinarians for the stoppage of excessive 
discharge or secretions from the organs involved. It is said to diminish the cough and loosen or ease 
the expectoration, entering into a chemical combination with pus like fluids. Gargles of Phenalin solu- 
tions may also be administered with good results. As a counter irritant, Davis Veterinary Liniment 
applied to the chest, is often of much assistance. And do not forget that here, as elsewhere, it is of 
the greatest importance always to keep the circulation easy and unimpaired, and the digestive and 
assimilative functions up to a high degree of efficiency, by a carefully selected, nourishing diet, including 
Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. Plenty of green forage, succulent grasses and fresh 
vegetables, should be included in the daily ration. 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 

With pulmonary congestion is understood a congested condition of the lungs, the capillaries of 
the air cells being enlarged and in an abnormal state, interrupting the normal functions of the organs. 
We divide the disease into two forms, which are called the active and the passive. 

This condition may arise when the animal has been overworked, the heart's 
Active Congestion action increased, sudden inhalation of an ice cold or burning hot draft, irritating 
of the Lungs, gases, smoke or dust. The affection is frequently met with in the late autumn, 

after you have kept the horse stabled for a while, feeding him well, and with 
little or nothing to do; then, when you some day take him out on the road and drive him along at a rapid 
gait, he may contract an attack of congestion of the lungs; the same thing being the case in a rain storm, 
or during the first snow storm of fall, if you take the confined horse out of the comfortable stable and 
drive him rapidly through the inclement weather. The same form of congestion is also met with in 
heavy draft horses, especially such as are just being broken in, during the hot spells of summer, when 
the animals are forced or overworked. In short, overloading or overworking a well fed, heavy horse, 
not accustomed to the strain, and under severe spells of hot, cold, or otherwise inclement weather, may 
cause congestion of the lungs. 

Symptoms. — It should be recalled that congestion simply is the first stage of all inflammations 
of the breathing organs, and may be succeeded by such diseases as bronchitis, pleurisy, pneumonia, etc. 
In the beginning you may notice chills and shivers, then the temperature may run up as high as 103 or 
104 degrees Fahrenheit. The breathing becomes labored, inhalations and exhalations seem difficult, 
and the cough at this period sets in. The pores of the skin clog up, pulse is weak and feverish, body, 
especially such parts as the ears and extremities, cold and clammy to the touch. As was stated above, 
the disease comes on abruptly under favorable conditions. 

Certain disorders in the circulation, causing congestion or obstruction in the blood 
Passive Congestion vessels, the free coursing of the blood through its veins being interrupted in 
of the Lungs, such a way that it is dammed up in the vessels of the lungs, are responsible 

for this affection. The return of the blood to the heart is retarded or altogether 
stopped, and the congestion results. Old or debilitated horses are more likely to contract this disease 
than young and vigorous ones, and in some cases it may be brought about by pressure of tumors, without 
any regard to age or condition. When the heart, due to old age or debility, becomes weakened and 
excitable the animal is prone to fall a victim to the disease; and it has been known to occur in a horse 
that had been lying on its side for a considerable period of time and in the same position. 

Symptoms. — The disease is indicated by labored, difficult breathing, cough, fever, the temperature 
running up to 101 or 102 degrees Fahrenheit. The pulse is intermittent and weak, and in the 
majority of cases it will be found that the patient is an old animal in poor condition. In spite of this, 
most cases are likely to recover if good care and a nourishing, stimulating diet are administered as promptly 
as possible. In cases of this nature a stimulant, digestive and tonic, such as Davis Stock Food, is 
indispensable . 

Treatment. — Sedatives and stimulants, such as whisky, alcohol, quinine, belladonna, carbonate 
of ammonia, etc., given in moderate doses, varying to suit the needs of the constitution of the patient 
and extent of the disease, should be administered. If Davis Stock Food is used regularly these remedies 
may, however, often be dispensed with. A good counter irritant, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, 
or if you should not have this at hand, simple mustard, may be applied with good results, especially where 
the pulse is low and the patient suffers from chills and cold extremities. Let the ration be plain and 
nourishing, with 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food added to each feed. 

— 282 — 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 283 



is the technical name given to indicate the presence of an accumulation of serous 
Pulmonary Oedema fluids in the air cells and. small bronchials. It is characterized especially by 

shortness of breath, and may terminate in congestion, complicating the heart, 
brain or lungs, death being preceded by a rattle in the obstructed passages. 

Symptoms. — The disease is a complication of some other existing affection, which may be confined 
to the heart or the lungs, or may be of a constitutional nature. There is a sharp, dry and painful cough, 
and often a discharge from the nose of a frothy, sticky, offensive nature. Signs of pneumonia, and a 
general feverish condition of the system often accompanies the inflammatory form of the malady. It is 
a difficult disease to cure, and frequently terminates in death. 

Treatment. — To relieve the fever and inflammation use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, and as a 
local counter irritant you may apply Davis Veterinary Liniment. Iodide of potassium or carbonate 
of potassium are among the remedies which are likely to be prescribed by the veterinarian. You 
should call one as soon as you find that the patient is seriously affected, and let. him do the first 
prescribing, in order not to make any mistakes. Let the diet be plain and wholesome, with Davis Stock 
Food added to each meal in the usual way. 

which is also called Broncho-Pulmonary Hemorrhage, or pulmonary apo- 
Pulmonary plexy, is a condition where blood enters the tubes and air cells, and is expelled 
Hemorrhage, therefrom in- the form of a discharge or expectoration from the nose or mouth. 

Causes. — It may be caused by any kind of heavy strain, overwork, overheating, 
or it may be secondary to affections of the heart, where the valves are involved. Ulcerations existing 
in the breathing organs, due to diseases like purpura hemorrhagia, gangrene, or simple abrasions and 
mechanical injuries, may be to blame. At times it seems to come on without any apparent cause whatever. 
Symptoms. — In the milder cases it is hard to define the symptoms, but if the attack is more violent 
and the parts involved extensive, puffing and blowing, with more or less labored breathing is often evident. 
Coughing, nervousness and restlessness, the patient being in a state of perspiration, with signs of the 
oncoming hemorrhage, may be present. In the more serious cases the extremities chill, the membranes 
turn pale, and the pulse is thready and feverish. Bleeding comes on of a sudden, as for instance, after 
a hard drive, when the hot, perspiring animal is brought to a standstill; there is a sudden cough, and 
the blood runs from the nose and mouth without any other kind of warning. At times the amount 
maynot be large enough to cause any considerable trouble, and again it may be so great as to produce 
death by suffocation. Blood emanating from the lungs and air passages in this way is, as a rule, of an 
alkaline character, intermingled with mucus, and of a dark, frothy appearance. Often it is clotted, the 
clots being large enough to clog up the smaller tubes, the clots being of a soft, gluish consistency, inter- 
sected with air bubbles. Except in severe attacks, there is no immediate danger, and you should not 
allow yourself to become unduly alarmed, but calmly set to work relieving the animal. 

Treatment. — First see that the patient is made comfortable, allowing the horse perfect rest for 
a while, feeding it lightly, and adding Davis Stock Food to each feed (2 tablespoonfuls). If you are in 
position to administer a moderate dose of opium (one ounce), its quieting effect will be beneficial, it 
diminishing the action of the heart. Aconite may be of assistance, if the patient shows uneasiness and 
excitement, as the tendency of this drug is to lower the pressure of the blood. The same holds good of 
purging, which may be resorted to with good results. Local treatment should be resorted to, as the 
main danger in this affection lies in the clogging up of the lungs with blood clots or the thick, frothy, 
bloody discharge which often is present. You should, therefore, not try to stop the cough, but rather 
encourage it. Gently apply cold applications to the chest and throat, and in the same way you may, 
with good results, apply Davis Veterinary Liniment to the throat. Inhalations of Phenalin vapors, or 
vapors of vinegar, not too strong and irritating, are also recommended. Keep the digestion and general 
circulation of the blood in order by using Davis Stock Food as indicated above. 

commonly known as lung fever, consists of an inflammation of the lung struc- 
Pneumonia, tures (the so called vesicular structures), causing congestion and discharge. 

We usually divide the disease into three forms, the lobar, in which the lobes 
of the lungs are attacked, the lobular, in which the lobules of the lungs are affected, and the 
interstitial, where the disease is lodged in the connective tissues. 



284 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 



Cause of Acute Lobular Pneumonia. — Expert investigators seem to agree that this form of the 
disease is caused by certain germs of a malignant nature, and it is of interest to note that it most readily 
attacks the younger and stronger members among the horses — vigorous, well nourished, and carefully 
looked after animals, that seem to be in the best of health. It may be brought about by exposure to 
inclement weather, drizzling rains, snow storms, sudden changes in temperature, the inhalation of 
irritating gases, smoke, dust, external burns, extending over a large space, medicine poured into 
the trachea, or foreign bodies lodged in the bronchial tubes, traumatisms (horses run into with a pole 
or other blunt point, striking it heavily between the ribs), etc. In some instances it is impossible to find 
any cause to account for its appearance. As is well known, in the human family one attack 
predisposes the patient to another, but this rule does not seem to hold good among animals. For the 
more easy study of the phenomena connected with pneumonia, we divide the disease into three stages, 
called the stage of congestion, the stage of red hepatization, and the stage of gray hepatization. 

In the first or congestive stage the lower frontal parts of the lungs are affected, and the 
affection spreads upward and backward through the organs. The affected organ is deep red in color, 
firm and solid to the touch (abnormally so), and if, after death, you should dissect it the surface will 
exude a quantity of albuminous, thin and bloody liquid. In the second stage the affected organs have 
an appearance similar to the substance of the liver. In opening the chest you find the lungs greatly 
swelled, abnormally large, and without elasticity, the surface of them often being marked by the impress 
of the ribs. The organs are firm and solid to the touch, devoid of air, and if you put them in a vessel 
of water they will sink at once. (When the lungs are in a healthy condition they will float.) The pas- 
sages or air cells are filled with matter, a fibrous, viscid liquid, full of quickly coagulating white and 
red cells, which completely fill the tubes. You will find the surface of the organs dry, liver colored, and 
granular, the tissue tearing easily. This form of pneumonia is, as a rule, . confined to certain parts 
of the lungs, not spreading over their whole surface, as a rule affecting one-half or one-third of one of 
the organs. It may, however, spread to both lungs, and is then known as double or bilateral pneumonia. 
When /only part of one lung is involved we call the disease unilateral. The great majority of cases coming 
under this heading are unilateral. The disease gradually, and without any very abrupt demarcation, 
enters from the second into the third stage. The reddish brown liver color now turns into a grayish white, 
there is more moisture to the surface of the organs, and the passages are less clogged with matter. The lungs 
sometimes take on the hue and appearance of marble, the red blood cells having largely disappeared, and 
should you repeat the experiment of putting them into a vessel of water they would sink quickly. • 

Again, in defining the course pursued by this dangerous affection, the professional man makes use of 
three terms, which are (1) resolution, (2) production, and (3) destruction. Resolution is where the matter 
existing in the tubes liquifies sufficiently to be reabsorbed by the lung tissue, with the result that very 
little is coughed up or expectorated. It may interest you to know that in the human family the 
death rate in pneumonia is alarmingly high, estimated at only one recovery out of three or four 
cases. Again, in man the prospects for recovery are best between the ages of fifteen and thirty years. 
But in the horse the rule is that eight out of ten afflicted animals survive and regain their normal health. 

In chronic interstitial pneumonia there is a marked increase in the interstitial (interspace) 
tissue. In the horse the affection rarely terminates in this way. By destruction is meant the state 
in which gangrene or suppuration sets in in the organs. If it is suppuration, or the forming of an abscess 
in the tissue, the- symptoms of the previous stages will quickly become more marked and grave; the 
fever remains stationary or increases in intensity, and there is great weakness and debility, with loss of appe- 
tite, emaciation, exhaustion and death. If gangrene sets in there is a complete stopping of the circula- 
tion throughout the organs, putrefying germs enter the parts affected, the breath of the animal becomes 
fetid and offensive, respirations are labored and quick. Putting the ear to the chest the so called moist 
rales, or death rattle, may be heard. In some cases death may be precipitated by heart failure. The 
respective duration of these three stages of pneumonia are: Congestion, one to three days; red hepati- 
zation, three to seven or eight days; and resolution, from'seven or eight days to three weeks. 

Symptoms. — There may be chills and shivers at the outset, followed by trembling of the muscles, 
closing up of the pores in the skin, cold and clammy extremities, and the general symptoms present in 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 285 



a severe cold. This again is followed by feverishness\of a more or less pronounced character, the skin 
is hot and burning to the touch, the temperature runs up to 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit. This 
rise in the temperature may sink considerably after the accumulated matter in the lung cells has found 
an outlet. The beat of the pulse is accelerated, reaching 50 to 60, full and bounding at the start, later, 
as a rule, weaker and more irregular. The breathing at the start is quick and labored, the nostrils 
visibly dilating and trembling with the inhalations and exhalations. Congestion of the mucous mem- 
brane sets in, the patient remains in a standing position until the crisis of the disease is reached, when, 
succumbing to exhaustion and weakness, it may lie down, turning over on the diseased side of the body. 
The longer it remains standing the more favorable, as a rule, are the prospects for recovery. Appetite 
as the affection progresses is lost, there is an enhanced feverishness and attendant thirst, and the secre- 
tive glands perform their work poorly or not at all. There is more or less costiveness, the urine attains 
an abnormal, highly colored appearance, and is scanty in volume. The patient continues to cough — 
a harsh, shallow and painful sort of cough — first dry, and in the latter stages moist. There also may be 
more or less nervousness, the animal being dull and listless, drooping and fidgety, sometimes amounting 
to delirium. On the eighth day the crisis in the majority of cases sets in. After this either death, 
a relapse into a still more serious condition, or recovery may take place. 

Diagnosis. — The stockman can make a pretty correct diagnosis ; first by taking the temperature, 
ranging around 104 to 106 degrees Fahrenheit; next by the expectoration and discharge, appearing 
often in the color o£ prune juice. In putting your ear to the chest or nostrils and listening 
to the inspiration you will hear a peculiar crackling sound, much like the one produced when 
you throw salt on a fire, this being what the physician calls crepitant rale. In striking or tapping the 
chest with your finger the sound over the diseased parts of the lungs will be dull and differentiating dis- 
tinctly from that produced over the sound tissue. You remember the distinction we made between 
bilateral and unilateral penumonia — bilateral being when both lungs are, affected, and unilateral where 
only one lung, or part of one lung, is affected. Bearing this in mind, remember that acute bronchitis 
and acute lobar pneumonia differ in that the first is a bilateral and the latter a unilateral disease. You 
may also distinguish between the two by remembering that in bronchitis the expectoration is light, 
almost white, while in pneumonia it takes on the brownish or prune juice color. In the early stages of 
bronchitis the sound in the chest is low and whistling, or sibilant, extending to both sides (the so called 
sibilant or sonorous rales), while in pneumonia the crepitant rale sound, before described, is heard on 
one side of the chest only, denoting the location of the disease. In the same way, in the second stage 
of the respective diseases, bronchitis, when you strike or tap the chest with your finger will answer with 
a sonorous, resonant sound on both sides, while if the disease is pneumonia there will be a dull sound 
over the affected part only (one side usually). In the third stage the sound in the chest, in the case of 
bronchitis, will be dry and harsh, while if the patient suffers from pneumonia you have the peculiar respir- 
atory murmur which we have heretofore described under the name of moist rales. As stated, if you 
take good care of the patient, pneumonia is not an exceptionally dangerous disease in the horse, and 
an average of eight out of every ten cases recover. Remember, however, that the recovery to a large 
extent depends on the general condition of the system of the animal affected. If the appetite is good 
and the patient continues to eat fairly well throughout the disease, it as a rule recovers, but if it will not 
eat, this often means that death will be the result of the attack. If the circulation is impaired the dan- 
ger of the heart clot forming and dilation of the heart are also serious. Under these circumstances we 
cannot too emphatically recommend you to keep the animals in good condition, with digestion and 
circulation vigorous and unimpaired, by the constant use of Davis Stock Food, 1 tablespoonful to each 
feed in health, and 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed in disease. It will be the means of saving you many 
valuable animals. 

Treatment of Acute Lobar Pneumonia. — In dealing with this malady you should, if you are not 
sufficiently acquainted with its symptoms and manifestations, and are not confident that you can handle 
it in all serious cases, call in a veterinarian and let him direct you at the beginning. It is, however, what 
is called a self limited disease, meaning that it will run its own course, and that no kind of medication 
is of very much avail. All you can do in such cases is to try to assist nature in running its course, 
remembering that in numerous instances animals suffering from this affection have been known to get 



286 DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 



well without any treatment whatever .while it is undoubtedly a fact that numerous others have succumbed 
to too much treatment, or rather to improper treatment. We have no specific treatment for pneu- 
monia, and all we can do is to watch the symptoms and treat them as they arise. The heart should be 
carefully watched, and, when palpitating and feverish, quieting drugs should be administered. Thus, 
if the patient is a young, full blooded animal, you will often be obliged to administer sedatives — as, for 
instance, tartar emetic, aconite, or veratrum — this having the looked for, soothing, quieting effect, dimin- 
ishing the number of heart beats. Tonics and stimulants, as Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each 
teed, should be used throughout the treatment, to induce the animal to keep on eating, while pure stim- 
ulants, as whisky, alcohol, or ammonium carbonate, may be of benefit in the second stage; remembering, 
however, that this kind of stimulation, contrary to Davis Stock Food, is always followed by a reaction, 
not giving permanent strength, but only buoying up the system for a brief period at the expense of the 
vital force of the animal. It should therefore only be resorted to in cases of urgent need, as a momentary 
bracer and enlivener when the patient is very weak. Davis Stock Food, on the other hand, is not a stim- 
ulant in the proper sense of the word; it tones, invigorates and strengthens, by its well known action 
upon the digestive and assimilative functions, and thus leaves only permanently salutory and beneficial 
effects. Should the temperature of the patient run up to 104 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit, you should 
try to reduce it a few degrees, by using Bradbury's Brazilian Specific in accordance with the 
directions given with it. In order to prevent heart clots from forming, this generally resulting fatally, 
you should take great care to keep up and stimulate the heart's action and the general circulation, and here 
alcohol may be of use in an emergency, when you discover that of a sudden the heart action has 'become 
sluggish and impaired, indicating that clots are in formation. Give a good Hose of pure alcohol every 
three or four hours after you discover the danger, and keep it up day and night until the heart once more 
beats strongly and regularly, indicating that the crisis is past. You may give the horse the alcohol in its 
drinking water, 2 ounces or so to each pail of water or part of one. If you have no attendant to watch 
over the sick animal at night you may place a pail full of water, containing the alcohol, in the manger, 
so that the stimulation may be kept up during the night. Let the diet of the patient be light and nourish- 
ing, with Davis Stock Food religiously added to each feed; keep up with the use of Bradbury's Brazilian 
Specific until all symptoms of fever abate. Remember also that the weakness and fever, with ensuing 
restiveness and exhaustion, increase in the evening, culminating in intensity after midnight, for the 
reason of which, if heart failure and death are to be guarded against and avoided, it is of the greatest 
importance that stimulation be kept up during these dangerous hours. Remember that the vitality in 
the sick animal is strongest between the hours of 8 a.m. and 12 m., and weakest between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m. 
Among the best heart tonics, if rightly administered, are strychnine and nux vomica. Coax the patient 
to drink four, five or six times a day, drinking a small quantity of water each time, and you may with 
beneficial effect add potassium nitrate to the water. Tartar emetic, 5 to 10 grains, is sometimes of 
great assistance. Always keep in mind the importance of a correct diet during the disease. It is by the 
appetite or lack of appetite present that we are able to formulate a fair idea of the affection, its scope 
and gravity, whether it means recovery or death. Look after the feeding of the patient yourself, if 
possible. Examine the manger, see that it is kept clean and sweet, free from foreign substances and 
all ferment or impurity; wash it yourself, or have it washed out while you look at it. Then take a 
clean pail and make a mash of steamed oats, bran, etc. (succulent feeds are good), add 2 tablespoon- 
fuls of Davis Stock Food, and watch the animal to see how it eats it. You should feed only small 
quantities at a time — divide the ration into four or five feeds a day. You may make up the feed of 
layers of bran and more sparingly of oats, 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food into each before combi- 
ning them in this way. Steamed oats with Davis Stock Food alone may be given, if you cannot induce 
the horse to eat anything else. Carrots, grass, apples and the like are good for the sick animal. Coax it 
to eat; do not let it shirk its feed, for upon its strength and vitality being kept up in this way depends 
the outcome of the affection — recovery or death. 

This may in popular language be defined as an inflammation of the bronchial 

Lobular tubes and air cells, forming what is known as a pulmonary lobule. 

Pneumonia. Causes. — As a rule this is a secondary disease, being complicated with or 

following glanders, purpura hemorrhagica, pyemia, etc. It is caused as a rule 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 287 



by clots forming in the capillaries of the lung artery, blocking them up and interfering with or stopping 
the circulation altogether. 

Symptoms. — In the majority of cases you will find the symptoms similar to those peculiar to acute 
bronchitis, but extending so as to involve the air cells of the lungs. The temperature rises rapidly, 
breathing is hurried and labored, and soon a short, suppressed, painful cough sets in. It is a slow 
running affection, and may result in either a chronically congested state of the lungs or in death. 

Treatment. — Let the diet be light and nourishing, akin to that recommended for acute lobar 
pneumonia, and always give Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, with the ration. In 
case of weak heart action, or other forms of great exhaustion and debility, you may, as in the other form 
of the disease, administer alcohol in the drinking water. When fever ensues use Bradbury's Brazilian 
Specific. Keep the patient quiet and comfortable, and coax it to eat. 

This is a chronic inflammation of the lung tissue, or, more properly speaking, 

Chronic the soft web or tissue surrounding the air cells. This web is enlarged by the 

Interstitial disease, compressing the tissue proper, and thus interfering with the circulation 

Pneumonia. and healthy functioning of the organs. We also call the disease chronic 

pneumonia or cirrhosis of the lungs. 

Causes. — It is a secondary disease, following pneumonia or pleurisy, or certain forms of bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary somewhat, depending upon the nature of the primary disease. 
If it was pneumonia, dullness or percussion will remain in the organs after the other symptoms have^ 
disappeared. The murmur produced by the act of breathing is different from that in a healthy animal, 
often being almost inaudible ; or, if it is secondary to bronchial affections, the sound produced by the 
respiratory function may be cavernous or amphoric in character. The side of the body which is affected 
sinks in and is dull and dead to the touch. If the animal is in any way exerted, breathing becomes 
labored, and there may be coughing and other signs of distress. 

Treatment. — You must try to build up the general strength and vigor of the patient by system- 
atic feeding and care. Let the diet be wholesome, nourishing and rather liberal, always adding 2 table- 
spoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed ; and at the same time do not overwork the animal in any way. 
Give him moderate exercise, fresh air and rest, and you will be able to build him up gradually for future 
usefulness. When Davis Stock Food is used no other treatment is required. 

or broken wind, a disease which is technically known as pulmonary emphysema, 
Heaves, is a chronic disease of the lungs, either a dilation or rupture of the substance 

known as the vesicular structure being present. You may distinguish it by the 
dry, abortive cough, and the peculiar double act of expiration, giving to it the name of broken wind. 
We divide the affection into two forms, the vesicular and the interlobular; the vesicular indicating a 
dilation of certain parts of the lung webs or structure, while the other points out a rupture in the walls 
of the air cells, which permits the air to escape into the connective web or tissue that bridges and knits 
the cells to each other. Thus the inhaled air leaves its usual confinement in the tubes and cells, and invades 
the surrounding tissues and spaces. 

Causes. — Overwork or exertion of any kind, especially if the animal is run down in condition or 
debilitated from disease, may produce it. Or in some cases there may have been an inherited predis- 
position to the ailment, the walls and cells of the lungs being originally weak. If you drive a horse for 
some distance at the top of his speed, and he, being a willing animal, overdoes himself in his effort to 
accommodate you, then the air in the lungs is apt to dilate the cells to the bursting point, and rupture 
occurs. In heavy muscular work, such as drawing a heavy load, the inhaling of air is deep and strong, the 
air becomes heated, and the walls of the air cells are stretched and dilated beyond their capacity. 
This kind of rupture in the lungs may also be produced by coughing; but the cough must be hard and 
prolonged to cause so serious an injury to the lungs. Again, certain changes taking place in the system, 
or perhaps the irritation produced by the feeding of dusty, dirty hay, and the like, are apt to cause it. 
Or you will frequently find it following such diseases as pleurisy, pneumonia, bronchitis, etc. 

Symptoms. — The rupture in the lungs is sudden, although the affection may have reached this 
crisis in progressive stages.. It is not difficult to detect the nature of the disorder once it has culminated 
in a rupture. There is a marked and distinct change, in the act of expiration or exhalation. In health 



DISEASES OF THE PLEURA. 



the act of breathing covers first the inhaling of the air, next the exhaling, and then there is a short pause. 
If the disease of which we are treating, however, is present, you will find that in the midst of the expira- 
tory or exhaling act there is an abrupt pause, and then a secondary expiration of air. You will also find 
a well marked groove, produced by the muscles which run along the abdominal organs, denoting 
the condition. The double movement in the act of exhaling is not, however, due primarily and 
entirely to the presence of heaves, but is a symptom common in all cases of rupture of any part of the 
diaphragm, hernia of the bowls or pleurisy, and is especially pronounced as the time of death draws 
near. In the act of inspiration or inhalation of air the ribs elevate and seem to turn on their axis, and it 
is as though their posterior border turns upward and outward ; then, at the end of the following expiration, 
there may be something akin to a jump or jolt in the region of the belly, as though the intestines were 
jerked back into the cavity. So severe may this be that if any movement of the bowels of the patient 
is produced, or if the animal is hitched to a rig or any other kind of light vehicle, it will visibly mov& 
The nostrils may open wide and keep in a dilated condition, the anus in some cases may go back and 
forth with the disordered process of breathing. Or there may be marked flatulency or breaking of wind. 
The cough accompanying the disorder may in some instances be harsh, dry and abortive; usually it may 
be called a suppressed, dry, painful, abortive sort of a cough. 

Treatment. — No kind of treatment or appliance has as yet been found of much avail in this dis- 
order, and all the more serious cases are incurable. However, in milder attacks, proper care and special 
feeding, adding 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed, and allowing a nourishing, wholesome, 
strengthening ration, the patient may be restored to some measure of health and usefulness. First 
you should give a good dose of physic, a purging ball of aloes. This will relieve the costiveness of the 
bowels, the flatulence, catarrh of the intestines, indigestion, etc., that attend this disease, and by the use 
of Davis Stock Food you may make the relief gained lasting. Do not feed dusty hay, and if you feed 
hav at all dampen it with water to which is added a weak solution of salt. You may also with advan- 
tage wet the oat feed. The medicinal agent recommended for the affection is arsenic, but you had better 
call in a veterinarian and let him show you how to administer it. Or, if the case is a mild one, you may 
simply give 1 ounce of Fowler's solution thrice daily. This is an arsenical remedy, and will bring relief 
in milder cases. Above all, you should make it a point to use Davis Stock Food regularly, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls to each feed. This, with a careful diet, adapted to the need of each special case, will often prove 
all the treatment needed to pull the patient through. 



DISEASES OF THE PLEURA. 

The pleura is the serous membrane that invests the lungs, and pleurisy denotes 
Pleurisy. an inflammation of this membrane. We divide the disease into a number of 

forms, as follows: Acute, subacute, suppurative, and interstitial. Among these 
we find that the dog is the greatest sufferer yfrom acute or plastic pleurisy, while the disease in the horse 
mostly appears in the subacute form, being an inflammatory process with a large quantity of serum. 
By suppurative pleurisy we mean the variation of the affection in which pus cells form in the organs; 
and interstitial or adhesive pleurisy, known also as chronic pleurisy, indicates a diseased condition of 
the parts in the course of which new connective tissue formation goes on in the lungs. 

Causes. — Traumatic injuries, as, for instance, wound penetrating the muscles in. the intercostal 
spaces, are often responsible; while in many cases it may be a secondary affection, complicated with 
or following other diseases of the respiratory organs, as, for instance, pneumonia, when we call it pleuro- 
pneumonia; or it may be due to diseases of the blood, as, for instance, glanders, or by foreign substances 
gaining entrance to the pleural sac, as pus, blood or air. As a rule it is a secondary disease. It is frequently 
seen in young, green horses, put up in the dealer's stable, and it is one of the most widespread and 
dangerous diseases affecting the equine family. It is said that horse dealers sustain greater losses from 
this malady than from any other affection of the horse. It is claimed by latter day investigators that a 
germ or micro-organism is responsible for its existence. 



DISEASES OF THE PLEURA. 289 



Symptoms. — It is not very easy to definitely diagnose the affection, and it is a fact that while we 
are treating for other diseases of the lungs and breathing organs this affection may be coming on without 
our being aware of it at all. Pneumonia is one of the diseases with which it most generally is associated, 
or which it most often follows. It is preceded by a chill and slight fever, and the patient looks listless, 
dull and exhausted, the muscles tremble visibly, the hair is rough and staring, the skin is cold and clammy, 
and the fever increases. Next the hair may fall down in a lifeless way, the body warms up, the pulse, 
which at the beginning of the disease was hard and rapid, gradually becomes softer and weaker. At the 
outset the temperature may have run up to 104, 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit, but with the following 
effusion, characteristic of the affection, the temperature falls, and often goes down to a very low point; 
today you may find it at 101, tomorrow at 102 degrees Fahrenheit, and then there is a sudden fall. The 
patient breathes in a labored, hurried way; he moves as though made of one piece, in a stiff, cumbersome, 
peculiar manner. Now and again he gives voice to a subdued grunt, denoting pain attending his efforts 
to keep moving about. This is exceptionally enhanced if you turn him around sharply. There is a low, 
suppressed, painful cough, and appetite and spirits are lost. As the effusion from the membranes 
increases, the breathing becomes more and more labored and the patient may succumb to general 
debility and nervous and physical exhaustion. 

Diagnosis. — If you have studied the subject enough to be able to distinguish between the char- 
acteristic states of the pulse in disease, you will be able to diagnose pleurisy by the wiry nature of the 
pulse. You will also observe the breathing from the abdomen or stomach, and the presence of the double 
act of inhalation previously described. The oscillating, rising and falling temperature is another 
evidence of the disease from which you may draw your deductions; and, still, it may take a 
professional man to distinguish between pleurisy proper and pneumonia. The disease is a serious one 
and many, of the animals affected by it die from debility and exhaustion. If the appetite continues 
good, and the fever keeps within reasonable bounds, with a good condition and strong heart to resist 
the inroads of the affection, there are, however, good hopes for the patient. 

Treatment. — The pain is considerable in the primary stage of the affection, and your aim should 
be to combat and overcome this, while later, in the second stage, checking of the effusion should be 
attempted. Quieting, soothing anodynes and sedatives are recommended, such as morphine and aconite 
combined, but it should be administered by a skilled veterinarian if the case is at all serious — and you 
will do well under these circumstances to call one without delay. If the patient is weak and exhausted, 
stimulants, as alcohol, whisky or quinine, should be administered, and you may give them in the drinking 
water, about 2 ounces of alcoholjto a pail of water. Always allow the patient 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of 
Davis Stock Food to each meal, to counteract the tendency to weakness and exhaustion and keep the digest- 
ive and assimilative functions in order. This is all important if the animal is to be saved. -Do not allow 
him to lose his strength if it can be helped. To check the effusion, stimulate the kidneys to action, admin- 
istering half or ounce doses of nitrate of potassium. Iodide of potassium is also good for this condition. 
Bradbury's Brazilian Specific will in the majority of cases prove itself an excellent remedy for this con- 
dition, and you will do well to give it a trial. Remember that iodide of potassium causes the patient 
to lose its appetite, and for this reason its use, if at all, should not be kept up long. Among the remedies 
prescribed by the veterinarian will probably be included arsenic and nux vomica, both of great assistance 
under special conditions and symptoms. To keep up a healthy appetite and digestion Davis Stock Food, 
as always, will be found the remedy par excellence, and, as we said above, if you are in need of an imme- 
diate stimulant to combat and overcome sudden spells of weakness and exhaustion, pure whisky or alco- 
hol are the simplest and best. Administer in the drinking water, as directed. Treating locally, mustard, 
acting as a counter irritant, may be used with good results. The oil silk jacket which we recommended 
and described in a previous chapter also may be of assistance. In order to make it effective, the hair 
should be cut short over the spot on which you apply the blister. If some suppuration should ensue 
after the application of mustard, the skin falling off in spots, and leaving prominent scars at times, do 
not let this deter you in availing yourself of the relief the blister will give, remembering that this is 
preferable to losing a valuable animal. Careful attention should be given to the diet, and the appetite 
should by all means be kept up. Keep the patient quiet and comfortable, and give him plenty of succu- 
lent feed, grass, gruel, apples, carrots, and so on, if you cannot induce him to eat steamed oats or bran. 



Sig. 1S> 



290 THE DIGESTIVE OROANS. 



Siipplement the feed with Davis Stork Food, as usual, 2 tablesppmfuls to each feed (the regular and 
universal dose of Davis Stock Food is 1 tablespoonful to each feed, in health, and 2 tablespoonfuls to 
each feed, in disease, for the grown horse; the foal and growing colt about one-half the quantity). It 
stimulates the action of the salivary glands, aids the digestion, increases the assimilation, and is 
indispensable in this disease if a speedy recovery is to be secured. 

is a special form of the disease just treated, and indicates a condition in which 

Purulent . the pleural cavity becomes filled with pus like matter. Injuries to the chest 

Pleurisy cavity, causing pressure, abrasion or wounds which involve the pleura, may 

bring it about. The technical name for the affection is empyema. 

When we find the pleural cavity filled with water or -serum, the condition is 

Hydrothorax. known as hydrothorax. It is not a common disease in the horse, sheep and 

dogs being the principal sufferers from this disorder, and we shall therefore only 

give passing notice to it, outlining a simple treatment if it should happen to occur among your stock. 

Treatment. — Your object should be the building up of the constitution of the patient by careful 

feeding. Davis Stock Food regularly used with the ration will materially help to improve it/ As a local 

counter irritant, use Davis Veterinary Liniment, or any other good blister, and if fever accompanies the 

affection Tesort to Bradbury's Brazilian Specific. 

This denotes a condition when air invades and accumulates in the pleural cavity, 
Pneumothorax. some hurt or pressure which has produced abrasions or broken ribs, etc., being 

to blame. Rupture of the air cells or gangrene of the lungs are other causes. It 
properly comes under the heading of pulmonary emphysema, under which these conditions are treated. 

is a condition of the lung tissue brought about by the inhaling of smoke, dirt 
PneumO- or dust, this discoloring the lung substance. Animals exposed to an atmosphere 

nokoSlOSis loaded with coal, stone or metallic dust are especially liable to contract this 

affection, but it is not very dangerous, and with the removal of the cause, or 
changing of the animal to a fresher stratum of air' the condition as a rule corrects itself. In taking 
leave of this subject, let us add, that for all the last named affections or disorders, coming under 
the general heading of diseases of the lungs, change of air, hygiene, sanitation, careful diet, always includ- 
ing Davis Stock Food with the ration, good drinking water and plenty of green, succulent forage, will as 
a rule be all that is necessary in the way of treatment. And it is a fact that, if such precautions were 
always observed, in health as well as in disease, it would decrease the general tendency to disease in your 
stock 50 per cent. Keep the digestion, assimilation and circulation of your horses in good order by the 
use of Davis Stock Food, and increased health, vigor and strength of your horse with resulting greater 
resistance against the inroads of disease, will be your reward. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGAUS. 

Lampas is indicated by a swollen and in some instances inflamed condition of 
Lampas. the membrane of the palate. In the course of the affection the membrane will 

swell up 'and become so large as to protrude beyond the front teeth or incisors. 
It is generally found when an examination is made on the appearance of such symptoms that they 
are of a secondary nature and that some other disease of the lungs or throat is responsible for the 
attack. It has also been shown that in a number of cases the swelling of the gums simply indicates a 
faulty stomach, dyspepsia, or some other derangement of the digestive functions. 

Treatment. — You may have heard of or probably even yourself made use of the old treatment, 
.isting in applying a red hot iron to the diseased membrane. If you have made use of it you know 
that th' 'ion caused a slough, which in turn left a wound that often seriously interfered with the 

use of the teeth and taking of feed. It is therefore not to be recommended, and we advise you to 
avoid it. Do n n any case. All you need to do is to apply a soothing, antiseptic wash, such as 

a 2 per cent solution of Phenalin,tothe affected membrane, feeding the animal on soft, easily masticated 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 291 



feed, arid let the disease run its course. The animal while the disease lasts will chew with the other side 
of the mouth, and thus will be quite able to hold its own. Should some disorder of the stomach, indigestion 
or dyspepsia, be the primary cause, you should aim at overcoming this. Lampas, except during the period 
of dentition in the foal, should cause the horse owner but little concern, and, if he uses the Phenalin 
wash twice a day, and as soon as the worst pain attendant upon the affection seems to be past endeavors 
to wear down the swelling by feeding solid foods, as carrots or corn on the cob, no other treatment is 
"necessary. The horse is fond of eating corn on the cob, and even if his mouth is sore he cannot refrain 
from partaking of this delicacy if it is offered to him. Add Davis Stock Food to the regular day's ration in 
order to overcome all sluggishness and tendency to indigestion that may exist in the stomach and intestines. 

When the upper jaw and front teeth are long and protrude over the lower, the 
Parrot Mouth. affection is called parrot mouth. It is an abnormal condition, which prevents 

the teeth closing on each other in the ordinary way, and at times it makes it hard 
for the animal so affected to grasp and cut its feed with the teeth, this being especially so in the grazing 
season, when the horse is turned out to provide for himself. If the case is at all pronounced you will do 
well to assist him now and then, by once a day feeding him on hay or grass cut fine, or allowing him a 
feed of grain, in both instances adding Davis Stock Food, 1 tablespoonful to each feed. This will soon 
put the horse in first class condition, while before — due to the malformation of his mouth — he may 
have been rather backward and unthrifty looking for the want of proper quantity of nourishment. 

is an affection well known to all horse owners, and consists in the animal gnawing 
Cribbing away on some convenient substance, preferably wood, while stalled, this gradually 

producing a wearing away of the front portions of the upper and lower incisors, 
(front teeth). Popularly we call the affection crib biting, and the animal is referred to as a cribber. 
Causes. — It is often a mere habit, contracted by idleness, the horse being left to stand in the 
stall unoccupied for days or weeks, perhaps, trying to find something to do to pass the time away. 
However, it also may be caused by the lack of some substance in the system, or by some affection of 
the stomach, and often it will be found to diminish and cure itself with the regular addition of Davis Stock 
Food to the feed ration, this relieving whatever tendency to indigestion may exist in the organs. In the 
case of a chronic cribber you should keep him in a stall in which no manger is found, and with no 
woodwork or anything else that might afford him gnawing material within the reach of his head. It is 
well always to keep a supplyof rock salt in the stall by the horse, but, if you find that this increases 
the habit of cribbing, remove it. 

This is a peculiar affection, probably due to some derangement of the nervous 
Wind Sucking. system, and evidencing itself by the horse grabbing hold of some hard substance 

with its front teeth, grunting, arching the neck, and assuming an attitude 
as if he swallowed a quantity of air. In other cases he may pucker his lips, put his nose into the air, 
and imbibe wind without bringing the teeth into use at all. The two phenomena, cribbing and wind 
sucking, seem to be allied in many respects, and it is probable that some nervous disorder or other obscure 
affection is responsible for both. 

Treatment. — Not much is to be done. Some farmers advocate the application of a wide strap 
around the neck in such a way that the animal is prevented from arching it, but, on account of the dan- 
ger of choking or strangling to which it exposes the patient, we do not recommend it. Give the animal 
plenty of exercise, feed him well, allowing Davis Stock Food with each feed, give him plenty of fresh air 
and fresh water, and the condition may correct itself. « 

Should the malar teeth of the horse for any -reason be uneven, the sharp points 
Irregular Teeth. projecting outside the jaws, you may file down these roughened edges or cut 

them off. You should, however, not attempt to symmetrize or smooth the 
remainder of the teeth, as it is natural for them to be sharply pointed and rough, to enable the animal to 
thoroughly masticate its feed. 

This name is given to the condition at times met with in the horse when the 
Stomatitis. inflamed membrane causes the saliva to run or drip from the mouth. If you 

examine the membrane of the mouth you will find it reddened, swollen, first dry, 
afterward secreting a fluid, which, together with the saliva, may flow from the mouth. 



lW the digestive organs. 



Causes. — Irregular teeth, injuries to the palate or other parts of the mouth, irritating drugs or 
drenches administered » disease, feed lodging in a hollow tooth and decaying, etc. 

Symptoms. — The membrane of the mouth and lips presents a swollen appearance, ropy 
saliva may drop from the mouth, appetite is poor, the functions of prehension and mastication are 
interfered with. 

Treatment. — You may give a 1 per cent solution of Phenalin as a gargle, syringing it into the 
mouth; or, if you have not this remedy on hand, substitute with, chlorate of potash, which, also should 
be given as a gargle. You can also with advantage use the Phenalin solution as a wash for the mouth 
and sore places. You may also administer potassium nitrate, Y2 ounce at a dose, in the drinking 
water, this being soothing and cooling to the affected membrane and palate. The trouble in the horse 
is not a serious one, and, as a great number of blood vessels center in this region, it will correct itself 
with but little treatment. Let the diet consist of soft feed principally, adding Davis Stock Food to 
the ration. 

This is an affection of the tongue, interfering with the duties assigned by nature 

Glossitis. to this organ. The condition of the tongue is akin to that encountered in stoma- 

titis. In both instances it is a case of mild inflammation, and is not especially 
dangerous in the "horse. 

Causes. — Injuries of t"he tongue, scalding, irritation of any kind, as in the case of stomatitis, of 
which it in the majority of cases is a complication, may be responsible. The 3^oung animals, partaking 
of the succulent, dew wet, early spring grass in the morning, are especially liable to be affected, but it 
does them no great injury. The symptoms resemble those of stomatitis, witTi the exception that the 
tongue often protrudes from the mouth, and its tip is sometimes so dark as to be almost chocolate colored. 

Treatment. — A wash of Phenalin, properly diluted with water. Go about it in the same manner 
as advised in the case of stomatitis. Let the ration be wholesome and nourishing, its substance soft 
and easy to masticate while the affection remains. Add Davis Stock Food regularly to the ration. 

This is what is commonly called thrush, and consists in another form of inflam- 
Aphthae or Thrush, mation of the mouth, caused by a parasite of vegetable origin, technically 
of the Mouth, named oidium albicans. Young animals, foals, calves, lambs, pups, etc., are 

especially liable to contract it. „ 
Symptoms. — There is an inflammation of the membrane of the mouth, it being dotted with minute 
white spots, which soon develop into vesicles, which in turn rupture and liberate a slightly purulent 
liquid. It is not a dangerous disease, and not difficult to remedy. 

Treatment. — Observe strict sanitation and hygiene about the stable, and, as in the other instances 
of mouth diseases already mentioned, make the feed soft and easily masticated while the affection runs 
its course. Use the Phenalin wash in the same "way as recommended for the two foregoing affections. 
Give a small quantity of potassium nitrate in the drinking water, and 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock 
Food in each feed. 

is the disease which in the human being is called the mumps, and consists in an 

Parotitis inflammation of the parotid gland near the ear. Fever and swelling accompany 

it and constitute its symptoms. 

Causes. — It is a disease which is generally of parasitic or germ origin, but may be the result of 
local injuries, exposure to inclement weather, etc.. this aiding in its development. As stated, it is marked 
by the swelling of the gland, which becomes painful to the touch, and while the affection lasts there is 
feverisrmess and restiveness, and, at times, difficulty in swallowing. The patient may persist in turning 
its head to the side. 

Treatment. — This should be made up of soothing, absorbing ointments and liniments, such as 
Davis Veterinary Liniment. Davis Veterinary Blister, properly applied, according to the directions 
given with it, is also excellent. If suppuration should ensue you may resort to hot poultices, opening 
the abscess when the pus has formed, and removing it carefully. For internal use, relief of the fever 
and nervousness, administer cooling, soothing drinks and antiseptics. Davis Distemper Cure will be 
found of much assistance in this connection. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 293 



This may be described as an affection of the inner lining of the throat, or pharynx, 
Pharyngitis. the membrane being swelled and inflamed and swallowing often attended with 

considerable difficulty. 

Causes. — The patient of a sudden seems to have lost its appetite and refuses to partake of any 
feed, especially solids. On closer observation the patient may be seen to make attempts to swallow at 
intervals, but unable to do so/ This is attended with a feverish condition, although the temperature as a 
rule does not run very high, remaining around 101 and 102 degrees Fahrenheit. Generally the affection 
runs its course without any cough being present, unless it should be complicated with laryngitis, or feed 
or other substances should cause irritation to the throat. A symptom peculiar to the affection is that 
the feed often is seen to return through the nose on the animal's being unable to swallow it. In the same 
way, if you should place a pail of cold water before the patient, he will bend down and take a few swallows 
of it, then raise, his head, keep it in the mouth for a few moments, and regurgitate it through the nose. 
This is caused by the inability to swallow, in the worst stages of the disease returning everything — water, 
feed, mucus and pus — from the affected pharynx through the nostrils. As a rule the animal will recover, 
unless death from starvation or paralysis should ensue. 

Treatment. — Apply a light application of Davis Veterinary Blister, or, for want of this, any 
other good blister, over the regions of the parotid gland and pharynx (throat). Twice a day or so use 
the Phenalin solution as a wash, or, if you should not have this on hand, spray or swab out the throat 
with a solution of silver nitrate or peroxide of hydrogen, anodyne, etc. Do not try to give solid medi- 
cines, and never drench. Give the patient a moderate quantity, say 1 ounce, of chlorate of potassium, 
in the drinking water; this will be of assistance even though he should be able to swallow but little of 
it at a time. In coming in contact with the inflamed part of the throat it has a soothing, cooling effect 
on the tender, swelled surface that cannot be otherwise than beneficial. You should separate the patient 
from the other horses, and be careful about the pail you use in watering it, and the manger from which 
it eats, and which it often wets and soils with saliva.. Better keep it and all vessels and utensils used 
in feeding and watering it entirely apart from the other animals. If the bowels should be constipated, 
or indigestion present, you may resort to an enema or purge to relieve them. Apply Davis Distemper 
Cure to the tongue every two hours. 

may be defined as a weakening or relaxation of the throat muscles, often carry- 
Paralysis Of ing with it complete paralysis of the parts and inability to perform the function 

the Pharynx of swallowing. 

Causes. — It may be secondary to some other disease of the throat, as, 
for instance, pharyngitis, and is met with as a complication of cerebrospinal meningitis. In other cases 
it is impossible to trace the affection to any direct cause. 

Symptoms. — A complete loss of the power to swallow, and in attempting to feed the patient 
both solids and liquids will be returned through the nose or mouth. The healthy elasticity, with con- 
traction and expansion jof the parts, is lost, and the throat muscles are dead and flabby to the touch. 
It is a serious disease, and death from starvation and exhaustion as a rule takes place in the course 
of five or six days, or less. 

Treatment. — Call a veterinarian. Belladonna or strychnine, administered according to the 
veterinarian's directions, will be of assistance. Locally light applications of Davis Veterinary Blister, 
applied over the larynx, and an antiseptic astringent wash, as a Phenalin solution, applied directly to the 
pharynx, etc., will help. From time to time, in a gentle, coaxing way, try to make the patient 
eat a little, using very light, almost fluid feedstuff s, adding Davis Stock Food, -about 1 tablespoonful 
to each feed. 

This name indicates a swelling of the tissue of certain parts of the inside of 

Pharyngeal the throat (pharynx), forming pus and suppuration. It is a comparatively 

AbsceSS. rare affection, and if it does occur it will generally be associated with roaring, 

without your being aware that this condition is an outcome of the former. In 

the progress of the inflammation the abscess breaks, and you may then know that the disease is present 

from the discharge of pus from the nostrils of the patient. 



»4 DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS (GULLET). . ___^ 

Treatment. — it possible, you may puncture the swelling at the proper time, when the pus has 
formed within it, but this is not always easy, except where the abscess is prominent and bulging. If you 
discover the affection, but are unable to reach and puncture it, simply treat it with an antiseptic solution 
of Phenalin, used as a throat wash. At times ypu may be able to open it by simply boring into it with 
your forefinger, using one of the ordinary devices for keeping the animal's mouth open under the operation. 

may be described simply as an inflammation of the membrane of the pouches 
PllS Formation located in the throat (gutturals), followed by the formation of pus and suppu- 
in the Guttural ration. It resembles and is related to catarrh, and with the breaking of the 
Pouches swelling the suppurating pus will be discharged from the nose. 

Causes. — It is generally a secondary affection, resulting from some pre- 
vious disease of the throat and surrounding organs. Sometimes it clogs and closes up the so called 
eustachian tube, this making it impossible for the accumulating pus to find an outlet, causing its collection 
in the parts, with swelling and difficult breathing, roaring, and direct interference with the act of swallow- 
ing. If relief is not forthcoming the swelling may continue to increase until it bursts open; at other 
times the purulent matter collected may cause gangrene of the lungs, or it may strangle and suffocate 
the animal. In the majority of cases the pus finds an outlet through the nose. The discharge is thick, 
slightly sticky, and creamy in color, devoid of odor and not apt to form solids or crusts. The flow of 
this matter is intermittent, and may be considerably increased by the patient bending its head low, 
masticating its feed, swallowing, or other acts causing exercise of the parts. It is a serious affection, 
slew in its course, and death from gangrene of the lungs or asphyxiation may result. 

Treatment. — Call in a veterinarian and let him do the prescribing and treatment at the beginning. 
On account of the interference with breathing and swallowing he probably will resort to opening the 
sVellings. This operation you should not yourself try to perform for fear of cutting one or more of 
the numerous blood vessels abounding in this region of the system. Sometimes, in the graver cases, 
the veterinarian may have to resort to the operation called hyovertebrotomy, one of the finest and 
most delicate pieces of surgery performed on animals. It may be superficially described as consisting 
in making an incision above and one below — passing a seton through from one to the other. This, 
of course, can only be done by an expert. You should give the patient his grain feed in a pail or crib 
and his hay before him on the floor, making it necessary for him to lower his head in eating, which will 
cause the pus to be liberated and flow out in greater quantity. If possible turn him out in the pasture 
to graze; exercise him moderately, and keep pails, cribs, manger and all utensils employed in his 
care scrupulously clean and sweet, washing them every day with hot water and Phenalin. 



DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS (GULLET.) 

Any foreign substance of a hard and solid nature which becomes lodged or 
Lodging of Foreign imbedded in the canal of the gullet may cause choking and strangulation. 
Substances in the Potatoes, apples, cafrots, turnips, or other solid feeds, not thoroughly masti- 
Gullet — Choking, cated, or which have not been properly moistened by the saliva of the mouth, 

are likely to become thus arrested on their way to the stomach. For conven- 
ience we divide the gullet into three parts, the pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic (throat, neck, and 
chest), respectively, and the obstruction may locate in any of these positions. In the horse we find 
that it generally locates in the cervical portion of the organ. 

Symptoms. — If the substance is located in the pharyngeal portion of the gullet, you will find it 
associated with an involuntary contraction of the neck muscles. The animal is distressed and uneasy, 
it salivates, and the saliva is often found to be a thick, ropy, gluish matter, indicating irritation of the 
mucous glands of the surrounding parts. The swelling often is pronounced, and in thrusting your 
fingers down into the throat you may encounter the foreign substance lodged there. In cases where the 
obstructing substance has become lodged in the cervical portion of the gullet the symptoms are more 
ure, although at times there is a distinct swelling on the neck along the esophagus. You may 



DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS (GULLET). 295 



ascertain the presence of the foreign substance in the canal by pouring water into the throat, this running 
down as far as the obstruction, and then returning to be expelled through the nose and mouth. Lastly, 
when the substance is lodged in the thoracic portion of the canal, the only symptom to denote its exist- 
ence is that the animal of a sudden seems to lose his appetite, and when he attempts to eat or drink 
he is unable to swallow the feed and water, and it is subsequently regurgitated and expelled through 
the nose and mouth. 

Treatment. — You should try to extract or move down the obstructing substance lodged in the throat 
or chest by external or internal manipulation, as may seem most advisable. Should the substance have 
become lodged farther down you should lubricate both the passage and it, if you can reach it. If located 
in the thoracic portion of- the chest, it may be necessary for you to call in a veterinarian and have 
him remove it with a probang. In some cases it may be necessary for him to resort to an operation. 

is a condition indicated by the narrowing or constriction of some part of 
Stricture Of the gullet, no matter what the reason may be. It is accompanied by symp- 
the Esophagus toms of choking or strangling, due to the pressure on the windpipe. 

Causes. — An injury, deposits of any kind in the canal, or tumors, may 
be responsible for its appearance. Or there may be ulceration or cancer of the gullet, or parasites which 
have taken up their residence in the passage, producing the condition. The patient, as a rule, is unable 
to swallow its feed and drink, which is regurgitated and expelled in the usual way through the nose 
or mouth. The affection, which is also called strictura, may be visible externally 'when the animal 
.^attempts to drink. 

Treatment. — If the affection is not too severe, the patient being able to partake of feed and drink, 
careful feeding on soft, easily swallowed feed, always including 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food 
to each feed, will be all the treatment necessary. But if the disorder be a severe one, with the patient 
losing in flesh and strength on account of its being unable to swallow the proper amount of feed, it 
may be necessary to call in a veterinarian and have him cut down the stricture, and in the worst cases, 
where a considerable portion of the gullet is all but closed up, no other recourse than destruction of 
the animal is left open. ■ ^ 

.consists in a sort of rupture or hernia of the gullet, with considerable dilation. 
Dilatation Of Symptoms. — You may diagnose it by the impairment of the appetite, 

the Esophagus the apparent difficulty in swallowing, with symptoms of strangling or choking; 

the saliva may run or drip from the mouth, and there may be emaciation and 
debility.- A tumor may make its appearance externally, generally on the left side, a soft, compressible 
swelling, which is not very painful to the touch. This swelling becomes larger after eating and drinking, 
and plainly visible, even to the superficial observer. 

Treatment. — The only thing you can do is to call in a good veterinarian and let him operate 
if he thinks it advisable. In milder cases manipulation and gentle and prolonged pressure may be 
beneficial. Davis Stock Food given regularly with the feed will materially assist the animal to keep in 
condition in spite of this disorder of the gullet, by insuring a first class digestion and assimilation. 

This name is meant to indicate a piercing or perforation of the gullet by foreign 
Rupture Of substances, operations, punctured wounds, etc. Certain disorders of the brain 
the Esophagus. are said to produce it. 

Symptoms. — These are very similar to the symptoms present in the 
foregoing diseases. There is more or less choking and strangling, and after eating and drinking a 
large external swelling may appear. The regurgitation or expellation of the feed and water through 
the nose and mouth is also a symptom in the more severe cases. 

Treatment. — You should not resort to any kind of treatment ; in fact, none is of any avail, except 
where the wound is but a slight one, when you may treat it with astringent and antiseptic solutions, 
as you would any ordinary abrasion or injury. It will be well for you to call in a veterinarian if you 
find that one of your hofses suffers from this affection, and let him advise you as to the best 
course to pursue. 

Paralysis Of indicates a state where for some reason or other the muscular structure of 
the Esophagus the gullet has lost its pliability and contractive power. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 



p . . .. We divide this very common disease of the stomach into three forms, called 

toxic gastritis, acute gastritis, and chronic gastritis, respectively. 

indicates a state where the membrane of the stomach is affected with an acute 

Toxic and violent inflammation ; tissue of the organ being injured and lost. The 

Gastritis membrane is red and swollen, ulcerated and eroded over more or less extended 

surfaces, with more or less injury and destruction to the gastric glands. Even 
the membrane of the mouth may become inflamed to some extent. 

Causes. — Poisons in some form taken into the stomach, more generally in the form of medicine, 
especially corrosives and irritants, as, for instance, mercury, mineral acids, turpentine, arsenic, etc., are 
responsible. 

Symptoms. — As soon as the poisonous substances have entered the stomach the symptoms will 
begin to appear. The animal will become uneasy, there will be signs of colic, it will crouch or throw 
itself down, and nervously turn its head around as if trying to look at or examine the stomach. The 
pulse, which at the beginning was strong and rapid, gradually weakens, the breathing is slow and labored, 
and the temperature runs up to 104, 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit. There is a great thirst, and the 
patient refuses to eat ; diarrhea also may set in in some cases. Then, if the case is a very serious one, 
there will be signs of exhaustion and collapse as it progresses, and the patient may die from weakness 
and debility. 

Treatment. — Call in a skilled veterinarian and follow his directions. Or, if he should not be con- 
veniently near at hand, you may yourself prepare flaxseed tea or a solution of gum arabic and admin- 
ister this to the patient. This will serve to give a soothing, mucilaginous Coating to the stomach, and 
will be of great benefit. The colicky pains should be assuaged with opium; say 2 drams of gum opium, 
and this dose should be repeated several times, or until it has produced the desired effect. Give Brad- 
bury's Brazilian Specific as directed, and in the majority of cases little else will be necessary. You 
must be careful not to give an overdose of opium; the 2 drams administered two or three times in suc- 
cession (if necessary) will do-no harm, opium being what physicians call a symptom medicine, which 
may often be used in considerable quantity without poisoning the patient. In order to more perma- 
nently lessen the pain you may use belladonna. The last may be given together with the opium. It 
is better for you to leave the treatment in the hands of a good veterinarian if the case is at all serious; 
and you should also remember that if you know the nature of the poison which has entered the stomach 
and caused the disease an antidote should be given. 

is an inflammation of the membrane of the stomach, which is also called gastric 
Acute Gastritis fever, or acute dyspepsia. There is a swelling and thickening of certain 

parts of the membrane, and it appears red and inflamed under the thick 
mucus which covers it. 

Causes. — It is generally brought about by incorrect feeding, also through feeding at irregular 
intervals, or an abrupt change in the diet. If you permit your horse to drink copiously of ice cold water 
while he is hot and perspiring, or if he, being very hungry, gulps down his feed too fast, this may produce 
it. This is a disease which yields readily to Davis Stock Food, regularly used, stimulating as it does 
-,alivary and digestive glands to activity, gradually bringing about a perfect digestion and assimi- 
lation. The disease is often secondary to or associated with affections of the lungs and liver. 

Symptoms. — The appetite is impaired, and the breath has a sour, stale smell; the membrane of 
the mouth is dry in the first stage, after which it is covered with a gluish, ropy mucus. The patient 
appears dull and listless and yawns frequently, an irritation to the pneumogastric nerve causing this 
symptom. It is claimed by some investigators that white hellebore entering the stomach of a horse 

— 296 — 



■ DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 297 

will cause it to vomit without injuring the stomach membrane or gastric glands. As indicated, colic 
and diarrhea are often symptoms in this affection. The patient as a rule passes the feces at short 
intervals, and after these follows a thin, yellowish fluid which runs down over the hind parts, legs and tail, 
giving them a soiled, bedraggled appearance. The fever accompanying the affection is not considerable, 
the temperature remaining around 101 or 102 degrees Fahrenheit. The patient may show signs of 
jaundice, due to the poison's interaction on the liver and bile, and there may be more or less perspiration, 
languor, lassitude and stupidity manifested on the part of the animal. With prompt and careful 
treatment the majority of cases will recover, although, if an animal is in very poor condition, or else old 
and worn out, it may succumb to the disease. If neglected too long the disease also may become 
chronic in its nature. 

Treatment. — Take the very best care of the sick horse, as soon as you have found out that it suffers 
from this disease. Proper sanitation, hygiene and nursing are all important. Give Bradbury's Brazilian 
Specific. Let the diet be wholesome and nourishing; feed but little at a time, but at short intervals, 
and allow 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed until the improvement becomes marked, 
then reduce to 1 tablespoonful. Take the chill off the water before you lead the animal to the drinking 
trough; or it may be better for you to water by pail. If there are signs of indigestion, Davis Stock 
Food will take care of it. Purge gently with linseed oil, dividing the dose two or three times. You 
may give the horse a moderate quantity of starch in the drinking water, and if diarrhea and colic are 
among the symptoms you should confine yourself to dry feeds, and administer astringents, such as 
opium and tannic acid. In all serious cases you would better call in a veterinarian, and let him do the 
prescribing at the start. Milder cases you can handle yourself by following the above directions. 

This is the same form of the disease that in man is called dyspepsia, or chronic 
Chronic Gastritis, indigestion; also chronic catarrh of the stomach. The disease is given the same 

several names in the horse, and is in substance a chronic inflammation of the 
stomach, producing a gradual thickening of the membrane, and more or less pronounced organic changes 
in the gastric glands. The formation of mucus is more rapid, the appetite becomes irregular, and the 
condition of the animal gradually becomes worse. 

Causes. — In the majority of cases it is brought about by a faulty diet, irregularity in the feeding, 
too fast eating, bad teeth, making it impossible for the patient to masticate the feed properly; also 
large drafts of ice cold water, especially when the horse is heated. The disease may be associated 
with others of the more common affections of the stomach; in fact, all chronic ailments of the internal 
organs, including the heart, lungs and liver, may either exist side by side with it or precede it. 

Symptoms. — As the disease progresses the appetite of the patient is very irregular, and while at 
times it may be satisfactory it at other times is altogether lost. As in all diseases of the stomach the 
tongue is coated, the breath is sour and foul, the act of digestion slow and laborious, often appearing to 
stop for a while, causing constipation and the chronic state of indigestion which mark the affection. 
The feed may be forced to remain in the stomach long enough to ferment and decompose. In the prog- 
ress of the malady diarrhea and constipation may interchange regularly, or sometimes there is a chronic 
state of diarrhea and sometimes of constipation. The patient gradually becomes poor and emaciated, 
assuming a bedraggled, worn appearance. It is not a disease attended by fever or any great change 
in the pulse. 

Treatment. — The first thing for you to do is to correct and regulate the diet. You should give 
preferably soft, succulent, easilv digested feeds, and always include Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 
to each feed, with the ration. Administer the feed in small quantities and find some way by which you 
can make the patient eat slowlv, giving it time to chew the feed to better advantage. This is very 
important, as it most often is the swallowing of coarse, half masticated feeds, which the digestive organs 
and stomach juices are unable to cope with, that causes the disease. If constipation is present, or when- 
ever the indigestion becomes pronounced and severe, you should purge to relieve the stomach of its bur- 
den. The medicines recommended are belladonna or opium.'to relieve pain ; bismuth, sodium bicarbonate, 
charcoal, etc., to counteract fermentation in the stomach. Do not forget that Davis Stock Food is the 



Jos DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 



great corrector of the digestive ami assimilative functions, and that if you use it regularly, in health as 
well as in disease (1 tablespoonful to each feed in health; 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed in disease), such 
a disease as ehronic dyspepsia appearing among your horses will be a very rare occurrence. 

* 

Technically this disease is called vertigo- abdominalis, and another popular 
Stomach Staggers. name given it is impaction of the stomach. Its nature is indicated by this 

last name, for it is indeed nothing more nor less than a distention of the 
stomach with feed. 

Causes. — When we compare it with the size of the body the stomach of the horse is small, and for 
this reason it is natural that it should receive only small quantities of feed at a time, as compared with 
many of our other domestic animals. But, as he has a large body to sustain, it also follows that we 
must feed him often, in order that, in spite of the small quantity of feed allowed with each meal, he 
nevertheless may receive sufficient nourishment to keep in vigor and strength. It is a very good idea 
to use a nose bag in giving the horse his noonday meal. In this disease, as in the other forms of 
stomach disorders, it holds good that too hasty eating, the animal gulping, down quantities of half 
masticated, coarse feed, such as cornstalks, wheat, oats or cut feed, is the principal cause of his digestive 
system and stomach breaking down. A weakened condition of the system, the flow of blood to the 
organs being impaired and insufficient, may also bring it about. 

Symptoms. — The animal is nervous and uneasy, and shows signs of colicky pains. It may con- 
tinue to paw the floor in its stall, and if space permits it will lie down, roll itself over and over, perspire, 
vomit, and show other signs of distress. After a while there may be delirium and thereupon a state of 
coma, it being this delirious condition which gives the name of stomach staggers to the affection. It 
is a serious disease, and the animal should receive the best of care and nursing while it lasts. 

Treatment. — The stomach should be relieved of its burden, which is attended with some difficulty, 
as the crowded condition of the feed in the organ makes it almost impossible for medic'ine to gain access 
and become active. You may, therefore, have to resort to both purges and injections, and at the same 
time feed the patient on soft, easily digested feeds, preferably of a succulent nature, vegetables, 
mash, etc. Aloes, linseed oil, and' enemas of a stimulating nature should be resorted to, and in order to 
stimulate the digestive glands into renewed activity you should include Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls to each feed. This is of the utmost importance if quick relief and a cure are to be had. In order 
to relieve the heat and vertigo you should sponge the head with cold water, or apply a small bag of ice 
to the top of the head. 

This name indicates a state in which we find the stomach lacerated and torn in 

Rupture Of such a way that its contents to a larger or lesser degree ooze into the sur- 

the Stomach. rounding space, called the abdominal cavity. It . may be caused by the 

animal falling heavily upon a hard ground while the stomach is overloaded 

with feed, or the straining of the organ from colic and wind may bring it about. Again, if you fill up 

the stomach of the horse, and immediately afterward put -him to heavy work; or wounds piercing the 

walls of the organ produced by a shaft, pole, etc. Another cause is when the tissues become softened 

and weakened by disease of the general system. 

Symptoms. — In the beginning the symptoms very much resemble those produced by colic; then 
there is a lull or intervening space during which the patient seems to improve, but only for a brief spell. 
It is followed by a suddenly weakened pulse, labored and difficult breathing, shivers and trembling, 
an unsteady, staggering walk, and more or less pronounced signs of collapse. . Another symptom is 
the cessation of the usual rumbling sound or murmur in the bowels. You should be careful not to draw 
too* hasty conclusions, however, as these signs may be caused by some other disorder of the bowels, no 
rupture having occurred. Sometimes the patient will suddenly sit down on its haunches, or will throw 
itself down on the ground with the back parts elevated. If the rupture in the walls is near the heart 
there may be more or less profuse vomiting. It is a serious disorder, and is often followed by death. 
Treatment. — You should call in a veterinarian. Meanwhile keep the patient quiet and comfortable. 
After the patient has been attended to, and the pain has subsided, feed the animal on soft, easily 
digested feed, in small quantities at a time, adding Davis Stock Food to each feed. 



DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 

This is an affection of the bowels, caused by spasmodic contraction of the mus- 
Spasmodic Colic, cular structure of the intestines, with collection of gases in different parts of 

the bowels, accompanied nervousness, restiveness and evident symptoms of 
pain and distress. The feces and urine are suspended for the time being. 

Causes. — Horses of all animals seem to be the greatest sufferers from colic and allied diseases. 
Among the various reasons which the specialists on the horse give for this are the animal's inability 
to vomit, the unusual length of the intestines, the fermentable feed they partake of, the liability of the 
intestines to become knotted or twisted on account of their length, etc. The disease may be brought 
about by chills, cold drinks, especially when the animal is heated, it gulping down too large a quan- 
tity of water in too brief a space of time; also overloading, the stomach, frozen or poor feed or too rich 
feed. It is also known to occur in horses on long marches, as a result of starvation and exposure. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of the disease appear all of a sudden. You may hitch the animal to a 
wagon and drive him a mile or two, when he will abruptly stop, look around at his side, rear, paw, crouch, 
and kick himself in the belly with his hind hoofs if he can do so. If at liberty to do so he may of a sud- 
den throw himself down and roll over on his back, keep lying thus, with all four legs in the air, then 
jumping up, pawing and kicking, and showing other signs of pain and distress. The attacks come and 
go, as is evidenced by the periods of apparent ease and rest, during which the peculiar antics of the 
patient stop". Sometimes there may be ten to twenty minutes between the spasms. The pulse, at about 
40, gradually increases in the course of the attack. There is profuse perspiration, but the temperature 
runs up but half a degree or so, or remains normal throughout the progress of the affection. The attacks 
may be accompanied by either diarrhea or costiveness. The ears and extremities generally are 
clammy and cold, the muscles tremble, the nostrils may dilate, the expression is anxious and wild, 
and at times the sweat may turn from hot to cold. 

Treatment. — Davis Colic Cure is a positive cure for this malady, and should be -given as soon as 
the first symptoms show themselves. Flaxseed oil, aloes, enemas of soap suds, salt or glycerine, may be 
resorted to, to relieve the confined and congested condition of the bowels. When you start feeding 
again, let the feeds be small and easily digested, always adding Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls, 
immediately after the attack, and 1 tablespoonful regularly thereafter, to each feed. 

This is the form of colic in which wind or gas becomes confined in the stomach 
Tympanites. and intestines. Technically this disorder is called tympanitic colic, and it is 

also known as gaseous colic, flatulent colic, and wind colic. 

Causes. — It most often occurs in the spring, succulent young grasses, June clover, etc., and also 
the change from the stable to the pasture feeding, bringing it about. Gases form as a result of the feed 
fermenting in the bowels, and the condition is indicated by the apparent swelling of the belly, with 
gas now and then rising to and finding an outlet through the mouth, and wind breaking from the anus. 
It is also likely to occur in hot weather, especially after drinking copiously of very cold or marshy water. 
In all cases of colic, no matter what the form and cause, Davis Stock Food, used in accordance with 
directions, will act both as a preventive and curative agent, supplying as it does the digestive juices 
lacking, and distributing them in correct proportion. It may be mentioned here that the so called 
windsuckers are especially prone to attacks of this form of colic. 

Symptoms. — Most prominent is the swelling of the belly, caused by the gases which have accumu- 
lated in the organs. The attendant pains may or may not be severe. At times a considerable period may 
elapse while the gases are accumulated in the passages, the abdomen only gradually distending, but 
attaining a considerable size before the patient shows signs of distress. If this is the case the gas principally 
collects in the large intestines, the swelling showing itself most prominently on the right side. If it is the 
small intestines which are affected, there will generally be a peculiar arching of the neck, with attempts 

—299— 



300 DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 



at vomiting.' and gas escaping from the mouth. The patient is restless, stamps, paws, throws itself down 
and rolls upon the ground, breaks wind, etc. It is not an exceptionally dangerous disease, except in 
rare eases when it appears in its most severe form. The rule is that the patient recovers promptly. 

Treatment. — Give Davis Colic Cure at once and repeat in one hour if not relieved. If you think 
it necessary resort to purgatives and enemas, made up of glycerine and soap suds, or you may prepare 
a stimulating enema of turpentine and soap suds. You may also with good effect resort to massage of 
the abdomen, manipulating it vigorously with a straw wisp or with your hands and arms-, and, if need 
be, puncture the caecum. If you have not done this before it is best for you to call in a veterinarian 
and have him show you how, before you attempt it. 

This is a form of colic which is caused by an altered relation of the intestines to each 
Invagination. other; as, for instance, when the intestines for some reason double and fold over 
each other -in an unnatural way, causing knots and layers ; or when they twist into 
each other in such a way as to interfere with their proper functioning or even stop the passages entirely." 

Causes. — It may be produced by cramps or spasms of the muscular tissue, or by stricture of some 
portion of the intestines, interfering with the circulation and proper functioning of the organs. 

Symptoms. — There are the usual symptoms of colic. The patient is very much distressed, 
stamping, pawing, and otherwise exhibiting anxiety and pain. At the start there is no fever, but during 
the progress of the disease the temperature may run up to 104 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit, indicating 
the approach of death. The pulse is weak and irregular, and cold and hot sweats succeed each other. 

Treatment is of but little avail, and the best you can do is to prevent the disease from occurring by 
using Davis Stock Food regularly, keeping the horses in strong and vigorous condition. If the disease 
exists you may relieve it by administering oils, flaxseed tea, enemas, purges, etc. Linseed oil also is good. 

This is another form of bowel disorder, and inflammation of the organs, attended 

Enteritis. by fever and pain of a more or less severe nature. 

Causes. — Poisons that have entered the stomach, especially alkalies 
or acids, which irritate and corrode the glands. It also may be secondary to liver diseases, castration, 
embolism, or hernia and colic. 

Symptoms. — The breathing' is labored and deep, and the temperature in the progress of the 
disease may run up to 104 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit, dropping to 103 or 103 M} degrees Fahrenheit after 
the intestines have been relieved of the irritating matter. If it is a fatal attack it will run up again as 
the end draws near. The pulse is rapid and weak, the breath is foul, the mouth parched or clammy and 
hot, a frothy discharge of saliva may drip or run from it at times; there are symptoms of colicky 
pains, the patient runs or walks around and around in circles, stops for a moment, stamps,, paws and 
kicks the ground, and walks around again. Sometimes he may become exhausted and lie down and 
rest for a little while, then up and around once more. He exhibits great care in lying down, usually 
going down on his fore legs first, remaining in this position for a short while, then carefully lowering 
the remainder of his body, attempting to get over on his back, and if he succeeds remains thus for a long 
period, then of a sudden rolls over, gets up and goes on with his circuitous walk. He may continue 
thus for a day or two days. If stalled and unable to walk he may rub off the skin from all the 
protruding parts of the body against the wall of the stable in his agony to keep in motion. It is a 
very serious disorder, although recovery is possible with prompt and careful treatment. 

Treatment. — You should endeavor to keep the patient quiet and. comfortable, or let him have 
his liberty in the pasture to walk about as he likes. If there is diarrhea, give tincture of opium, starting 
out with half-ounce doses and gradually increasing the amount if necessary. In administering opium, 
always bear in mind that it must be used in repeated and, if necessary, increased doses until the desired 
action is brought about. Give Bradbury's Brazilian Specific to care for the fever. As local treatment 
you may apply hot blankets around the abdomen, holding them in place with a dry blanket and girths. 
Let th« diet be limited to flaxseed tea for about forty-eight hours, or until the crisis is over, and if you 
cannot make the patient drink it you may give him a limited quantity as a drench. Before you commence 
feeding again, administer oil, and let the feeding of solids thereafter at the start be very light, allowing 
2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed. The disease as a rule may be prevented if you use 
Davis Stock Food regularly, in health as well as in disease. 



DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 301 

Causes. — The diet is almost entirely responsible ; changes in the feeding, 

Diarrhea. incorrect feeding, too soft or succulent feeds, frozen or decaying feeds, also 

swallowing copious drafts of cold water, especially when heated and strained, 

bringing it about. Or it may be a complication of the lungs, heart, blood or intestines. At times it 

is caused by parasites in the stomach and bowels, and it is a natural consequence of purging and 

enemas. It said that horses whose hips are narrow and high are predisposed to this stomach disorder. 

Treatment. — In treating for this condition you should bear in mind that diarrhea may be and 
often is an effort of nature to rid the system of a poisonous irritant, and you should therefore not be too 
much in a hurry to stop it. Indeed, it is often the case that sudden stoppage of diarrhea has been of 
fatal consequence, producing constipation, enteritis and death. In treating the patient you may resort 
to starch in the drinking water, say half a pound to a pail of water ; or chalk, if you have not sufficient 
starch on hand, say a ball of chalk in half a pail of water. Flaxseed tea also is good, and in severe cases 
you may resort to opium. Davis Scour Cure may be used with good results. Let the patient have 
rest and quiet, and in driving administer the drinking water half an hour to an hour before you take 
the animal out. Davis Stock Food given in a wholesome ration will do much to correct and overcome 
this disorder. 

is a temporary suspension of the peristaltic action and proper functions of the 
Gonstipation intestines, due to enervation, lack of the proper amount of the juices and 

fluids that oil the canals, causing a stopping and retention of the fecal matter. 
By costiveness we mean where there is a lack of secretion, causing the feces to become small, hard 
and ball shaped. By constipation we mean the state where the passage is stopped entirely. In 
common, every day language, however, the two terms are often confused. 

Causes. — The diet here again is to blame; overfeeding, abrupt changes in the feeding, old age, 
and enervation and exhaustion of the entire system causing the supply of blood to the intestines to 
become insufficient to keep them in healthy activity. It may also be a secondary affection, caused by 
diseases of the liver, tumors, heart, nerves, other stomach disorders, or an impaired and sluggish 
circulation. The main symptom is the stoppage of the feces, with loss of appetite and sometimes pain 
similar to that with colic. • 

Treatment. — Correct the diet of the patient, and give Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls in each 
feed, to bring the dormant glands into activity, causing the necessary secretion of juices, and stimulating 
peristalsis. Let the patient have laxative, soft and easily digested feeds until the condition is corrected, 
then continue to allow such feeds between whiles, always adding Davis Stock Food to insure against 
a recurrence. Oil cake, calomel, aloes, etc., are good. If necessary you may give occasional enemas to 
aid the purges in softening the bowels and increasing the peristaltic action which moves the feces on 
to the anus. If there are colicky pains, give opium or anodynes, such as you may have on hand, or 
Davis Colic'Cure will prove very prompt acting and efficacious. 

This affection appears in various aspects and under various conditions, and is 

Peritonitis. divided into primary or secondary, general or local, acute or chronic peritonitis. 

Plainly speaking, it is an inflammation of the peritoneum. 

Causes. — In the majority of cases it is a secondary disease, but it also may appear as a consequence 

of some unsuccessful operation, as badly performed castration, or it may be associated with numerous 

other diseases of the liver or stomach. Pregnant mares may become affected, or it may appear after 

birth attendant upon inflammation of the womb. It is more often met with in man than in animals. 

Symptoms. — It is indicated by fever and restlessness. The temperature varies and may run up 
to 104 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit in the beginning, moderating as the disease progresses. Breathing is 
labored and difficult, the visible membranes reddened, and appetite impaired or entirely lost for the 
time being. The bowels as a rule are constipated, and tympanitic colic may be present. There is 
considerable pain, and the patient is restive, uneasy and nervous, carefully going down on its fore 
legs before lying down, as if the act caused it pain. The disease is serious and demands prompt and 
careful treatment. 



302 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 



Treatment. — Keep the patient quiet and comfortable, and give Bradbury's Brazilian Specific. 
Apply heat and moisture locally, and give 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed. Let the 
feeding be light and nourishing. It should be mentioned here that in rare instances this disorder may 
cause an accumulation of serous fluid in the peritoneal or abdominal cavity, in which case blisters may 
be applied, and possibly tapping will be necessary. 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

The liver is, as is well known, one of the most important organs of the system. Numerous duties 
depend upon it, and it is small wonder that it occasionally should go on strike or its action become 
impaired. Everything should be done to keep it in good health, retaining its full working capacity 
unimpaired, for, if this is not done, the whole system must necessarily suffer seriously. 

This is a form of liver disease indicated by the yellow appearance of the visible 

Icterus. membranes, and is caused by the forced reabsorption of the bile pigment by 

the blood. Plainly speaking, this affection is called jaundice, or the yellows, 

and it is well known that it may interfere seriously with the general health and usefulness of its victim. 

There are two forms, obstructive and nonobstructive to the ducts. 

Causes. — The first mentioned form, called the hepatogenous form, generally is caused by foreign 
bodies, parasites, calculi, etc., entering and becoming located in the ducts. Or there may be inflamma- 
tion of the membrane of the duct, tumors or stricture. The hematogenous form destroys the red blood 
cells, and causes necrosis, or death of the cells of the liver. It is usually brought about by drugs 
or other poisons finding their way into the organ. 

Symptoms. — The feces may become colored with the bile pigment, and the eyes in aggravated 
cases turn distinctly yellow. In other cases the liberated bile may find an outlet in the urine, and, when 
this contains a considerable quantity of it, it does not flow into the bowels in any great amount, the feces 
attaining a grayish color and pasty consistency as a consequence. As a rule the disorder is complicated 
with constipation. Often the beat of the pulse becomes noticeably slower, and in the more complicated 
and severe forms there may be cerebral or nervous affections of a more or less pronounced nature, delirium 
and coma appearing in rare instances. 

Treatment. — You should make it your object to find out what causes the affection, and, as soon 
as you have ascertained this, bend your energies toward removing it as promptly as possible. Purge 
if necessary, keep the kidneys active by the aid of diuretics, and use Davis Stock Food regularly with 
the feed, it having special action on the liver — 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed while the animal is recupera- 
ting and 1 tablespoonful to each feed after he has regained his health. These simple means will, as a rule, 
overcome all but the most severe forms of jaundice. 

This name indicates a state where too great a quantity of blood flows to the liver 
Congestion Of and the surrounding tissues, causing the arteries and veins of the organ to be 
the Liver. clogged up or rendered sluggish and inactive from the congestion. Any heavy 

feed may bring it about temporarily, for a short while after it enters the 
bowels, but it only becomes a disease when you persistently and for a prolonged period overfeed the 
horse. Then it will gradually attain a chronic tendency and, as a functional disturbance, cause 
serious injury to the general health and well being of the animal. You should therefore be careful not 
to overfeed at any time, and as a precaution keep the digestion and circulation up to the standard at 
all times by regularly adding Davis Stock Food to* the ration. There is another form of the disease 
which is called passive hepatic congestion of the liver, or simply passive congestion of the liver, and this 
is where for some reason or other the blood becomes clogged up in the veins of the organ. 

Symptoms. — The urine contains considerable quantities of bile pigment, while the feces are gray, 
clay colored and of an unnatural consistency for want of it. There may also be symptoms of a catarrhal 
condition of the stomach, and the mucous membranes may turn yellow as a consequence of the 
disordered liver. i 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 303 



Treatment.— Hygiene, sanitation, saline purgatives, and, first and last, careful and correct feeding, 
changing the diet to meet the requirements of the patient, and, most important of all, 2 tablespoonfuls 
of Davis Stock Food to each feed, as long as the animal shows signs of the disease, then reducing it to 
1 tablespoonful and keeping this up all the time. This, with moderate exercise, fresh air and liberty 
to roam the pastures, will soon restore the horse to perfect health, if nothing else be the matter with him. 

There are two forms of this affection, acute. and interstitial hepatitis. The 
Hepatitis. first consists in an acute inflammation of the tissue of the liver, the so called 

hepatic cells, which may result in suppuration of a more or less severe nature. 
It is a rare disease in the horse, but age and excessive heat may sometimes bring it about. Chills and 
fever precede it, and the patient shows signs of pain if you press around the region of the liver. Colic, 
constipation, lameness of certain parts, and possibly jaundice, may be associated with it, and if 
suppuration sets in pus forms about the tissue. Davis Stock Food, without any other medication 
than a purge or two, will correct the trouble. 

T , .... . technically called cirrhosis of the liver or sclerosis, is a chronically inflamed 

tt ,.,. state of the interstitial tissue of the liver. (We distinguish between the tissue 

" ' proper, or hepatic cells, and the interstitial tissue, being the interspaces or inter- 

sections between the tissue proper.) There is a gradual destruction of the liver cells, due to this con- 
nective (interstitial) tissue material growing over them, pressing them always- closer together to make 
more room for themselves, forcing them to contract until they become hardened, small and lifeless. 

Causes.— It is usually associated with chronic diseases of the heart or some affection of the lungs. 
In old age we also sometimes find that overfeeding or otherwise incorrect feeding may bring it about. 
Or, in some instances, tumors in the liver may produce it. This is said tc be especially marked 
as a cause in the gray horse, although no reason for this phenomenon is given. 

Treatment. — You should carefully regulate the diet, and allow Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 
to each feed. Feeds which are digested and assimilated easily should be preferred, this being -especially 
the case when you do not have the stock food at hand. This acts as a digester and assimilator, 
and therefore to a certain extent does away with the necessity of selecting a too dyspeptic and delicate 
diet. You should here, as in the foregoing diseases, see to it that the congestion is relieved by the aid of 
properly administered saline purgatives. Give the animal proper care, in the way of hygiene, fresh air, 
exercise, etc., and you will find that the disease will soon disappear if you follow above simple directions. 

. . ., The liver enlarges and becomes firm and resistant to the touch. The disorder 

j . •* is also called waxy liver or lardaceous liver. All you can do for this condition 

is to be careful about the diet and hygiene of the patient, giving Davis Stock 

Food- as usual with each feed, allowing the animal exercise, fresh air — in short, a little special attention 

and nursing along these lines will bring him about all right. 

There is fatty infiltration and fatty degeneration of the liver, and we find that 
Fatty Liver. in the second form (fatty degeneration) the substance of the liver cells has given 

way to fat, while in fatty infiltration there is simply an oversupply of fat in the 
cells. This last condition is not unnatural, as the cells in the healthy animal always contain minute 
globules of oil or fat; fatty degeneration of the liver, however, means complete destruction to the cells 
of the organ. 

Causes. — In an overfat. animal the liver at times seems to accept the function of provision or 
store house for the oversupply of fat that has collected in the system. It may also be caused by phos- 
phorus and certain other poisons, or where for some reason or other the general system has become 
anemic and weak. In appearance the liver, which has become subject to fatty degeneration, is large, 
smooth, bloodless, and of a pale whitish yellow color. 

Symptoms. — There are no very distinctive symptoms to mark the presence of this disorder. But 
it may be associated with jaundice; and horses that are subject to colic often suffer from this condition 
of the liver. The feces of the patient may attain a very light color. 



304 DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM— KIDNEYS. 

Treatment. — Limit the diet, use purgatives (saline) occasionally, exercise the horse regularly, 
let him have plenty of fresh air, and liberty to roam the pastures at will throughout the summer 
months when no work is at hand. Allow 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Fopd to each feed when the 
horse is stabled. 

Spleen diseases are rare in the horse, and deserve but passing notice in this treatise. 

Splenitis. Splenitis is an inflammation of the organ, sometimes occurring as a complication 

with liver diseases, enlarging the organ to some extent. It comes in as part of 
the disease with which it is complicated, and the same treatment will take care of both affections. Pan- 
creatitis is an allied disease, affecting the pancreas or organ which is known as the abdominal salivary 
gland, or more popularly sweetbread. It is accompanied with fever, emaciation and expulsion. of fatty 
fecal matters. It may exist both in an acute and chronic form, and the treatment must vary with 
the symptoms with which it is associated. It is not very common or dangerous in the hofse, and is only 
mentioned incidentally. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM— KIDNEYS. 

In technical language this affection is called renal hyperemia, and for convenience 

Congestion Of we divide it into two forms, which are called active or arterial congestion 

the Kidneys. and chronic congestion (the latter taking the descriptive adjectives passive, 

venous, mechanical, or chronic congestion). It may simply be defined as a 

state under which for some reason or other an oversupply of blood is present in the kidney vessels. 

Causes.— In the active state we find that the cause may be traced to such conditions as prolonged 
exposure to drizzling rains, storms, slush or otherwise wet, inclement and changing weather. We also 
trace it to drugs and other poisons in the system, among which may be mentioned carbolic acid, turpen- 
tine, potassium nitrate, chantarides, and similar irritants. Or there may be paralysis of the vasomotor 
nerves of the kidneys, making it impossible for them to circulate and throw out the blood in the regular 
systematic manner which is present in health. Heart diseases in the majority of instances are responsible 
for passive congestion of the kidneys, or it may arise as a consequence of certain diseases of the lungs, 
tumors pressing upon the renal veins, thrombi, or the congested and impaired condition of the system 
attending pregnancy. 

Symptoms. — Frequent and copious voiding of highly colored urine, which may or may not contain 
traces of blood, but as a rule a large amount of albumen ; this, accompanied with a certain state of dull- 
ness and listlessness evidenced by the patient, indicates the active form of congestion of the kidneys, 
the symptoms of the passive form being so little different as not to deserve any special mention. 

Treatment. — You should apply hot fomentations over the region of the kidneys, and stimulate the 
skin and kidneys into greater activity, which you may do with preparations of flaxseed (flaxseed tea) or 
mucilage. Camphor, morphine or potassium iodide in moderate doses may be resorted to as internal 
treatment in the more severe cases. In order to increase the heart's action and reduce the quan- 
tity of blood in the organs, it is alone necessary to restore a healthy digestion with attending normal, 
healthy circulation of the blood throughout the entire system, and this you may do by adding Davis 
Stock Food in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed with the daily ration, reducing it to 1 
tablespoonful after the horse has recovered. 

There are the parenchymatous and interstitial forms of nephritis, and either of 

Nephritis. these may become either acute or chronic in its progressive run. We seldom 

meet with the disease in the horse, and when it does occur it is generally either 

-looked or taken for some of the more common affections. The acute form of the disorder may be 

ribed as a certain inflammation of the kidneys, including the intertubular tissues. It may be of 

cither a primary or secondary nature, arising from exposure to inclement weather or such drugs as arsenic, 

turpentine, carbolic acid, phosphorus or chlorate of potash. Or we may find it at times as a complication 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM— KIDNEYS. 305 

attending upon pregnancy, resulting from the crowding and pressing upon the tissues in the neighborhood 
of the organs. Some__forms of poisonous, malignant fevers also may produce it, and a number of the 
common forms of lung and stomach diseases may bring it about. 

Symptoms. — Chills, fever and general weakness may precede it if it is due to exposure to wet, 
cold, or otherwise inclement and unseasonable weather. The urine becomes darker, of a high, abnormal 
color, containing small quantities of blood, fiber and albumen at times. If you let it stand over night 
you will find a conspicuously heavy deposit in the vessel in the morning. And there may be more or 
less anemia, poverty of the blood', impairment of the general circulation, or dropsy present, the pulse 
becoming harder, the skin dry and hot, the walk stiff and unnatural, the back more or less rigid, with pain 
upon pressure over the region of the organs. Some cases recover, while others die, depending upon the 
condition of the patient, and the general care and attention given it after the disease is discovered. 

Treatment. — See that the patient is given perfect rest and quiet, and promptly apply bandages 
or blankets to bring about as copious perspiration as possible. In order that the affected organs (kidneys) 
may be properly washed out you should allow the animal all the water he will drink, and then use purges 
to clean out the bowels, thus giving the affected kidneys as much rest from their ordinary labor as possible. 
If the disease is of a secondary nature you should treat its source, or the disease from which it springs, 
at the same time, and as a rule they will recover together. Give Davis Stock Food to stimulate the 
exhausted system. In all serious cases you should call in a veterinarian. 

_, . This form of the disorder is again divided into two forms; namely, chronic 

w ii •*■• - parenchymatous nephritis, and chronic interstitial nephritis. The latter is by 

" " far the more common and serious. 

more simply known as contraction of the kidney, granular kidney, also some- 

' Chronic Inter- times cirrhosis of the kidney, consists in a more or less pronounced chronic 

Stitial Nephritis, inflammation of the interstitial or connective tissue (as distinguished from 

the tissue proper) of the kidney, this causing pressure and contraction of the 
secreting structures of the organs, thus seriously and in some cases irremediably interfering with 
their normal functioning. 

Causes. — The disease is commonly the result of abuse in the form of overwork, exposure to the 
rains andstorms of the fall and spring seasons or to the heat of the summer; neglect of any kind, added 
to a high strung and nervous temperament, may bring it about ^ But it is a comparatively rare affection 
in the horse. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom is a visible increase in the amount of urine voided, 
it at the same time attaining a clear yellow color, without sediment of any kind. The pulse may become 
harder, there may be a more or less pronounced thirst, with irregularity in the digestion and appetite. 
If dropsy is not a complication the skin as a rule is hot, and dry as parchment. 

Treatment. — You should keep the bowels active and the skin in the best possible condition. 
This is best done by seeing to the digestion and assimilation^ for if these act properly the pores of the skin 
will be open and active. It is needless to say that the best remedy for the digestion and assimilation 
is Davis Stock Food regularly added to the feed ration, and if you give this, possibly with small doses 
of iron or mercury added at intervals, you have done what you can for the horse, and it may remain 
strong and useful for a long time in spite of the fact that the disease in itself is incurable. It may 
be well for you at the outset to call in a veterinarian and let him give you some good advice to include 
with our directions. 

another form of kidney disease, characterized by inflammation of the mucous 

Pyelitis, membrane of the so called calices or pelvis of the organs. If it is attended 

with pus formation in the pelvis, it is called pyonephrosis. As a rule it is a 

secondary affection, due to certain kinds of irritating poisons, as, for instance, calculi. Or there 

may be an inflammation of some of the surrounding tissues producing it. 

Treatment. — You should keep the patient quiet, give him plenty of rest, all the water he desires 
to drink, restrict the diet, and add Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. Davis Veterinary 
Liniment, hot fomentations, etc., applied over the region of the kidneys, will be beneficial. Brad- 
bury's Brazilian Specific also may be used with good results. Dropsy of the kidney, floating kidney, 



306 DISEASES OF THE URINARY SY S TEM— KIDNEYS. . 

. also should be treated constitutionally by restoring perfect digestion and assimilation with Davis 
Stock Food. 

The urine consists of organic and inorganic constituents. Urea, uric acid, 
The Urine. hippuric acid, etc., are the chief organic, and sodium, potassium, calcium and 

magnesium (carbonates, chlorides, sulphates, etc.) the principal inorganic con- 
stituents. It is produced by the constant tissue change going on in the body, and with their normal 
or abnormal interchange the urine, too, is altered in constituency, color, quantity, odor and general 
health. The increase or decrease in quantity is ascribable to several causes; as, for instance, if the 
animal perspires freely less urine is passed, and when the skin is chilled and the pores clogged up the 
quantity is increased. The color may varjf without the health being in any way impaired, simply as the 
result of a changed diet, and at different times we find it shading from yellow into red, from red into 
brown, and again it may become clear and transparent as water. The latter, however, generally 
indicates a diseased condition of the liver, and in the same way, when the urine becomes dark brown, 
black (as in azoturia), bloody, smoky red, milky, greenish or reddish brown, some functional disorder of 
the system is generally responsible for the peculiar color attained. The urine of the horse, as a rule, 
has a strong, peculiar odor, as of ammonia, varying somewhat with the nature of the feed ration. Its 
normal constituency is distinctly alkaline, the exception being in the case of the suckling foal, or in 
animals suffering from starvation, or malnutrition, where we find it a pronounced acid. Varying 
changes take place when the horse becomes diseased, dependent upon the nature of the affection. 
There is a simple way by which you may determine as to whether the urine of your horse contains an 
excess of what is known as fixed alkali, that is, phosphates or carbonates, or volatile alkali, that is, ammo- 
nia. Simply procure a quantity of red litmus paper from your druggist, moisten a piece of this partly 
in the newly voided urine of the animal, and hang it out in the air to dry. If after it has dried 
the blue color remains, you will know that the urine is of the fixed alkali nature, while if the red color 
should return, it means that the volatile alkali constituency predominates. 

If you desire to examine the urine further you may collect all the urine passed in the course of 
twenty-four hours, taking a sample of the combined mixture. You may bring out the earthy or alka- 
line substances (phosphates) by heating this sample of urine in the test tube of a veterinarian. A 
cloudy or milky appearance will result, indicating the presence of the alkaline phosphates- looked for; 
and in the progress of the experiment you should mark that if you add acetic or nitric acid to the mix- 
ture the milky appearance will disappear. If you suspect an oversupply of albumen in the urine you 
may make sure of this being so by boiling a "similar mixture of urine in the test tube, when the same 
milky appearance as presented in the former case will indicate the presence of albumen, provided it 
does not disappear on the adding of nitric acid. If you wish to test for bile in the urine you should 
heat some nitric acid until yellow, adding while you are about it some little pieces of wood. After 
you have permitted the liquid to cool off, float the urine you desire to test on the acid, and if bile pig- 
ments are present a green band will form at the junction, shading into red, blue, yellow and violet. If 
the urea in the urine is excessive, the rhombic shaped crystals of the nitrate of urea separate if you add 
nitric acid to a cold mixture of urine containing parts of twenty-four hours' voidings. You may ascer- 
tain this by using for your experiment a plate or watch glass. Spread a thin layer of the urine you 
desire to test on this, and if it attains a dark red or smoky color you may safely assume that blood is con- 
tained therein. Sugar in the urine is indicated by its pale color, and the froth that follows upon its being 
voided or shaken. To ascertain if the urine contains pus the aid of a microscope is necessary. 

This name indicates that blood is present in the urine, attending upon some 
Hematuria, or functional disorder of the general system. Diseases as hemophilia, hemor- 
Bloody Urine. hagica, purpura, also certain fevers, drugs, germs, stone or gravel in the kidneys 

or wounds of a traumatic nature, may bring it about. The urine attains a smoky 
or bright red color, and contains a quantity of red blood cells, which may or may not be visible to the 
naked eye, depending upon the number. If the quantity of blood is large and the hemorrhage producing 
it severe, or its source one of the vital organs, disease is serious and may prove fatal. Usually the seat 
of the hemorrhage is in the kidneys, bladder or urethra, and it is comparatively rare that it in itself 
becomes of very serious consequence. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM— KIDNEYS, 307 

Treatment. — Take good care of the patient, brace him up with nourishing feed, adding Davis 
Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, and, if the loss of blood going on in the urine is persistent and 
severe, give him an occasional stimulant, a little alcohol or whisky in his drinking water. Davis Veteri- 
nary Liniment solutions in which bandages are soaked and then applied over the kidneys will prove 
very beneficial. You should try to find out where the hemorrhage producing the blood is located and 
make your treatment in accordance with this. 

or pus in the urine. It is generally complicated with certain other diseases 
Pyuria, of the genito-urinary organs, among which may be mentioned leucorrhea, 

urethritis, cystitis, etc. Or in some cases it is produced by ruptures formed by 
abscesses and opening into the urinary passages. It is not a very common disease, except when 
complicated with functional derangements of the general system. 

Treatment. — There is no special treatment for this disorder. It must be treated together with 
its source. However, you may use Davis Veterinary Liniment solutions over the kidneys, while at the 
same time ascertaining and treating for the disease upon which the disorder is dependent. Feed the 
patient well, adding Davis Stock Food to the nourishing ration. When the digestion and general 
healthy circulation are restored to the body, both this and its dependent disease, if they be not chronic 
or severe in their nature, will speedily give way to health. 



This is the name given to the condition in which for any reason there is a 
Anuria, complete suppression of the passage of urine in the animal. 

Causes. — Stone, gravel, or other obstructions in the kidneys, urethra 
and bladder may produce it. Or it may be dependent upon certain contractive poisons, badly performed 
operations, causing injuries to the organs; or, in rare instances, intense nervous irritation, due to some 
derangement of the nervous system, is responsible. 

Treatment. — You should clean out the bowels by purging, and use diuretics (diuretics are medi- 
cines that increase the flow of the urine; you can get them at your drug store), etc. As local treatment, 
resort to hot applications over the organs, Davis Veterinary Liniment, or any other good counter 
irritant, if you have not got it at hand. 

in which the condition mentioned above is reversed, consists in an inability 

Incontinence of the animal to hold the urine, which is dripping from it more or less constantly. 

of Urine, It may be due to some derangement of the nervous system, or the spinal cord 

may have sustained an injury reacting upon the parts and paralyzing them, 

making it impossible for the patient to hold the urine in the organs designed by nature for that purpose. 

The treatment recommended for this annoying condition is to strengthen and tone the entire system, 

this being especially so if some nervous trouble is the cause. Allow the patient an ample ration of 

nourishing, wholesome feed, making it palatable and appetizing with Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 

to each feed ; and, with the enhanced digestive and assimilative activity, the whole system will be gradually 

toned up, and with it the special nerves and muscles of the urinary organs. Also allow the patient 

plenty of fresh air, liberating him into the pasture and letting him roam at will. 

is a bladder disease, an inflammation of this organ, which may be caused by 
Cystitis certain medicines or chemicals. Sometimes it is a primary disorder, and at 

other times we find it to be complicated with some other affection of the sur- 
rounding organs. It is indicated by the urine attaining a peculiar opaque color, pus cells, blood and at 
times shreds of mucous membrane being contained therein. In treating for this disorder you should 
merely allow the animal plenty of rest, and prepare and give it mucilaginous beverages, such as, for instance, 
a good flaxseed tea, which will be cooling and soothing to the affected organs. The bladder should be 
washed out with solutions of quinine, bichloride of mercury, etc., but have a veterinarian do this. 
Let the diet be wholesome and nourishing, adding Davis Stock Food to the ration as usual. In severe 
cases belladonna or morphine given by the mouth or in the form of suppositories. Plenty of fresh 
air and, if possible, liberty to roam the pastures for a little while should be allowed. 



DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

1 t is undoubtedly a fact that diseases of the general circulation often are present without the lay- 
man being aware that they exist. He may know that something is the matter with his horse, but is 
unable to define the disorder, and as it does not seem to aggravate enough to warrant his calling in a 
veterinarian he simply puts it down as a being out of condition of the animal, and lets it go at that. 
The reason why such affections are hard to define and diagnose is that the heart, mainspring of the 
circulation, which sends the blood pulsating through the veins to all parts of the body, is one of the most 
deeply situated organs of the system, making it a matter of difficulty for the physician to examine it 
and quite impossible for the layman (except in a general way). You probably know that the normal 
number of heart beats should be from 36 to 40 per minute, increasing or diminishing according to the 
temperament and environment of the animal. Thus, in the hustle and bustle of city life, where the animal 
is prodded and driven to a high state of activity, nervous and physical alertness, as it were, we find the 
number of pulsations materially increased, while in the quiet and calm of country life the number of 
beats is less, but the pulsations more full and strong, this being the normal and healthy condition. 

is a disease of the heart which may exist in either an acute or chronic form. It 
Pericarditis also may be either primary or secondary, as a rule following such diseases as 

pleurisy, pneumonia, or certain other contagious affections. 
Symptoms. — There is a chill at the start, followed by nervousness and a feverish, restless condition. 
The temperature runs high, the visible membranes are dry and red to the eye, the skin also is hot, the 
pulse exceedingly quick, it running up as high as 100 per minute, about the record in the whole category 
of diseases. The affection, which by the layman may be mistaken for an attack of pleurisy, is a very 
serious one, the pain and shock being so intense that many patients die from the effect in the course of 
a very short time (a few days) ; however, it is not incurable, and the patient may recover even though 
for a time he would seem to be lost, the exudation becoming absorbed. After recovery from the main 
attack it is often the case that the heart remains weak for a considerable period, and there may arise 
complications with the lungs, such as edema, or cardiac paralysis, to which the patient eventually 
succumbs. 

Treatment. — Let the patient have perfect rest and quiet. Call in a veterinarian at once, and let 
him direct the treatment. As soon as possible reduce the heart's action by the use of sedatives, such 
as aconite or veratrum. To quiet the bounding, excited heart the veterinarian's best remedy is 
opium, properly administered. If he finds that this does not have the desired effect in any special 
case, he may substitute chloral; carefully administered, in doses not too large. Locally warm 
applications over the heart and surrounding surface, such as hot blankets (wrung out of moderately 
heated water), may be used with good relief. You can hold them in place by putting a dry blanket 
over the wet one, and holding both in place with girths. It is also said that in special cases, where 
the temperature runs very high, cold, soothing applications over the heart region are good. In the case 
of man hot poultices and the oil skin jacket are used; this may be used with the sick horse or 
other animals with good results. For the fever use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, which is excellent in 
such cases. As stated, however, this is too serious a disease for you to do any experimenting with, 
and you must have a veterinarian at the outset, to do the. prescribing. Davis Veterinary Liniment, 
externally applied, often is of great benefit, and you ought always to have this at hand to be 
prepared for emergency. 

another disease of the heart, which is also divided into the acute and chronic 

Endocarditis, forms. The acute form consists in an inflamed condition of the lining membrane 

of the heart and the tissue that forms the valves of the organ. It shows itself 

by an impaired condition of the substance of which the tissue forming the valves is composed, causing 

— 308 — 



DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 309 

vegetations and similar disorders. The chronic form of the malady is simply where the foregoing affection 
attains a chronic character, gradually causing thickening, puckering, hardening and general deformity 
of the valve tissue and membrane. 

Causes. — It is almost impossible to diagnose this disease in the horse while it lives, 'but it is 
ascertained that as a rule it is of a secondary nature, following such diseases as erysipelas, pleurisy 
or pericarditis- also rheumatism, which, however, seldom occurs in the horse. Or traumatic injuries, 
colds or certain infections may bring it about. 

Symptoms. — There are no special distinguishing symptoms. As stated, it is, as a rule, a secondary 
affection. 

Treatment. — Let the patient have perfect rest; add Davis Stock Food to the ration in usual 
proportion; let the diet be light, nourishing and easily digested, and if you have a veterinarian in the 
neighborhood call him in and consult with him. It is a difficult disease, and there is not much to be 
done in the way of treatment, except diet and rest, with ordinary hygienic measures. 

In this disease we find that the muscular tissue which forms the walls of the heart 

Cardiac Hy- has expanded or enlarged, at times interfering with the size of the cavities of 

pertropliy. the organ. This malady is divided into three forms, the simple, the eccentric, 

and the concentric form of cardiac hypertrophy; the first being indicated by 

an increased thickness of the walls without any change in the size of the cavities, the second is where 

the walls are thickened and the cavities enlarged, the third where the walls are expanded, but the 

cavities diminished in size. It will be of interest to you to know that the normal capacity of the heart 

is from 1 to \\i pints of blood, and that its ordinary weight is 6% pounds. 

Causes. — There may be some affection of the valves on which the disease is dependent, or it may 
be due to overexertion on the part of the animal, enervation and debility, some form of obstruction to 
the pulmonary circulation, affections o£ the capillaries and arteries, or contractive disorders of the 
system. 

Symptoms. — The heart beat is more bounding and fuller, there may be passive congestion of the 
lungs as a complication, or dyspnea (dyspnea means difficult and labored breathing). 

Treatment. — Let the patient have perfect rest and recreation. Preferably turn him out in the 
pasture, if it be in the summer season of the year, and let him alone. If stabled, let him be quiet and 
comfortable, let the ration be wholesome and nourishing, and allow 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock 
Food to each feed. By restoring equilibrium to the digestive, assimilative and circulatory functions 
you, as a rule, will be able to create health and harmony throughout the system, including all the corelated 
organs. In severe cases you should call in a veterinarian and let him prescribe suitable medicines, such 
as digitalis, aconite, ether, camphor, iodide of potassium, caffeine, etc. 

is another of the several diseases of the heart characterized by extension or 
Cardiac Dilation dilation of one or more of its cavities, the walls in this instance being either 

thickened or thinned. This affection is divided into two forms, dilation with 
thickening, and dilation with thinning, respectively. It is due to an impaired state of the walls of the 
cavities, and increased pressure upon them, and the only outward symptoms are a weak, rapid pulse, 
more or less distinct obstruction to the general circulation, labored breathing, and, at times, a tendency 
to dropsy. 

Treatment — You should look after the diet, making it of a wholesome, nourishing character, 
suited to the age and condition of the patient, allowing Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, 
as long as the horse is -sick, and 1 tablespoonful to the feed thereafter, if you would keep him well. Do 
this in the case of all your horses, and disease will soon become a well nigh unknown quantity among 
them. If the case be a severe one you may give the sick animal stimulants, such as whisky or alcohol, 
administered in moderate quantity in its drinking water. Iron, arsenic, morphine and strychnine are 
recommended in special cases, and should be prescribed by a veterinarian. At times you will have to 
purge. Do not work the animal too hard — rather give him a rest and outing if the season permits it. 
In other words, turn him 'oose for a while. 



310 DISEASES OE THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 



or, simply, palpitation of the heart, is an irritated, excited condition of the 
Cardiac Palpitation, organ, its beat becoming precipitated and hurried, its rhythm spasmodic or 

irregular and sometimes intermittent, which means skipping a beat between 
whiles. There may be an intermittent heart, Avhere several beats are dropped, or there may be a 
rapid heart, sometimes occurring in a normal state from overexertion, fear, anxiety, etc., this is 
called tachycardia; and there ma)- be a slowness of the action of the organ, often met with in conval- 
ace from digestive disorders, fever, blood or circulatory diseases, this is technically known as 
brachycardia. 

Causes. — Palpitation of the heart may be brought about by fear, anxiety, overexertion, 
nervousness, kicks, bites, blows, indigestion, liver troubles, irritation of the cardiac ganglia, and 
numerous other causes. 

Symptoms. — The main symptom is the excited, nervous condition of the animal, and the rapidly 
pulsating or throbbing heart, which can be distinctly felt by placing your hand over it. In slighter 
affections it may be only a flutter, and in the most severe the beating is violent and persistent, throb- 
bing, bounding and pounding away in an uncontrolled manner, the animal's breathing becoming labored, 
he losing all self control for the time being and appearing in the greatest agony and distress. All ordinary 
cases recover, if the general condition of the patient is good and there are no complications. 

Treatment. — Do what you can to quiet and reassure the animal while under the influence of the 
attack. Then let his exercise be moderate, and see that he is fed properly with a view to strengthen 
and invigorate his entire system, which in some way must be at fault. Let the diet be nourishing and 
wholesome, and add Davis Stock Food to the ration as usual. In severe cases call in a veterinarian 
and let him prescribe suitable drugs. The medicines usually prescribed to alleviate this disorder are 
camphor, chloral, veratrum viride, valerium, etc. In special cases digitalis with nux vomica or iron, 
rightly administered, is beneficial. 

This affection is identical with what in man is called hiccoughs, and is indi- 
Spasms. cated by sudden, involuntary, convulsive contractions of the diaphragm (the 

partition that separates the abdomen from the chest). There may be involun- 
tary, convulsive movements of the entire body, associated with a thumping sound (giving to the dis- 
ease the popular name of thumps). This thumping is so loud and audible that you often can hear it 
a considerable distance away from the patient, and there is a pronounced shock or series of shocks when 
you place your hand over the diseased parts. 

Causes. — Sometimes it is due to nervous afflictions or certain diseases of the general system, 
and at other times we find it to be brought about by overwork or overexertion, such as fast driving, 
riding, etc. Again, it may be caused by irritation to the diaphragm produced by such agents as cold 
drinks, overloading of the stomach with food, inflammation, colic, etc. All you can do for the patient 
is to feed and treat him well, allowing Davis Stock Food with a nourishing ration; do not work him too 
hard, preferably giving him a rest with an outing, liberating him in the pastures, and, if the case be severe, 
give him a stimulant in his drinking water — whisky or plain alcohol. Do not do this except preceding 
or following an attackr 

Flatulent colic may produce this, the gas, or wind pressing on the organ until 
Rupture of the some weak spot in it gives way, or.it may be brought about by violent external 
D iaphragm. movements, such as a forced ride, the animal throwing itself down in an abrupt, 

violent manner, etc. Or wounds penetrating the organ may produce it, as 
well as general weakness and debility of the system, reacting upon the tissue and substance of the 
diaphragm. 

Symptoms. — The breathing is labored and difficult, the patient will endeavor to attain a position, 
sitting on its haunches or lying on the sternum (the breast bone). Signs of collapse shortly appear, 
the pulse is weak and rapid, the extremities change from warm to a cold sweat, the breathing is more 
labored, the nostrils distended, eyes staring and anxious. The pain is intense, and continues until death 
in the course of a few hours relieves the sufferer. All you can do in the way of treatment is to try to 
relieve the agony by the free use of opium or morphine, ether or chloroform. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Various technical terms r are used to describe the several forms under which disease of the nervous 
system manifests itself in the horse. For our purpose it is only necessary to mention the most common 
of these, and give a brief definition of their special nature and the conditions under which they appear. 
Thus in delirium we have a disorder of the nervous system which, so far as animals are concerned, can 
only be defined by saying that it is associated with and manifested by incoherent and extraordinary acts 
on the part of the patient. Hyperesthesia expresses an enhanced excitability or sensitiveness through- 
out the sensory organism. In hyperalgesia we have a state denoting tenderness, or a predisposition 
to the kind of pain we designate as tenderness. Paresthesia is the name given to the sensations or sense 
waves which from the central station in the nervous system are dispatched outward to the surface, 
to be caught up by consciousness and become expressed. Such sensations are pain, heat, cold, or any 
agent in nature impressing itself upon the nervous system vehemently enough to cause a response. By 
anesthesia is meant a breaking down or interruption of the conducting power of the sensory nerves, 
bringing about a more or less complete loss of sensibility on the surface of the body. 

is that certain state of the mind shading from consciousness into unconscious- 

Coma ness, a kind of deep sleep from which the patient either cannot be aroused at 

all or else is only aroused with much difficulty and effort. We divide coma 

into two forms, carus and sopor. The first (carus) designates the condition from which we cannot 

arouse the patient, this being also denominated profound coma. Sopor is a semicomatose condition, 

from which we may be able to revive the patient. 

Causes. — It is brought about by certain defects of the nervous system or brain; often we find it 
to be caused by lack of a sufficient supply of oxvgen to serve the brain substance. Among the nervous 
diseases with which it is associated may be mentioned epilepsy, and all forms of neurosis. Or we may 
at times find it associated with other affections of the general system, liver, kidney or wasting disor- 
ders. As is well known, we can produce the condition by artificial means, such as ether, chloroform, 
opium, alcohol, and so on. 

Treatment. — You should try to find out the cause that lies back of the phenomenon, and direct 
your efforts to remove and cure this, when the sleepy, comatose condition of the patient as a rule will 
disappear also. If you are unable to find the local trouble, or the defect in the general system which 
underlies the condition, you should try to overcome it by a strengthening, stimulating diet, adding 
Davis Stock Food in the usual way to the ration. This will, with enhanced digestive and assimilative 
activity, cause a greater flow of rich, red blood to be sent through the veins, entering the brain and nerve 
centers, finding the seat of the trouble wherever it may be, and centering around it until it is removed. 
This is nature's way of overcoming diseases of all kinds. The blood is sent in largely increased volume 
to any part of the system the moment an injury or disease affects it, and it is the duty of the blood to 
continue to centralize its revitalizing energies around this spot until recovery takes place. If the con- 
dition of the animal is good, and the resistive powers or reserve force of energy and vitality are up to 
the standard demanded by a strong, healthy body, it will perform its work of restoration and healing 
in a satisfactory way. This holds good of both nervous and physical disorders. And it is only through 
the stomach — through the agencies of digestion, .assimilation and circulation — that such power is acquired. 
Therefore, keep these functions up to the highest possible degree of perfection by the regular use of 
Davis Stock Food with the ration, and be rewarded by strong, healthy, vigorous animals, full of vitality 
and resistive energy, able to cope in an emergency with any form of disease. It will pay you. 

This may be defined as a certain disordered condition of the nervous system, 

Staggers. causing fits, nerve storms, dizziness and vertigo. It is a defect in balance 

in some part of the nervous equilibrium. ! ' 

Causes. — There is a defect in some part of the nervous system, the brain or spinal cord; or it 
may be the optical nerve which is at fault, this making the eye the seat of the disease; while in other 

—311— 



312 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



e find that long confinement in dark, damp and badly ventilated stables may bring about dizzi- 
ness and vertigo. Sometimes the climate is responsible, and sometimes a plethoric condition with insuf- 
ficient exercise produces it. Again we often rind it in horses used as motor power for machines, com- 
pelling them to travel round and round; or it may occur in horses while confined in railroad cars or on 

rd ship, shipped from one point to another. If the harness fits the horse badly, causing the throat- 
latch or collar to press on the jugular vein, it may bring on an attack of vertigo. Hereditary tendency 
in some instances is responsible. It may follow pregnancy, or may be caused by parasites in the blood 

els or pressure on the blood vessels. Horses known as star gazers (horses with long, narrow necks, 
holding their heads high) are especially liable to the disease. In some animals it maybe periodically 
recurrent, while others may have one attack, and never be subject to another. 

Symptoms. — All of a sudden the horse will stop, look surprised, shake its head as if an insect 
had gained entrance to the ear, look about it in an anxious, trembling way, and if the attack is a severe 
one fall to the ground. In another form of the affection, called running staggers, the patient, if at liberty 
to do so, will run about in a semicrazed way, and is likely to hurt itself or do other injury if not restrained. 
It may recover shortly, but if care is not taken, and the patient put to work or driven soon after an attack, 
a second and third paroxysm may follow in the course of a very short while. The animal is more apt 
to contract the disease when harnessed up or saddled than at other times. It is not an especially dan- 
gerous disease if there is no chronic nervous defect or other organic trouble of an incurable nature back 
of the spasms. 

Treatment. — All you can do during- the attack is by all means to keep the patient as quiet as 
possible and keep it from hurting itself or its surroundings. Cold water or bandages applied to the head 
should be administered, the harness removed if possible, and a moderate dose of bromide of sodium 
or potash is good in some instances, but not absolutely necessary. In fact, if only you keep the patient 
quiet and constrained, applying the cold water bandages to the head, the attack will pass away of 
itself in the course of a short while. Do not scarify or bleed. Bleeding may be resorted to in the most 
severe cases, where there is one paroxysm after another, but if you are not skilled in the operation you 
should let a veterinarian do it for you. After the attack you may give the patient a good purge of 
calomel (one drachm) and aloes (seven drachms), to clean out the bowels, where often the seat of the 
trouble is located. Regulate the diet, do not scare or otherwise excite the patient unduly, and as a 
tonic and builder of the general nerval and physical strength and energies use Davis Stock Food, 2 
tablespoonfuls to each meal until the attacks subside, then 1 tablespoonful to each meal, to insure the 
permanency of the'recovery. Be sure that the harness fits the horse properly, and that he has plenty 
of fresh air and exercise in the open. 

Chorea is the name the scientific world gives to this peculiar malady, while 
St. Vitus Dance. in common parlance it has been fitly called insanity of the muscles, stringhalt, 

or twitching disease. It is caused by certain defects in the nervous system, 
causing temporary lack of control of the voluntary muscles, with involuntary contractions and move- 
ments, giving the disease its name. The exact cause is not ascertained, but young animals in delicate 
health are more subject to it than others. Older ones, however, are not by any means exempt, but fre- 
quently attacked. It is said in some instances to have been produced by punctured wounds in the feet. 
It is; however, safe to assume that some hidden defect in the central nerve centers is in the majority of 
cases responsible. 

Symptoms. — There arc more or less twitching and contraction of the muscles about the lips, eyes, 
feet, shoulders, and anterior parts. Sometimes it may be the posterior or hind quarters that are subjected 
to the paroxysms, and then we call it stringhalt in the horse. , If you suspect that the animal is suffering 
or about to suffer from an attack of stringhalt, but are not positive, you may make sure of it (in case 
he is stalled) by simply moving him from side to side, or you may take him out and trot him or turn 
him around suddenly and sharply, when the visible symptoms will appear. If it be-due to some chronic 

■>{ the nervous system, which most often seems to be the case, there is not much hope of recovery. 
On the other hand, if a wound or puncture of the feet is responsible, complete recovery will ensue in the 
course of a week or two. Under no circumstances is the disease likely to be fatal in its termination, 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 313 



but may affect the animal throughout a lifetime, to some extent impairing its general health and use- 
fulness. If, however, you keep the horse in perfect physical and nerval condition, by allowing it a 
nourishing ration with Davis Stock Food regularly added, you may practically overcome the effects of 
the disease, rendering the resistive powers of the animal strong enough to successfully cope with and 
overcome the attacks. • 

otherwise known as cramp of the patella muscles, is another nervous affection 
Femoral Cramp, of more local than general nature, and is evidenced by spasms and contractions 

of the leg muscles, the patient being unable to stretch or extend the affected 
member while the attack lasts. It may be brought about by some kind of irritation to the nerves of the 
parts, caused by strain or overwork of the muscles. 

Symptoms. — The attack comes on suddenly, especially after the horse has been stalled, or after 
it has stood at rest for a little while. The member affected is stiffened, and looks as if it is longer than 
the other legs, knuckling at the fetlock follows, and the horse lifts the leg so as to rest only on the toe, 
It is almost impossible for the patient to move either forward or backward, and if he should be compelled 
to do so he will hump along on the three legs, dragging the injured member after him. The disease usually 
occurs in the muscles of the thighs of the fore legs. 

Treatment. — A stimulating liniment, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, applied to the parts at 
fault, with a little rest and special care, will, as a rule, bring the patient about. Sometimes the trouble 
may be associated with a disordered condition of the bowels, and a good purge or laxative may bring 
prompt relief. Let the ration of the patient for the time .being be confined to soft and easily digested 
foods, such as succulent grasses, vegetables, bran mashes, always adding Davis Stock Food in the 
prescribed proportion. 

. is another condition where the nerves controlling certain leg muscles are at 
Catalepsia fault. There is a stiffening of the voluntary muscles, causing them for the 

time being to lose their contractive suppleness and power. Subjected to this 
condition the patient loses control of the leg, and when it is placed in any special position it remains 
stationary there until the condition is relieved. It is a rare disease in the horse, although Germany 
records it among equine diseases.- 

or fits, is rarely met with in the equine family. It is a disease of the nervous 
Epilepsy, system causing unconsciousness in the patient while the attack lasts, and there 

may or may not be convulsions. It is so seldom met with in the horse that in 
mentioning it a brief paragraph in these pages would seem to be sufficient. A very few cases among 
stallions are recorded. The dog, among domestic animals, is the one most subject to the disorder. It 
is caused by certain impairment to or defect in the nervous system. Among the medicines used in com- 
bating it may be mentioned alcohol, turpentine, digitalis, chloral, bromides, and cold applications to the 
head. If the animal is kept in good general condition by proper feeding, including Davis Stock Food, 
it is insured against attacks of this and allied affections of the nerves. 

means congestion of the brain, and* is technically known as cerebral hyperemia. 
Cerebral It is caused by a superabundant flow of blood to the brain, congesting the blood 

Congestion vessels of that organ and interfering with their proper functioning. There are 

two forms, called the active and passive form; the former indicating a condi- 
tion in which the flow of blood to the brain is too abundant, the latter, one in which, on account of 
some local obstruction, the blood is dammed up and forced to collect in the brain vessels. The 
active form preferably appears among young, full blooded (plethoric) animals. Certain drugs, as, for 
instance, opium, may cause it ; and hard work in the hot sun, or the sudden removal of an animal 
that for some time has been confined to a dark stable to the light and sun may bring about an 
attack. It is a rare affection in the horse. If the attack is not associated with chronic disease of 
the nerves or other organic troubles, the patient, as a rule, will completely recover.' There are no 
special symptoms to show the existence of this affection in the horse. ' 

Treatment. — You may not know expressly that your horse suffers from congestion of the brain, 
but if the disease or any other form of brain disease is present you will be quite able to see that something 
is the matter 1 with the head of the animal. Numerous symptoms will indicate this, and as soon as this 



l_ DISEASES OF THE NE RVOUS SYSTEM. 

is brought to your attention, no matter what is the special name given to the malady, you should make 
the patient quiet and comfortable in a box stall, where he is left to himself, and where there is plenty 
of fresh air. Then you should purge and act on the bowels with a view to drawing the surplus blood 
from the brain and relieving the congestion; a light, wholesome diet, adding Davis Stock Food in usual 
proportion to the ration, aiming at restoring a perfect digestion and circulation of the blood, will soon 
bring relief. Meanwhile you may soothe and comfort the suffering animal by applying cold applications 
to the head at frequent intervals. 

This is the opposite of the foregoing condition — a diminished and insufficient 
Cerebral Anemia, flow of blood to the brain. General debility of the system, severe hemorrhage 

in some part of the body, or an inflated and distended condition of the blood 
vessels in other parts, may be responsible. The affection is also called anemia of the brain. 

Symptoms. — The general symptoms by which vertigo is characterized as a rule attend this disorder. 
There is considerable nervous excitement, restlessness and dizziness, and if able to do so the patient 
will continue to walk backward and forward for long spells at a time. Sometimes we find twitching 
of the muscles of the neck and head. If the affection is not caused by chronic disease, nervous or physical, 
recovery as a rule is prompt. 

Treatment. — You should constrain your efforts to try to build up the general system by hygienic 
measures and proper feeding. As the animal suffers from a lack of blood it is self evident that this must 
be counteracted by a wholesome, nourishing ration, tending to bring him back into condition as 
promptly as possible. Do this, and add Davis Stock Food to the ration in the usual proportion 
(2 tablespoonfuls to each feed while the horse is still sick, and 1 tablespoonful after recovery has 
taken place, to insure permanency of the good done), and, with the improved digestion and assimilation, 
the blood will soon flow freely and abundantly through the veins to the brain and all other parts of the 
body. The horse will be perfectly well in every respect. 

or hemorrhage of the brain, is caused by one of the blood vessels of the brain 

Cerebral becoming ruptured, followed by a state of paralysis and coma. The disease 

Hemorrhage, is known. under a number of other names — encephalic hemorrhage, intracranial 

hemorrhage, meningeal hemorrhage, cerebral apoplexy — but the cause is the 

same in each instance, as is the nature of the affection. 

It may be the result of a general plethoric, apoplectic condition of the system, or there may be 
an injury to the skull, a fracture and the like, the walls of the blood vessels may have become diseased, 
causing the breakdown, or there may be overaction on the part of the heart. It is more common in 
old than in young horses. ' 

Symptoms. — Primary and secondary ; in the first instance (primary stage) we find restlessness, 
nervousness, uneasiness, vertigo, twitching of the muscles of the head, and in cases where much blood 
is lost there may be paralysis and coma. The patient breathes heavily and with difficulty, pulse is 
weak and slow, the breathing is deep, snorting or stertorous, nostrils and pupils dilated, eyes turned 
and lifeless in their sockets, involuntary urination, involuntary action of the bowels, paralysis at times 
of a certain part of the body, according to the situation of the ruptured vessel. As secondary symptoms 
we find that, along the course of the nerves which have become paralyzed by the rupture, a rapid 
change is taking place in the tissues. Semiparalysis or complete paralysis follows the course, sometimes 
with more or less atrophy of the muscles. We distinguish between cerebral congestion and cerebral 
hemorrhage by noting that in the first case the symptoms which are permanent in the second are only 
of a temporary nature (loss of consciousness, paralysis, etc). Cerebral hemorrhage generally is incurable, 
it becoming necessary to destroy the patient if death does not ensue as the natural termination of the 
affection. Mild cases, however, may survive, with paralysis of certain parts remaining. All you can 
do in the way of treatment is to try to reduce the amount of blood flowing toward the ruptured vessel, 
and thus put an end to the bleeding. If you have a veterinarian conveniently near at hand call him 
in and benefit by his counsel. If the horse survives, let the diet for awhile be very light, and add Davis 
Stock Food to the ration, 2 tablespoonfuls, as usual. Purges may be of benefit. The veterinarian 
probably will prescribe colchium or iodide of potassium as internal medical treatment, and that is all 
that can be done for the animal. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 315 

, t Where the blood vessels of the brain become plugged or stopped up by any foreign 

Z, . v substance it is called cerebral embolism. The symptoms are convulsions, loss of 

consciousness, paralysis, etc. Another form of the affection, called thrombo- 
lism, indicates a condition where the circulation of the blood in the brain vessels is partially or wholly 
obstructed by blood that has coagulated and congested in the vessels and veins. It may be caused by 
a minute calcareous body which has found its way into the blood and around which the blood tends 
more and more to coagulate until the obstruction occurs; or the obstruction may be caused by a 
thrombone, or by vegetations from the heart valves, which have been washed along with the blood. 
General debility of the system,, impaired vitality and sluggish general circulation predispose disorders of 
this nature. Thrombosis we find as a rule to be caused by some vascular affection. 

Treatment. — All you can do to relieve the affection is to look carefully after the diet and gen- 
eral hygiene of the affected animal, adding Davis Stock Food to the feed regularly until the digestion 
and assimilation improve and cause the circulation of the blood to act normally and healthily, and 
flowing freely and unobstructedly through all the vessels and veins of the body, meaning health and 
renewed energy and vitality. 

technically called hydrocephalus, is divided into two forms, congenital hydro- 
cephalus and acquired hydrocephalus. In the first instance we find the so 
Cerebral Dropsy, called cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain, or meshes of the pia 

mater in the young, present in too large quantities, and there is a visible enlarge- 
ment of the head, with disorders of the nerves of a more or less pronounced nature. 
It occurs at the time of birth, often making delivery difficult, but is not so common in foals as in calves, 
and only deserves mention in the case of acquired hydrocephalus, which is a chronic brain affection, 
the fluid collecting in the ventricles and congesting them more or less, resulting in peculiar 
phenomena, such as a marked difference in the consciousness, sensibility and conception of the patient, 
distinguishing it from the normal animal. Such a patient is generally called a dummy. It may be 
caused by hereditary predisposition, and it is better not to breed such animals at all. In other cases, 
however, we find it a secondary affection, following the usual forms of inflammation and congestion of 
the brain. Or it may be brought about by poor food, neglect, overwork, ill fitting harness, exposure 
to the hot rays of the sun, etc. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according as the patient is in motion or resting. If confined 
in the stall the disease is indicated by the peculiar position the horse prefers to stand in, placing himself 
in a diagonal position, hanging his head down, or resting it on the manger, appearing dull and listless, 
and paying no heed to the flies that pester his body, or to the whip. If you take him out to drink 
he is apt to plunge his head to the bottom of the trough, take a swallow or two, then raise the head and 
sniff the water about him. In masticating his food he will grind away for a brief spell, then stop and 
look puzzled, as if thinking over something, and the food in the mouth will be expelled and drop to the 
ground. The patient may waver between an excited, scared condition, with now and then paroxysms 
of great fear, later changing to a comatose condition with stupidity and indifference to his surroundings. 
When he is in motion we find the head bent low to the ground, the feet raised abnormally high, resembling 
in some respects the gait of a blind horse, carefully finding his way. Now he stumbles, stops or walks 
slowly, balks, or refuses to work altogether. If you try to back him, he offers resistance, with the 
result that the feet are drawn after him, making a tear in the soft ground on their way. The pulse both 
when at rest and in motion is slow, say twenty to thirty beats per minute, the bowels generally costive 
and torpid, but the general condition surprisingly good, the patient as a rule looking fat and sleek. 
The symptoms are more pronounced in hot than in cold weather. The trouble generally is incurable, 
although the horse may not be absolutely worthless. 

Treatment. — All you can do in the way of treatment is to look carefully after the diet and hygienic 
conditions of the patient, let his work be moderate and regular, the feeding systematic, and aiming 
at building up his general health and strength, keeping the circulation and digestion in good order by 
the regular use of Davis Stock Food. If there are frequent paroxysms, bleeding and purging may 
become necessary, and in some cases you may have your veterinarian prescribe a short course of 
medical treatment, using diuretics and absorbents, potassium idoide, potassium bromide, etc. 



316 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



There are a series of diseases affecting the horse in such a way that the owner will find him down 
and either wholly unable to rise or else only able to do so with great pain and effort. We will here, 
in conclusion, mention a few of the most common of these, including spinal meningitis, apoplexy of the 
spinal cord, cerebrospinal meningitis, azoturia, paralysis, myelitis, etc. This condition should be 
distinguished from that of the so called malingerer, which means a certain cunningness or cussedness 
on the part of the animal, making it simulate disability in order to shirk working. 

In summing up let us but add a few brief definitions of diseases which as yet have been but insuffi- 
ciently enlarged upon, giving their name and nature: By parahysis is meant a condition in which the 
voluntary and involuntary movements of the muscles are lost, due to impaired innervation, which means 
a diminished supply of nervous energy being supplied to the parts on account of some injury to the 
centers from which the nerve fluid flows. Myelitis indicates an inflammation of the substance of the spinal 
cord, with paralysis of the posterior or hind parts, the bladder, rectum, etc. In crossed hemiplegia 
we have a form of paralysis in which one side of the body is deprived of its nervous and muscular energy. 
Apoplexy of the spinal cord is a suddenly appearing hemorrhage, into the substance of which the cord 
is composed, with spasms of the muscles, paralysis and at times hematuria. A malingerer, as indicated 
above, is a horse simulating disability or disease, lying down and refusing to rise, even under the whip. 
Spasm indicates a state under which the muscles for the time being are beyond the control of the patient, 
there being more or less violent contractions and movements not guided by volition. We divide spasm 
into two forms, called tonic and clonic spasms, respectively, the former describing a condition where the 
involuntary contractions of the muscles continue uninterrupted for some time ; the latter is where the con-, 
tractions are not constant, but attacks follow in rapid succession; it may be either a local defection or 
one of the general system. Cramp is so called tonic spasms of the muscles, accompanied by pain of 
an intramuscular nature. 

indicates an inflamed condition of the spinal cord, associated with loss of power 
Spinal Meningitis and feeling in the hind part of the body, the legs, thighs, etc. It is caused gen- 
erally by neglect, overexertion, bad- hygiene, heat and a low state of vitality. 
The exact cause has not been clearly defined up to the present day, and some writers would have it that 
a special germ is to blame. There is a. loss of power of the hind parts, the legs and thighs, and it is almost 
impossible to back the animal or turn it, the legs do not work well together; the patient staggers and 
looks about it in a helpless way, drags the toes of the hind legs after it, and may fall down and remain 
on the ground in a helpless condition. The tail hangs limp and lifeless, and, if you catch hold of it and 
raise it, it falls back in position in a nerveless way. The temperature runs from 101 to 102 degrees Fahren- 
heit. The treatment is. to place the patient in slings, and if you do not know how to do this yourself, 
call a veterinarian and let him show you. Also give a purge, and then a moderate dose of belladonna, 
repeating every three or four hours, until the purge is acting nicely. Strychnine should' be given, 
one-fiftieth of a grain at a time to start, increasing little by little until its action becomes visible. The 
urine should be drawn off every day, and enemas given to assist the purge; also apply good liniments, 
such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, to the diseased parts. Massage, manipulate and gently exercise 
the horse in order to gradually bring life and circulation into the stiffened muscles. Give Davis Stock 
Food regularly with a light nourishing ration, in order to regulate the digestion and circulation. Let a 
veterinarian show you in regard to the medical treatment advised, so that you shall make no mistakes. 

This well known affection is caused by overheating, especially by pro- 
Sunstroke. longed exposure to the hot rays of the sun in summer, or exposure to excessive 

heat of any kind, reacting upon the nervous system, causing the peculiar phe- 
nomena we designate sunstroke. This affection is also called thermic fever, and is divided into 
two forms, sunstroke proper or thermic fever, which is caused by overwork or prolonged exposure 
to the sun in summer; the other form we denominate heatstroke or heat exhaustion, which is a 
dition arising from exposure to any kind of heat, artificial, or the rays of the sun. The symptoms 
are sudden when exposure "to the sun is the cause ; the breathing of a sudden becomes labored and diffi- 
cult; the patient looks uneasy, staggers and sinks to the ground, remaining prone and helpless. Pulse 
is weak, temperature quickly runs up to 104 to 107 degrees Fahrenheit; there may be entire or partial 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 317 

insensibility or loss of consciousness; bowels become constipated, urine scant, the brain is affected, and 
symptoms like those attending on apoplexy may show. Pupils of the eyes are staring and dead, 
insensible to light; blood vessels of head and neck are full and throbbing; breathing becomes snorting, 
stertorous, and more and more labored, and there may be spasmodic contractions of the muscles, 
and at times convulsions. In heat exhaustion, on the other hand, we find that the principal symptoms 
are weakness, with a feeble pulse, rapid breathing, high temperature, and general debility. As a rule the 
patients recover, but secondary diseases, congestion of the lungs, stomach disorders, lameness of 
certain parts, etc., may result. 

Treatment. — Remove the animal from the exposed condition; take it to a place that is cool, 
shady and comfortable, keep it quiet and ease the pain and fever by cold water applications to the head 
and body, injecting a quantity also through the rectum, doing it all as gently and soothingly as you 
know how. Stimulants, a little whisky or alcohol in the drinking water, may be used afterward, or 
brandy hypodermically injected. If the case is a very serious one ether or chloroform may be necessary, 
but then you should call in a veterinarian and let him administer it. Belladonna, nux vomica, quinine, 
etc., to counteract the effects of the heat and tone up the nerves, are also recommended. And in some 
cases purging and bleeding may be resorted to. In all severe cases, which you feel that you are unable 
to handle yourself, call in a veterinarian, as already advised. Keep the digestion and circulation of the 
sick animal in order by the use of Davis Stock Food in the feed ration. 

or Spinal Typhus, is indicated by the dark color of the urine, resulting from a 
Azoturia, hypernitrogenized condition of the blood and an abnormal dropping of the hind 

parts, the legs and thighs, there being more or less knuckling at the fetlock. 
The disorder is also denominated rheumatic paraplegia. The cause of the trouble is not well determined, 
some saying that the liver is at fault, others the kidneys, skin or nerves. It is also possible that too highly 
nitrogenized feed, supplemented with insufficient exercise, is to blame. We find it most often during 
the cold spells of weather, in heavy draft horses, and especially after the horses have been put up during 
holidays, fed in the same way as when they did heavy work. They may be high spirited and gay when 
thereupon you take them out of the stable, kicking and prancing so that you can hardly control them, 
and go on in this way for a mile or so up the road, when of a sudden the one affected with the disease 
will slow up and fall behind his companion, stagger and fall over, unable to rise himself again. Or again, 
he may get lame, perspire profusely, look nervous and restless, watch his belly interestedly again and 
again, until }>"ou think that he is subject to a bad attack of colic, but in your attempt to make him 
move you will find that he has lost control of the muscles of one of his legs, also becoming aware of the 
knuckling at the fetlock. You may then think that he has picked up a nail on the road and examine 
him for this, but without result. If you have any doubt as to what the disease really is the dark color 
of the urine should tell you; it is of a brownish coffee color, in some instances pitch black. Pulse 
becomes full and leaping, temperature runs up to 102 or 103 degrees Fahrenheit, and the breathing 
may become rapid and labored. 

Treatment. — As yet no remedy has been discovered that will successfully cope with this affection. 
Bleeding, if it were possible, might be good, and is recommended, but it is not an easy operation to per- 
form with the horse thrashing madly about on the ground, difficult to get near. The operation relieves 
the congested blood vessels, thus quieting the animal, reducing the fever, and then medicines and other 
ministration may be administered. Chloral hydrate may be given the agonized, thrashing animal to 
quiet him in the first instance. You should, if you have a veterinarian conveniently near at hand, 
send for him, meanwhile doing what you can yourself to relieve the sufferer. Strychnine or other <nerve 
stimulants are recommended after the first attack has subsided, and may be administered with good 
results. Slings may be resorted to, but it is best not to use them, except in milder cases where the patient 
is able to rise himself and stand. Otherwise they are likely to sag out of the sling, thrash wildly about, 
perspire, kick, bite and carry on in such a way that you will have to liberate them. Most of the patients 
die, although the milder cases have a chance for life. Paralysis of the muscles of one leg, or spreading 
from one leg to another is likely to result in those that recover. 



318 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Call if a veterinarian, as suggested, and abide by his advice. Always examine the urine, and this 
should be drawn off with a veterinarian's catheter at least once in twenty-four hours. If there be spasms 
of the muscles of the penis, making it difficult or impossible to insert the instrument, put your hand 
and arm into the rectum and press on the bladder; this as a rule will enable you to draw down the penis 
and introduce the instrument, or there ma)* be a urination without the use of the catheter. In serious 
a the bladder should be washed out with warm water and boric acid, quinine, Phenalin, bichloride 
of mercury, etc. Hot blankets applied to the loins and hind parts are good. Do not blister. Keep the 
patient quiet and comfortable after the first attack has subsided; a gefod soft straw bed, give soft feed, 
and Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoo.ifuls to each feed; also all the water he will drink. If he is down 
and unable to rise, turn him over from one side to another every twelve hours or so to keep him free 
from uncleanliness. 

In the preceding pages the intelligent, up to date horse owner will find such practical advice and 
easily applied methods of treatment, as will enable him not alone to take care of his sick horse in emergency, 
but to diagnose and cure all milder cases that may occur among his animals, no matter what the nature 
of the trouble may be. The remedies and methods given for treatment are those employed by the 
best and most skilled veterinarians in the world, being laboriously compiled from the standard works 
and text books on equine veterinary science. 




DISEASES OF CATTLE 



ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. 



Medicines may be given" in different ways, and it is therefore well to consider in detail the most 
common methods of administering them to bovine animals. 

You may give them by the mouth in the form of drafts or drenches, powders, 
By the Mouth. electuaries, and balls or pills. 

Drafts or Drenches is the form in which medicine is usually given to 
cattle. Dissolve the medicine in water or any other suitable liquid. Soluble medicines should be well 
shaken up with the liquid in which they are given, so as to insure their complete solution. For 
example, if you give an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre, the medicine should be shaken up with at least 
half a pint of water before giving it. If you give the medicine without diluting it, a sore and inflamed 
condition of the mouth is produced. ,The materials which enter into the composition of sQme drenches 
are not 'soluble, that is, no amount of shaking will dissolve them in the liquid in which they are given. 
As examples of such medicines we mention powdered ginger, powdered gentian,, and carbonate of iron, 
but by shaking they may temporarily be suspended in the liquid in which they are given, so that by 
agitating such medicines while in the act of giving them they are temporarily mixed with the liquid and 
may consequently be given as a draft, though not quite as easily as medicines that are soluble. 
In giving drenches you must always ascertain to what degree the medicine or medicines composing the 
drench should be diluted. If you are careless in this matter, dangerous and even fatal consequences 
may ensue, and it is well to make it a rule not to give medicines- unless they are .prescribed by some 
one who is competent to give directions in such matters. This rule, of course, will not apply to those 
who possess sufficient knowledge of medicine to prevent mistakes being made. In giving a drench to 
an ox the hand should be passed in front of the horns and the fingers take hold of the partition between 
the nostrils; the nose should be raised in -a slightly upward direction, and the neck of the bottle should 
then be introduced at the side of the mouth so as to allow the medicine to flow gradually out of the bottle. 
In doing this do not twist the neck of the animal to the side on which the person administering the 
medicine stands, and do not raise the nose higher than is necessary to allow the draft to flow easily 
down the throat. The neck and head should form a straight line of which the nose is the highest point. 
If the animal resists, let an attendant hold it by the horns, so as to steady the head. If the animal tries 
to cough, release the head for two or three minutes. 

Powders should be pulverized or finely divided, and also should be well mixed together if there 
are several ingredients in the powder. Do not make up powders of materials which will cause irritation 
of the mouth, or which have a disagreeable taste. 

Electuaries are often used in treating sore throat, or for cough. Thev are usually composed of 
a powder, such as chlorate of potash or alum, which is rubbed into a thick paste with syrup or molasses 
and is then smeared on the animal's tongue with a flat, wooden spoon. But any powder may be given 
as an electuary So long as it is not possessed of caustic or irritating properties. Balls or pills are not 
well adapted for the treatment of diseases in cattle. 

— 319 — 



320 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 



How Medicines are Injected. — The mouth may be swollen or otherwise affected, 
By the Bowels. making it impracticable to administer the medicine that way. If such be the 

case the agent to be used, after proper dilution, may be given by the rectum; 
in which case, however, as a rule, a double dose is required. Before giving medicine this way, empty 
the rectum by a warm water injection. Enemas, or injections, are also used in cases of constipation. 
Put the hand in the water before injecting, and if pleasantly warm it is of the right temperature. 
About 2 quarts, should be used for an injection. A little soap may be added to stimulate the action, 
but the water will be retained longer if the soap is omitted. Suppositories also are sometimes used, 
and are deposited in the rectum. Before the suppository is introduced the rectum should be evacuated. 

Inflammation may occur in the vagina from various sources. In such cases 
Vaginal Injections, dissolve the antiseptic or healing agent in tepid water and apply once or twice 

a day with a syringe. When the cleaning (placenta) has been retained in the 
womb, instead of coming away shortly after calving, a discharge will set in, commonly known as the 
whites (leucorrhea). In such cases wash out the womb daily with a 1 per cent solution of Phenalin by 
connecting a long, flexible tube with a syringe, which is passed by the hand into the mouth of the 
womb so as to wash out and cleanse, setting up a healing action. 

Vapors and volatile agents, capable of being diffused in the air, are sometimes 
By the Nose. administered in that way; for instance, when the bronchial tubes of young cattle 

are infected with worms. Chloroform and sulphuric ether are among the 
agents administered that way. If a cloth is saturated with chloroform or sulphuric ether and applied 
to one of the animal's nostrils while the other nostril breathes air, the vapor will pass through the nostrils 
into the lungs. The wet cloth applied to the nostrils should be covered with a dry one, folded several 
times over itself, to hold the vapor. The methods of injecting medicines by the windpipe or veins should 
only be applied by veterinarians. 

The appliance of medicine to the skin is used chiefly in parasitic diseases, the 
Treating by aim being to destroy the parasite. Ointments, enabling the operator by rubbing 

theSkin. to work the medical agent thoroughly into the skin, are preferable. When 

poisonous agents are used, the animal may lick itself after the application and 
become poisoned. Therefore avoid poisons such as mercury and arsenic. These poisons may also 
work destruction by coming in contact with raw patches of skin and being absorbed into the system. 
Beware of them. Always wash the skin well with soap and water before applying the ointment, so as 
'to remove scabs. In neuralgic or irritating forms of skin diseases, local applications are of great service 
in allaying irritation and pain. At times medicines are injected beneath the skin so as to be absorbed 
and pass into the blood. This method is being more and more used, and often proves. of great service. 
But it requires a veterinarian to apply it. 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 

Inflamed lips, produced usually by a blow from the horns of another animal, or in case of working 
oxen, by the driver, are frequently encountered. Again, grazing cattle, especially when pastured in 
woods, may be bitten by serpents, etc. 

Symptoms. — Lips become thick and swollen, and, if neglected, the swelling becomes hard and indu- 
rated, rendering it difficult for the animal to eat, the lips losing their flexibility. In such cases an ox 
will protrude his tongue, endeavoring to get feed into the mouth by that organ. The swelling in case 
of snake bites is soft and comparatively painless. 

Treatment. — Bruises, easily distinguished from snake bites by the different train of symptoms 
produced, should be bathed steadily for three or four hours in the following solution: Davis Veterinary 
Liniment, fj tablespoonfuls; water, lpint; or muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce; water, 2 pints. In older cases 
rub the swollen part every day with Davis Veterinary Liniment, or every other day with oil of turpentine 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 321 



until swelling subsides. In snake bites a straight incision, penetrating into the flesh or muscle, 
should be made across the center of the wound, and then a similar incision, but passing crosswise of the 
first, should be made. Then press a small wad of cotton batting against the wound until the bleeding 
almost stops. Now apply Davis Wire Cut Remedy, or, if not at hand, the following lotion several times 
a day: Permanganate of potash, 3^2 dram; distilled "water, 1 pint. Doses of whisky are recommended 
when the bite is followed with stupor or depression. Half a pint of whisky with a pint of water may 
be given. Repeat the dose in half an hour if the animal is sinking into a stupefied, unconscious condi- 
tion. Repeat until this condition is overcome. Remember -the object is to ward off stupor, resulting 
from snake bite; stimulation, and not intoxicating effect, is what is aimed at. 

is a symptom of some general or local disorder, in some cases being the symptom 
Salivation of such general diseases as for instance rabies, and in others purely local, 

as when copious secretions of the glands are produced from eating irritating 
plants. When saliva is observed dribbling from the mouth, examine it carefully by introducing an instru- 
ment like a balling irOn into the mouth, or, if such an instrument is not at hand, grasp the tongue and 
partially withdraw it from the mouth, exposing all parts of the mouth to good light, so that any foreign 
substance present may be detected. Whatever this may be it should be tarefully extracted. Another 
cause of salivation is cattle, which have been rubbed with mercurial ointment, licking themselves. Do 
not use such ointments. 

Treatment. — If salivation is caused by irritation or inflammation due to acid plants or forage, 
a lotion composed of 1 ounce of powdered alum dissolved in 1 quart of water should be syringed into the 
mouth twice a day, using J^ pint of the lotion each time. If caused by the presence of thorns, splinters, 
wood, etc., imbedded in the cheek or tongue, remove object and wash the mouth occasionally with a 
weak solution of Phenalin and tepid water. When produced by poisoning or by the foot and mouth 
disease, special treatment, appropriate to those general conditions of the system, as well 'as the, local 
treatment, must be applied. Davis Phenalin, when used in accordance with the directions, is the best 
remedy in the world for this trouble. 

This condition may be occasioned by the unequal wearing of some of the teeth 
Irregular Teeth. or by some of the incisors being broken. The molar teeth also may show irregular 

wear. Their edges may become sharp, or it may happen that a molar tooth 
has been accidentally fractured. It also may occur that a supernumerary tooth has developed in an 
unusual position, interfering with the natural and regular mastication. 

Treatment. — You may examine the mouth by grasping the animal's tongue with one hand, 
partially withdrawing it from the mouth, so as to expose the incisor and molar teeth to inspection. When 
it is desired to examine the molar teeth with the fingers, an instrument like the balling iron used for the 
horse should be introduced into the mouth, so as to separate the jaws and keep them apart while the exam- 
ination's being made. All sharp edges of the molars must be removed by the tooth rasp. Supernumerary 
teeth, interfering with mastication, should be extracted; also any tooth which is fractured or loose. 
In performing such operations it is best to throw or cast the ox, holding its head securely, so as to enable 
the operator to perform his work. 

may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad odor, and if the animal occasionally 
Caries Of stops during mastication, as if in pain. The existence of -caries in a mo 1 £.r tooth 

the Teeth may be ascertained by examining the mouth in the manner already described. 

If one of the molars is found to be carious it should be extracted, if the caries 
is so extensive as to render other means of treatment impracticable. If the crown of the tooth is destroyed 
and only the stump or root left, extraction will be impracticable. In such cases the best way is to sell 
the animal to the butcher. 

popularly called Big Jaw or Lump Jaw, first shows itself by a swelling or enlarge- 
Actinomycosis Of ment of the jawbone. The affection may be distinguished from that produced 
the Jaw Bone, by a contusion or blow by the fact that cold water does not exercise the least 

influence in checking its progress. It may affect either the upper or lower 
jaw, or both, producing considerable general swelling of the parts. As a result of this the molar teeth 
of the upper and lower jaws may be pushed out of their natural position, so that they are no longer able 



8«g. 21 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 



to servo their purpose of masticating the feed. It also happens that from degeneration of the tootfh 
sockets the teeth drop out, this being indicated when the animal becomes unable to masticate its feed. 
A-.. m. ulcerations frequently cause an opening to form on the external part of the tumor, and often a 
similar destructive process forms an opening into the mouth itself. In some cases, after growing for a 
short time, these swellings seem to become stationary, ceasing to grow. Such cases do not require 
treatment, as the arrest of the growth of the swelling generally is caused by the death of the parasite, 
which ceases to reproduce itself and becomes harmless. The living parasite, by rapidly reproducing itself, 
extends through the bony tissue, and by setting up inflammation causes a rapid increase of the swelling. 
The aim of treatment is to destroy the parasite, thereby arresting the growth of the swelling. Early 
treatment is of the utmost importance, in order to prevent the parasite from multiplying itself and 
destroying the tissues in which it is lodged. 

Treatment. — When an external opening exists on the surface of the swelling it should be injected 
with Davis Lump Jaw Cure. If no opening exists several incisions should be made through the skin 
covering the swelling, and portions of the outer jaw bone should be removed with a trephine, and Davis 
Lump Jaw Cure injected into the orifices thus made. Apply this treatment daily, and continue it until 
it is apparent that the growth of the swelling has been checked. The remedy checks the growth of the 
swelling by destroying the parasite, and is the best remedy known. We do not give other treatment 
because we know of nothing to compare with Davis Lump Jaw Cure, and we know it does cure. 

or Stomatitis, is caused by cattle eating some irritating substance, acid plants, 
Inflammation for instance, causing inflammation of the membrane of the mouth. Again, 
of MUCOUS Mem- little vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with 
brane of Mouth, indigestion, constituting what is termed aphta. 

Symptoms. — The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when it is examined 
the surface of the tongue and other parts of the mouth will appear red and inflamed. In young animals 
affected with aphta, small red elevations will be observed on the tongue and other parts of the mouth, 
having little 'white points in the center. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated surfaces which 
are exposed by the shedding of the white patches. 

Treatment. — If merely a reddened and inflamed condition of the membrane of the mouth exists, 
it will suffice to syringe it out several times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution: Alum, 1 ounce; 
water, 2 pints; or, better still, Phenalin, 1 tablespoonful; water, 2 pints. If the edges of the tongue and 
other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers these should be painted, over once a day with the following 
solution until the affected surface is healed: Iodoform, 60 grains; ether, 1 ounce. When indigestion 
is associated with an ulcerated condition of the mouth that disorder must be treated separately. 

or gangrene of the mouth of young calves, usually appears in calves when they 
Gangrenous are cutting their molar teeth. 

St omati t i S Causes. — Insufficient nourishment, the debility resulting from diarrhea and 

from inflammation of the navel, together with the already mentioned disorder 

of the digestive system, resulting from the cutting of the molar teeth, are the most usual causes of 

this affection. Older cows, however, are not exempt; it may arise in mature animals from causes which at 

present are unknown. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages there is a redness of the mouth, from which the saliva dribbles, 
but in two or three days a whitish point appears on some part of the membrane of the mouth. It grad- 
ually extends in size and depth, and a red, inflamed zone surrounds the affected part, which gradually 
assumes a yellowish, cheesy appearance. As it begins to break up it decomposes, exhaling a disagreeable 
odor. Sometimes the entire thickness of a portion of the tissues composing the cheek becomes gangrenous. 
If the decayed part is not removed with a knife it is gradually separated from the surrounding living 
tissues by the process of ulceration. In this way an aperture is sometimes formed in the animal's cheek 
through which the saliva is ejected when it is masticating feed. The trouble may be complicated by 
diarrhea, which has an exhausting effect, as is shown by the animal's frequently lying down. The malady 
often terminates in death, and runs its course in from seven to ten days. In mature cows recovery does 
not, however, take place under three or four weeks, its duration varying according to the extent to 
which the animal is affected. 



. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 323 

Treatment. — Sulphate of quinine should be given to calves three times a day in doses varying 
from 5 to 10 grains, according to the size and age of the animal, and should be repeated about four times 
a day. Half-ounce doses of lime water or Davis Scour Cure mixed with milk should be given if diarrhea 
is present. When the calf shows signs of debility, or diarrhea is present, whisky or brandy should be 
administered several times a day. Mix the stimulants with two or three parts of water, and repeat 
three or four times a day. In the cases of cows quinine should be given in dram doses. When the animal's 
appetite is poor or when it is weak, whisky or brandy should be given in half pint doses two or three 
times a day, mixed with two parts of water. To cleanse the mouth and remove the fetor it should be 
syringed out several times a day with the following solution: Phenalin, 1 ounce; water, 2 pints. When 
the gangrenous parts have sloughed, a lotion composed of sulphate of copper, 2 drams; water, 2 pints, 
or Davis Wire Cut Remedy should be applied every day to the raw surfaces to promote healing. The 
diet should be nutritious, and Davis Stock Food should be added to the ration, in the proportion of Y^ 
tablespoonful to each feed for calves, and 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed for mature cows. This will 
materially assist the digestion, cause the salivary juices to flow freely and healthily and insure a free 
circulation. The gangrenous tissue assumes a yellowish, cheesy appearance, and the animal's recovery 
will be hastened by removing dead tissue with a knife and not waiting until the process of ulceration 
separates it from the living parts. During the convalescent stage it is advisable to give carbonate of iron 
in combination with quinine. It may be given to calves in 10-grain doses, and to cows in 2-dram doses. 

or Induration of the Tongue, commences with small patches of a yellow color, 
Actinomycosis which may appear on the upper or under surface, on the tip or on the sides of 
Of the Tongue, the tongue. The membrane covering these patches is thickened, and it soon 

breaks up into a number of pimple like excrescences which run together, and 
it then ulcerates and is cast off, leaving a red and excavated surface. These patches cover a number of 
nodular bodies, most of which are as large as a hemp seed, a few being as large as a cherry or walnut. 
When cut into they are seen to be composed of a yellowish, cheesy looking substance, which, when 
removed, leaves a sharply defined cavity or ulcer. Similar nodules may form on the inner surface of 
the cheeks, of the lips, on the surface of the palate, and even in some instances on the mucous 
membrane lining the nose. 

Treatment. — When the nodules are large they may be dissected out or scraped out, so as to 
leave nothing but healthy tissue, and afterward dressed with Davis Lump Jaw Cure. When this is not 
possible an incision should be made into the nodule, which should then be injected with Davis Lump Jaw 
Cure. This treatment will destroy the fungus from which the nodules grow. To treat this disease suc- 
cessfully it should be attended to at the earliest possible time. After the muscular portion of the tongue 
has become enlarged and indurated it will not be possible to restore it to its healthy condition. Recently 
this disease has been treated with great success in Europe by the administration of iodide of potassium, 
given in doses of 1^ drams dissolved in 1 pint of water, twice daily. It acts as a specific and is 
followed by rapid improvement and the permanent cure of the affected animal. Davis Lump Jaw 
Cure must be used locally, however. For antiseptic purposes, as a wash, Phenalin may be used to 
good advantage in the treatment of this disease. It is important to keep the digestion and circulation 
in perfect order, and to this end Davis Stock Food should be given the animal with its feed in the 
proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed for the grown animal. 




DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET. 



or Sore Throat, is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the pharynx. 
Pharyngitis, It is frequently associated with laryngitis and bronchitis, and sometimes 

with pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The muzzle is dry and the saliva dribbles from the corner of the mouth ; the animal 
either does not swallow or swallows with difficulty ; occasionally the liquids which it attempts to take 
come back in part through the nostrils, and the animal holds its neck stiff, in a straight position, moving 
it as little as possible. The eyelids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot and the animal 
occasionally grinds its teeth. When it attempts to eat hay or grass, after masticating the feed the 
animal drops it out of its mouth as if to avoid the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure 
is applied to the pharynx externally, trying to prevent such pressure being applied. 

Causes. — A sudden cooling of the surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to cold wind 
or cold rain. 

Treatment. — The throat should be syringed three times a day with- an ounce of a l'per cent 
solution of Phenalin. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea, oatmeal and water should 
occasionally be administered. Diet should consist of soft feed, such as bran mashes, to which a little 
linseed meal has been added, and containing 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed for the 
adult cow, and J^ tablespoonful for calves. The upper part of the throat and the space between the 
jaws should be well rubbed once a day with Davis Veterinary Liniment, or if this is not at hand, 
make up a liniment of the following: Liquor ammonia fortior, 4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; 
olive oil, 4 ounces; mix. Under the above treatment the inflammation of the throat will gradually 
subside and the animal will be able to swallow usually in five or six days. Keep the animal in a 
comfortable stable during its sickness. \ 

Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflammation extending 

Parotitis. to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryngitis; or the inflammation 

may commence in the salivary ducts and may depend on some influence the 

nature of which is unknown. Parotitis sometimes arises from a blow or contusion which is severe 

enough to set up inflammation in the structure of the gland. 

Symptoms. — There is an elongated, painful swelling, commencing at the base of the ear and 
passing downward along the posterior margin of the lower jaw. It is generally limited to one side, 
and when extending to both sides is generally larger on one side than on the other. The secretion of 
saliva is increased, the appetite is poor, the neck is stiff so that it is painful to raise the head, and feed 
is swallowed with difficulty. Sometimes the swelling of those glands, when subjected to proper treatment, 
disappears in a comparatively short time, while in other cases the gland remains enlarged, even after 
the animal recovers its appetite. - 

Treatment. — Apply a warm bran poultice to the swollen gland, and whenever the poultice has 
cooled it should be replaced with a warm one. This treatment should be continued until an abscess forms, 
which may be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with the fingers, and when on pressing 
any part of the surface it is found to fluctuate or give, we may conclude that an abscess has formed. 
Do not open the abscess before the fluctuation is well marked. Continue the poulticing for two or three 
days after the abscess has been opened. If an antiseptic is needed use Phenalin diluted in water; or, 
if this is not at hand, first sponge the wound with tepid water once a day, and then apply a little of the 
following lotion: Carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 8 ounces. In some cases, after poulticing for four or 
five days, there will be no indication of softening at any point, the treatment may be discontinued; 
and then the swollen gland should be gently rubbed once a day with camphorated oil. If this fails 
aote absorption or bring about a gradual dispersion of the swelling, to obtain this result, 

—324— 



DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET. 325 

the gland may be painted with tincture of iodine twice a day or rubbed once a day with a compound 
iodine ointment. When the swollen gland is not being poulticed it should be covered with a piece of 
flannel. The diet of the animal should consist of soft feed, and while under this treatment always add 
2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed. In health the proportion should be 1 tablespoonful 
to each feed. 

Tumors frequently form in the pharynx, and when they- increase in size may 
Pharyngeal Polypi, give rise to a train of symptoms varying according to the situation which they 

occupy in that part. In almost any part of the pharynx, but especially near 
the entrance of the gullet, they will interfere with the act of swallowing! and this fact is so generally 
recognized in some parts of Germany that whenever an animal begins to lose condition it is said to have 
a growth of the throat. 

Treatment. — The method of treatment in such cases is to separate the animal's jaws with an 
instrument termed a gag, and then after drawing the tongue partially forward to pass the hand into the 
pharynx, and to wrench or twist the tumor from its attachment. One veterinarian who has had con- 
siderable experience in the treating of this form of disease scrapes through the attachment of the tumor 
gradually with his thumb nail. In cases where the attachment is too strong to be severed in this way an 
instrument like a thimble, but possessing a sharp edge at the end, might be used to effect the same 
purpose. Give, the animal 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed while treating, in order to 
insure perfect digestion and circulation. As an antiseptic use Phenalin. 

is an accident usually happening from attempting to swallow too large an 
Choking object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, apple or pear, though in rare cases it 

may occur from bran, chaff and the like. 

Symptoms will vary somewhat according to the part of the gullet or throat in which the obstruc- 
tion is located. Generally there is a discharge of saliva from the throat or mouth; the animal coughs 
frequently, and, when it drinks, the water is soon ejected. These symptoms, however, are not present 
in every instance. 

Treatment. — Always put a gag in the animal's mouth, and, while the head is held in a horizontal 
position by two assistants, pass the hand into the pharynx and withdraw any foreign body lodged 
there gradually and steadily. If lodged in the upper part of the gullet pressure should be made by the 
assistant in an upward direction while the operator passes his hand into the pharynx ; and if the operator 
cannot by pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet he may, by passing the middle finger above and 
partly behind the substance, gradually slide the object into the pharynx and then withdraw it through 
the mouth. ■ The presence of an obstructing substance in the cervical portion of the gullet may be ascer- 
tained by passing the hand along the left side of the neck, where a hard and painless swelling will be found 
to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases you must endeavor, by gentle and persevering 
pressure with the thumb and the two next fingers, to slide the obstruction gradually upward to the 
pharynx. To help this process along give the animal a wineglassful of olive oil before commencing the 
manipulation. After the substance has been brought forward to the pharynx the mouth gag should 
be used and the method already described employed. When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is well 
to give a small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet and then, by gentle, persevering 
pressure, endeavor to separate and divide the mass, working it down toward the stomach. To assist 
this, pour small quantities of oil and water down the animal's throat between whiles. Do not use the 
probang to push down any soft substance as it tends to condense and make the obstruction firmer, so 
that in the end it forms a solid, resisting mass which cannot be moved. 

In some cases the substance cannot be dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipulating 
that part externally. In this case we must resort to the probang; or, if the foreign body is lodged in that 
part of the gullet which passes through the thorax or chest, there is no way of removing it except by 
the probang. It is best to have a veterinarian show you the use of this instrument before you attempt 
to employ it yourself. In case the substance is lodged in the part of the gullet commonly called the neck, 
and if it be soft and easily broken a blow on it from the outside may alter its shape or crush it, admitting 
of its passing down; but if it be a -hard substance this method is dangerous and must not be resorted to. 
If the above methods fail, call in a veterinarian. 



326 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 



Often from the too rash and forcible use of the probang the walls of the gullet 

Wounds and are more or less lacerated, and pain and difficulty attend the swallowing. In 

Injuries of such cases dry feed must be withheld for five or six days, so as to allow the injured 

the Gullet. part to heal, and the diet must be limited to linseed tea, hay tea, thin oatmeal 

gruel, etc., always adding 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed, 

as a tonic and to strengthen the system. If an operation by a veterinarian was necessary, cutting into the 

gullet to remove the foreign body, the same diet should be employed. In a few instances the gullet may 

be lacerated and ruptured so much that treatment of any kind is hopeless. If this be the case, better 

slaughter the animal without delay. In emergency the handle of a whip, or any similar flexible substance, 

may be used in place of a probang. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 

is a disease characterized by swelling of the left flank, and is caused by the 
Tympanites, fermentation of gas in the rur.xen or paunch. 

H O V e n , or Causes. — Feed which produces indigestion. When cattle are first turned 

Bloating into young clover they eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results. 

Turnips, potatoes and cabbage may also cause it; middlings and corn meal 
frequently give rise to it. An excessive quantity of these feeds may produce it, or it may be due not 
to excess but to eating too hastily. . The quality of the feed may be at fault. Grass or clover, when 
wet by dew or rain, frequently disorders digestion and brings on tympanites. Frozen roots or pastures 
covered with hoar frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When feed has been eaten too hastily, 
or when it is cold or wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed and the feed contained in the 
paunch ferments, during which process large quantities of gas is formed. This may also be the case when 
a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the eructation or passing up of gas from the 
stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate and tympanites results. 

Symptoms. — Swelling of -the left flank. In well marked cases the flank at its upper part rises 
above the level of the backbone and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a drum like sound: 
The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, and is evidently distressed. If relief is not 
obtained in time it breathes with difficulty, reels in walking or standing, and in a short time falls down 
and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may become so great as to prevent the 
animal from breathing, and in some instances the case may be complicated by rupture of the stomach. 
Treatment. — In urgent cases use the trocar at once. The trocar is a sharp pointed instrument 
encased in a sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the trocar free. In selecting the point for using 
the trocar, a spot equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone and the transverse processes of the lumbar 
vertebra must be chosen. Make an incision of about % of an inch through the skin, then direct the 
sharp point of the trocar downward, inward, and slightly forward, thrusting it into the paunch. The 
sheath of the trocar should be left in the paunch so long as any gas continues to issue therefrom. Other- 
wise it may be necessary to insert it again. Hence, be careful not to remove it before all gas formed 
or forming has escaped. To be certain on this point place the palm of your hand about two inches above 
the mouth of the canula, when, if gas is issuing, the sensation produced by the current of gas coming in 
contact with the skin will enable you to form an accurate opinion. Occasionally it is necessary to keep 
the canula in the stomach for several hours. In such cases a piece of stout cord should be passed around 
the neck of the canula immediately below the projecting rim, and then passed around the animal's body 
and tied in a secure knot. The rim surrounding the mouth of the canula should be in contact with the 
skin. When the canula is secured as described it may be left in position over night. It has even been 
found necessary to leave it for two days. However, whenever you are satisfied that gas has ceased to 
issue from the canula, remove it. Only use the canula in extreme or urgent cases, and we only advise 
its use by a veterinarian. If the animal is not distressed, and the swelling of the flank not great, use 
internal medicines. Give a double dose of Davis Colic Cure and repeat in three hours; or, if this is not 
at hand, give 2 ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia every half hour in 1 quart of cold water; or }/% ounce 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 327 

of chloride of lime may be dissolved in 1 pint of tepid water, and the dose repeated every half hour until 
the bloating has subsided. It is generally necessary to give a dose of purgative medicine after bloating 
has subsided, as animals frequently show signs of constipation after attacks of indigestion. Davis Stock 
Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, will prove of the utmost value, as it perfects the digestion and circu- 
lation. After treatment, and after the recovery of the animal, you may continue to use it, reducing 
to 1 tablespoonful to each feed, thereby keeping your cow in good health and vitality, and practically 
insuring it against disease. When the bloating is not too great, gentle walking exercise will facilitate 
the removal of gas. . 

Cattle, especially such as have been kept in stable all winter, are liable to suffer 
Chronic from chronic tympanites, causing the animal to bloat up after feeding, although 

Tympanites. the swelling rarely is so great as to cause any alarm. The chronic form of the 

disease may also follow an acute attack like that previously described. 
Treatment should be preceded by a moderate dose of purgative medicine, also using Davis 
Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, to aid the digestion and assimilation. If this does not cure 
the disease, as it will in milder cases, try the following:- One pound of sulphate of magnesia, Yz ounce of 
powdered Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce of powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. Stir the powder for a few 
minutes with 2 quarts of luke warm water, then add the molasses, stir the whole together for ten minutes, 
then administer. After the operation Of the purgative give some good tonic and antacid preparation 
such as Davis Stock Food. Let the animal go out once a day, as want of exercise favors this form of 
indigestion. Cases sometimes occur that resist treatment, and may be due to some organic malformation, 
such as an enlarged lymphatic gland pressing on the gullet, etc. 

is a form of indigestion caused by the animal gorging itself with feed. There 
Distention of is comparatively little formation of gas", and the gas which is formed is diffused 
Rumen or Paunch through the stomach instead of accumulating in a layer in its upper part. On 
with Food pressing the flank with the closed fist the indent of the hand remains for a short 

time in the flank, as if the rumen were filled with a soft doughy mass. This 
form of indigestion should be treated with stimulants, such as have been prescribed in speaking of the 
two preceding diseases. If Davis Stock Food is used, 1 tablespoonful to each feed in health, and 2 table- 
spoonfuls to each feed in disease, the trouble as a rule can be prevented. If, however, the disease 
has been contracted, and the treatment recommended fails to bring relief,' the impacted or overloaded 
condition of the rumen continuing, a veterinarian should be called and an incision should be made with 
a sharp, long bladed knife in the left flank, commencing at the point where it is usual to puncture an ox, 
and prolonging the incision in a downward direction until it is long enough to admit a hand. When the 
point of the knife is thrust into the flank and the blade of the knife cuts- downward, the wall of the stomach, 
the muscle and the skin should all be cut through at the same time. Two assistants should holti. the edge 
of the wound together, so as to prevent any feed from slipping between the flank and the wall of the 
•stomach, and then the operator should remove two thirds of the contents of the rumen. This having 
been done the edges of the wound should be sponged with a little warm water and Phenalin, and, the 
lips of the wound in the rumen being turned inward, they should be brought together with catgut stitches. 
The wound penetrating the muscle and the skin may then be brought together with silk stitches, which 
should pass through the entire thickness of the muscle and should be about an inch apart. The wound 
should afterward be dressed once a day with a lotion and the animal covered with a tight linen sheet to 
protect the wound from insects and dirt. The lotion used may be made up either of Phenalin, in a 2 per 
cent solution, or, if this is not at hand, sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic acid, 2 drams; glycerine, 2 
ounces ; water, 14 ounces; mix. 

means that the animal does not ruminate or chew its cud. It is a symptom of 
LOSS of Cud suspended rumination, and shows that the animal's digestive functions are 

not performed as regularly as usual. It is a symptom of a great many diseases, 
and, when its existence is detected, it should lead the observer to try to discover other symptoms, so that 
he may be able to gain a correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal suffers. 

should not be confounded with rumination, though it has been asserted that it is 
Vomiting merely a disordered and irregular rumination. It is not very common in cattle. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 



Symptoms. — Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition. After eating peacefully 
for some time the animal suddenly becomes uneasy, arches the back, stretches the neck and head 
and then suddenly ejects nineteen or twenty pounds of the contents of the rumen. Then the uneasiness 
subsides, and in a short time it resumes eating as if nothing had happened. 

Causes. — The causes of a disordered condition of the digestive system in cattle is rather obscure. 
The vomited matter proceeds from the rumen, showing temporary nervous disorder of the part. 
Cancerous disease of the fourth stomach has been found to be the cause in some cases. 

Treatment. — Easily digested feed, to which is added Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each 
feed, and plenty of water should be given. Fear and excitement, chasing or hurrying of the animals 
after eating is apt to bring on this result. Hydrate of chloral, }'i ounce; whisky, 8 ounces; water, 1 
pint, may be used to remove the conditions which produce vomiting. Repeat the dose when- the 
condition of the animal seems to require it. • ' 

or Pica, is indicated in cattle by capricious and variable appetite as regards 

Depraved their ordinary feed, while they evince a strong desire to lick and eat substances 

Appetite, for which healthy cattle show no inclination, Cows in calf and young cattle 

are especially liable to develop these symptoms. Animals affected in this way 
lose condition, their coat becomes staring, gait slow, and small vesicles containing yellow liquid form 
under the tongue. The milk given by the cows is thin and watery. The animals become restless and 
uneasy and bellow frequently. The disease may last for months, the animal ultimately dying — worn 
out with fever. Depraved appetite frequently precedes the condition in which the bones of cattle 
become brittle and fracture easily, and which is known by the name of osteomalacia. 

Causes.— Bad feed, especially feed which has undergone changes which lessen its digestibility 
and impair its nutritive value. Cattle pastured on low, swampy lands seem predisposed thereto. The 
assimilation is imperfect. There is a lack of the constituents required to supply the wear and growth 
of the body. 

Treatment. — In a case like this Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, will be' of the 
greatest possible benefit, and if used as directed will positively effect a cure. Ft increases the action 
of the salivary glands, insuring perfect work of the digestive organs, this again reacting upon the cir- 
culation throughout the entire system and making the animal assimilate every morsel of the feed that 
passes through its belly. If Davis Stock Food is used regularly, 2 tablespoonfuls in disease and 1 in 
health, other remedial agents or correctives are unnecessary; but should the affection already exist, 
and the stock food is not on hand, the following treatment should be given: Carbonate of iron, 6 ounces; 
powdered gentian, 6 ounces;' common salt, 4 ounces; powdered fenugreek, 10 ounces; mix. In addition 
to this 3 tablespoonfuls of charcoal (if Davis Stock Food is not given) should be mixed with the animal's 
feed at least three times a day, and a piece of rock salt should be placed where the animal can lick it. 

or hair balls, are produced by animals licking themselves, or licking other 
Hair Concretions, animals. The hairs swallowed are carried around by the contractions of the 

stomach and gradually assume the form of small pellets or balls. These 
increase in size as fresh quantities of hair are introduced into the- stomach, becoming adherent to the 
surface of the hair ball. 

There are no certain symptoms by which we can determine the presence of hair balls in the stom- 
ach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended. Keep the digestion and circulation of your 
cattle in perfect working order, by the regular use of Davis Stock Food, and the danger from this source 
will be a remote one. 

T , . . popularly known as grass staggers, dry murrain, wood evil, is a disease concerning 

, ,,° _,. , the exact nature of which authorities disagree. There is, however, a general 

_ , agreement that the seat of the disease is in the third stomach. Perhaps 

' it is more correct to regard it as a general disorder of the digestive organs. 

Causes. — Want of exercise; coarse, indigestible feed; feed containing astringent properties and 
tending to check secretions ; an excessive quantity of feed. It often appears toward the end of a 
prolonged season of drought; a deficiency in water may therefore be one of the causes. The causes, 
however, are not sharply defined. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. ; 329 

Symptoms. — Diminished appetite,- rumination irregular, tongue coated, mouth slimy, dung passed, 
apparently not well digested and smelling badly, are some of the more prominent symptoms. 

Treatment. — Keep the digestion and assimilation of your animals up to the standard by using 
Davis Stock Food in the proportion heretofore indicated (1 tablespoonful to each feed in health 
and 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed in disease for adult cows ; calves, J^ tablespoonful in health and dis- 
ease), and you will have but little trouble from this source. The diet should be rather laxative and of a 
digestible character after an attack. If the disease has had time to develop, aromatic and demulcent 
drafts should be given to produce a soothing effect on. the, mucous lining of the stomach. Boil 2 
ounces of camomile flowers for twenty minutes in a quart of water, and, on cooling, give the infusion to 
the affected animal. Repeat three times a day. If constipation is present administer the following 
purgative: Sulphate of magnesia, 1 pound; Barbadoes aloes, ■ J^ ounce; powdered ginger, 1 ounce; 
powdered nux vomica, 1 dram; fluid extract of belladonna, J^ ounce. Stir up the different powders 
contained in this prescription in 2 quarts of luke warm water, add the fluid extract of belladonna and 
then administer the dose. After this purgative has acted, if there is a lack of appetite and the animal 
does not ruminate regularly, the powder mentioned in remarks on the treatment of chronic tympanites 
should be given according to directions. As stated, Davis Stock Food used as a preventive is 
preferable at all times, and when the disease is present its faithful use will make most of the other 
measures unnecessary. 

or colic, is a disorder produced by drinking copiously of cold water, which 
Indigestion arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the 
from Drinking other stomachs and also of the bowels. It is frequently observed in working 
Cold Water, oxen during hot weather. 

Causes. — During hot weather when the ox has been working, and conse- 
quently is very thirsty, he is apt, contrary to his usual habits, to drink a large quantity of cold water, 
and is often immediately after taken with a severe case of colic. Milch cows also may be affected in the 
same way in winter, when they are let out of a warm stable to be watered. Cows which are fed largely 
on dry hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in precisely the same manner. 
The secretion of milk in a cow is usually much diminished after such attacks. 

Symptoms. — Distention of the abdomen, but no accumulation of gas. This distention and pain 
occur immediately after the animal has drunk the water, and there can therefore be no doubt as to 
the cause of the disease. 

Treatment. — French farmers are said to walk or even trot the ox up and down, and as a result of 
this treatment the water passes from the fourth stomach into the bowels, from which it is soon passed 
off. Diarrhea then appears to be a favorable termination of the disease. This treatment should be 
adopted in a modified form. It is plainly dangerous to trot the animal whose bowels are largely dis- 
tended with water, but it appears rational to walk the animal about ten minutes before administering 
medicine, as this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach to pass into the bowels, and 
renders it safer to give the medicine. In many cases the walking exercise and the diarrhea bring about 
a cure. If not, give 1 bottle of Davis Colic Cure; or, if this is not on hand, 1 ounce of sulphuric ether and 
1 ounce of tincture of opium shaken up with 1 pint of warm water, repeating the dose in half an hour if 
the animal *is not relieved. One cupful of Davis Stock Food will usually effect a cure. In an 
emergency, when medicine is not to be had, Yi pint of whisky may be substituted, and should be given 
mixed with 1' pint of warm water ; or 1 tablespoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in the 
same way as the remedies already mentioned. These cases very rarely terminate fatally. 

also called gastric catarrh, diarrhea or white scour, is a form of diarrhea common 
Indigestion to suckling calves. 

in Calves, Causes. — Calves sucking their dams- are not infrequently subject to this 

disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at too long an interval 
and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indigestion. Calves fed on artificial feed, used as Sk 
substitute for milk, also frequently contract it. 



330 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 



Symptoms. — The milk passing into the fourth stomach becomes curdled and acts as an irritant 
on the surface of the stomach and bowels, so that a catarrhal condition of the mucous membrane results. 
The passages have a thin, yellowish white appearance and become very frequent. The calf becomes dull, 
whisks its tail as if in pain whenever there is a passage from the bowels, loses its appetite, becomes weak, 
and unless the disease is checked in time it dies in a few days from exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Give the calf from 1 to 2 ounces of castor oil and 1 tablespoonful of laudanum. A 
mild dose of purgative medicine should be given to remove the curdled milk from the stomach and bowels. 
These remedies, however, may be dispensed with if Davis Scour Cure is used in accordance with the direc- 
tions given. For scour and allied diseases in calves there is no better, swifter or safer remedy in the 
world than this. To allay irritation we recommend the following, divided into twelve powders: Powdered 
rhubarb, 1 ) 2 ounces ; carbonate of magnesia, 3 ounces. Shake up with 1 wineglassful of new milk, to 
which 2 tablespoonfuls of whisky should be added. 'A little fresh milk should be given about six times 
a day, or the calf allowed to suck about six times a day, but the quantity should be limited. Always 
examine the mother as to her condition of health, diet, etc., as the disorder may sometimes be traced 
to some disease or mismanagement affecting the mother. Give the mother 1 tablespoonful of Davis 
Stock Food to each feed to keep her in heafthy normal condition. 

consists of an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach 
GastfO Enteritis and bowel. It is seldom limited to the mucous membrane of the fourth 

stomach, but almost always involves the mucous membrane of the bowel 
to a greater or lesser extent. 

Causes. — Long intervals between times of feeding; sudden checking of perspiration; putting 
working oxen to severe work immediately after feeding, so that they do not have time to ruminate; 
sudden changes of diet. (Rest your oxen after feeding, so that ruminating is not interfered with. 
Do not feed stale grass.) 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; drooping of ears ; dryness of muzzle ; dry skin ; staring coat ; loins mor- 
bidly sensitive to pressure ; fullness of the left flank, which is owing to the distention of the fourth stomach 
by gas. The pulse is small; the gait is feeble and staggering, each step the animal takes is accom- 
panied by a grunt, and this symptom is especially marked if the animal is walking in a downward 
direction ; there is loss of appetite and the rumination is suspended. On the second day of sickness the 
passages are few in number, hard, and are sometimes coated with mucus. At the last stage of the 
disease the passages exhale a putrid odor which may even occasion sickness in other animals. Therefore, 
if possible, keep the sick animals apart from the healthy ones. When the sick animal assumes a recum- 
bent position there is a continual grunt or moan which appears to accompany each expiration; if the 
case is allowed to go on the animal usually dies in convulsions, and in some cases at this time a 
bloody liquid issues from the mouth and anus. 

Treatment. — Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, used in accordance with directions, is one of the best 
and safest treatments known to science for this malady, and the prudent farmer will do well in always 
having a supply of it at hand for emergency. Owing to the fact that this malady is frequently caused by 
imperfectly digested feed, setting up inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, it is also advis- 
able when disease is supposed to originate from such cause to give 1 pint of castor oil before starting 
the use of the specific. If Bradbury's Brazilian Specific is not at hand, give the following three times 
a day: One quart of linseed tea in which 1 ounce of carbonate of magnesia has been dissolved, and 
along with each dose 10 drops of tincture of aconite §hould be combined. Let the feed be soft and easily 
digested, adding to each feed 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food for adult cattle. It is also advis- 
able as early as the second day of the animal's sickness to give small quantities of hay or grass so as 
n courage the animal to ruminate, which it will not do if kept entirely on soft and liquid feed. Do 
not give too much, however.- Purgative remedies should only be administered when absolutely necessary. 

results either from increased action of the muscular coat of the intestines, 

Diarrhea an unusually liquid state of their contents, or, generally, from both of these 

conditions combined. 

Causes. — Irritation of the intestines, by taking feed in excess or of improper quality, especially 
soft, watery, green feed; excessive secretions, especially bile; impure water and water drunk in excess; 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 331 

mechanical congestion of the intestinal vessels; acute or chronic inflammation of the bowels. It also 
may be a symptom attendant upon some other disease. Exposure to changes of temperature, either 
excessive heat or cold, may produce it. 

Symptoms. — The animal is dull, places its feet well under the body, arches its back, and shows 
thirst. Passages from the bowels are frequent, at first consisting in thin dung, but later becoming 
watery and offensive smelling, and may even be streaked with blood. Often it is accompanied with 
fever, great depression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate in death. 

Treatment.- — Davis Scour Cure is a specific for diarrhea and kindred diseases, composed of the 
best counteracting and correcting remedial agents known to science, and if given according to directions 
it will cure all ordinary cases. Two tablespoonfuls at a dose should be given to full grown cattle. When 
the disease is caused by irritating properties of the feed, it is advisable to give a mild purgative, such as 
1 pint of castor oil or linseed oil. If Davis Scour Cure is not at hand, give, in cases where the secretions 
of the bowels are irritating, 1 ounce of carbonate of magnesia and 3^ ounce of tincture of opium, 
shaken up in 1 quart of linseed tea. Give three times a day until the passages present a natural appear- 
ance. When there is debility, want of appetite, no fever but a continuance of the watery discharges 
from the bowels, an astringent may be used. Try powdered galls, 6 ounces; powdered gentian, 2 ounces, 
Mix and divide into twelve powders. Give one powder three times a day until the passages present a 
natural appearance. Mix each powder with Y^ pint of whisky and 1 pint of water. If Davis Scour 
Cure is used the other remedies may, as a rule, be dispensed with. Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 
to each feed, should be given throughout the treatment to correct the digestive and assimilative functions. 

begins with an inflammation of the membrane of the colon, though the disease 
Dysentery may extend to the caecum and rectum. It is popularly known in the country 

as bloody flux and red murrain. 
Causes. — Feeding cattle on hay which has been made during a wet season, musty oats, or any 
forage which is largely infested with parasitic growths. Hay or coarse oats containing a large proportion 
of woody fiber, pastures which have been inundated, and the vegetation growing in low, marshy localities, 
etc., may set up irritation of the membrane, terminating in dysentery. Water containing a large per- 
centage of organic matter may also be the cause. The passages of animals suffering from this malady 
should be regarded as infective, and should be disinfected, buried or burned. 

Symptoms. — Animal eats slowly, ruminates less frequently than when in health, and walks slowly. 
Colicky pains are sometimes indicated. In advanced stages the animal ceases to ruminate and eat, 
the muzzle is dry, the eyes sunken, the coat rough, the skin dry, adherent andr hidebound. Bowels 
act irregularly, and the passages are thin, black colored, grayish; passage then becomes fetid, more 
frequent, and streaked with blood. The disease does not run a rapid course, and when it proves fatal 
the membrane of the bowels will be found to be thickened and reddened at some parts, showing ulceration 
at other points, and covered with layers of mucus on some portions of its surface. 

Treatment. — Here, as in all diseases of this nature, Davis Scour Cure will be found the remedy 
par excellence, and in all ordinary cases it will bring about a cure in the shortest possible time. Always 
have it on hand, and at the first indication of the disease start to give mature cattle 2 tablespoonfuls 
at a dose, and young stock in accordance with the directions, and it will be the means of saving you many 
and many a cow. If you do not have it on hand, try the following: When the first symptoms of dysen- 
tery are observed mix 1 pound of sulphate of magnesia with 4 quarts of tepid water, then add 2 drams 
of dilute sulphuric acid gradually. Give this in one dose, and administer as early in the disease as 
possible. Let the feed be soft and easily digested, consisting of grass, boiled or pulped roots. Always 
add 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed. (The regular proportion is, as has heretofore 
been stated, 2 tablespoonfuls to the grown cow or ox in disease, and 1 tablespoonful in health, as a 
preventive and strengthener ; calves should be given half the amount.) If Davis Stock Food is not 
at hand give nutritive drinks, such as linseed tea, hay tea, etc. When the purgative heretofore 
mentioned has unloaded the stomach to some extent, give the following powder three times a day, 
mixed with a quart of linseed tea: Powdered ipecacuanha, 1}^ ounces; powdered opium, ^ ounce; 
mix and divide into twelve powders. If this is not effective, try oil of turpentine, given m 



332 DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. t 

1 g ounce doses three times a day in 1 quart of sweet milk. If Davis Scour Cure is given according 
to directions, and Davis Stock Food included with the feed ration, these remedies may be 
dispensed with. 

is an inflammation involving the mucous, muscular, and serous coats of the bowels. 
Simple Enteritis Causes. — It occurs at all seasons of the year, but most frequently where 

there are great variations of temperature. In oxen hard work may be the 
cause. Eating such feed as must}* hay and oats, forage containing acid plants, leaves of trees 
infested with caterpillars, grass which has commenced to ferment after cutting, dusty hay, and grass 
covered with hoar frost may give rise to enteritis. Copious drinking of cold water may produce it. 
Exposure to cold, damp wind, or any influence which suddenly chills the surface of the body, may 
operate as a cause. 

Symptoms. — Dryness of the muzzle, diminished appetite, partial or total cessation of rumination, 
symptoms of colic which are indicated by restlessness. The animal lies down and gets up frequently, 
looks around at its flank, raises its tail, paws with the front feet, and strikes with its feet at the abdomen. 
After a time the signs of acute pain subside, and the animal lies down, but does not appear to be free 
from pain, turns its nose toward the flank and does not eat or ruminate. When injections are given 
they are soon ejected from the bowels: the passages are dry, glistening, and coated with mucus. Gas 
is frequently passed; frequent attempts at urination are made but only a small quantity passed at a 
time. The disease comes on suddenly and runs a rapid course, death in fatal cases taking place in 
four or five hours. If taken in time recover)* may take place in a short time. By using Davis Stock 
Food regularly the disease, as a rule, can be prevented. 

Treatment. — Bradbury's Brazilian Specific; have it at hand and use it as early as possible, soon 
as the first symptoms of the disease show. If the disease has gained headway bleed the animal to the 
extent of from 2 to 4 quarts, taking into consideration the age and condition of the animal. Then give 
} 9-ounce doses of laudanum several times a day, mixed with linseed tea. During the disease increase 
the quantity of Davis Stock Food to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

is a rare disease but comes on suddenly, and is characterized by a hemorrhage 

Hemorrhagic or exudation of blood between the mucous and muscular coats -of the bowels. 

Enteritis Malady usually occurs among working oxen during very hot weather. It 

is more dangerous than the form already described. After, the acute symptoms 

subside the animal may show great weakness, owing to the hemorrhage. Do not bleed. Tone and 

strengthen by the use^of Davis Stock Food. Give Davis Scour Cure according to directions. 

is an inflammation of the bowels, which may be produced by cattle licking off 
Mercurial the mercurial ointment rubbed on them in skin diseases. 

Enteritis Symptoms are similar to those occurring in the forms of enteritis already 

described. Special symptoms are grinding of the teeth and dribbling of saliva 
from the corners of the mouth. Two or three days after the attack gas is frequently passed from the bowels ; 
the belly is tucked up and the flanks become hollow ; the passages are very thin and coated with mucus. 
On the fifth or sixth day there is a swelling of the tongue and mucous membrane of the mouth, quivering 
of the muscles of "the limbs, staggering gait, great emaciation. The animal dies about the twelfth day. 
Treatment. — Do not use mercurial ointment in the treatment of skin diseases. If it has been done, 
and you have Bradbury's Brazilian Specific at hand use it according to directions as soon as the first 
symptoms appear. In the last stages there is no hope of recovery. Give drafts composed of the whites 
of eggs and sweet milk (purgatives) followed by the * administration of chlorate of potash. The eggs and 
sweet milk should be given immediately after it is known that the animal has swallowed the mercurial 
ointment, each quart of milk mixed with the whites of two eggs. Give a quart of the mixture three 
or four times a day at short intervals, say half an hour, then give a pint of castor oil. After the 
castor oil has taken effect, give 3^ ounce of chlorate of potash, dissolved in 1 quart of warm water, 
three times a day. For debility and want of appetite, resulting from such illness, give Davis Stock 
Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, as usual. If this is not at hand, ^ dram of nux vomica combined 
with 2 drams of powdered gentian should be given three times a day. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 333 



Resulting from invagination or intussusception, twisting and knotting of the 
Enteritis. bowels. A knot forming on some part of the small intestines may cause inflam- 

mation; inflammation may also arise from a portion of the bowel becoming 
twisted on itself, or from one part of the bowel slipping into another, which is termed invagination. 
This form of enteritis occurs occasionally in animals of the bovine species. 

Causes. — The small intestine,- which in the ox rests on the right sac or division of the rumen, 
is from the position which it occupies predestined to this accident. It has been ascertained that animals 
which have shown symptoms of this malady have trotted, galloped, or otherwise made violent exer- 
tions in coming from drinking ; or that they have been chased by dogs or by animals of their own species 
while at pasture. "The danger of jumping or running seems to be very slight to the ox if he is fasting, 
as the rumen in that case not being distended with feed allows the small intestine to fall to the lower 
part of the abdomen; but when the rumen is distended the bowel does not slip so easily to this position. 
Symptoms. — Severe colicky pains ; the ox scrapes and strikes the ground with his front and hind 
feet alternately; lies down and gets up again; keeps' his tail constantly raised, and turns his nose fre- 
quently to his right flank; is frequently bloated and tympanitic on that side; refuses feed; does not rumi- 
nate, and for some hours suffers severe pain. At first thin dung is passed, with frequent urinating, 
in small quantities. On the second day the pains have become less acute; the animal remains lying 
down ; moans occasionally ; his pulse is small and quick ; he refuses feed and does not ruminate. At 
this stage he does not pass any dung, though sometimes a small quantity of bloody mucus may be passed. 
Cattle so affected may live for fifteen or even twenty days. 

Treatment. — Save your cattle from becoming victims of this disease by always having Davis 
Stock Food at hand and keeping the digestive and assimilative powers in healthy condition. This in 
nine out of ten cases will prevent the attack. Once the animal is affected, treatment of any kind is of 
little or no avail. 

is rather to be regarded as a symptom of disease than as a disease itself. In 
Constipation order to remove it the treatment must be applied to remove the causes which 

give rise to it. Calves may suffer from constipation immediately after birth, 
and the meconium feces that accumulate in the bowels" before birth is not passed, as is usually the case 
in calves. The cause seems to be that the dams of such calves have been fed too exclusively on dry 
feed before the calf's birth. To prevent this, vary the diet of the mother before birth and add 1 table- 
spoonful of Davis Stock Food to each feed. If the calf is constipated give 1 ounce of castor oil shaken 
up with 1 ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best to prevent recurrence of the constipation. 

Cattle are less infested with intestinal parasites than any other species Of our 
Intestinal Worms, domestic animals. An examination of the passages is the only certain method 

of determining the existence of worms. 

Treatment. — Goodard's Worm Powders is the best known remedy for all kinds of worms and 
parasites in the bowels of cattle. They are included among the Davis remedies, and if used according 
to directions they rarely fail to bring. about a cure. If they are not at hand, try the following: To 
remove tapeworms give 1 ounce of male fern three times a day in 1 pint of milk for three days in succes- 
sion, and then on the fourth day give 1 pint of castor oil. For round worms give 2 drams of sulphate of 
iron three times a day, mixed in a little oats and~middlings, and after continuing treatment for three 
days give 1 pint of castor. oil, as before described. In treating calves, which are more apt to be infested 
with worms than grown cattle, reduce the doses to one-fourth or one-third. Davis Stock Food regu- 
larly fed with the ration will as a rule prevent worms occurring in cattle, keeping the digestion and the 
alimentary canal in perfect condition. 



RUPTURES. 



Hernia of the bowels, which are situated on the upper or right side of the 
Hernia of abdomen, are usually formed by the small intestines. In an intestinal hernia 

the Bowels. the swelling is usually not painful, of a doughy consistency or elastic, according 

as the intestine does or does not contain alimentary matter. This swelling 
can generally be made to disappear by pressure, and when it has been reduced one can easily recognize 
the direction and extent of the hernial opening. In hernia of the small intestine adhesion of the pro- 
truding parts of the walls of the opening, or strangulation, are complications which sometimes take 
place. If adhesion has taken place the swelling cannot be reduced by pressure, and when strangulation 
has occurred the animal shows signs of pain. In such a case the edges of the opening through which the 
bowel has passed press on the bowel so as first to excite pain, then inflammation, which, if unrelieved, 
usually terminates in gangrene. The animal is restless, turns its nose to the painful part and shows 
those symptoms which are usually collectively indicated under the term colic. When the swelling of 
hernia contains a portion of peritoneum it is soft and doughy and does not produce the sensation on 
handling it that it does when containing gas or alimentary matter. 

usually occurs in calves; often caused by a blow from a cow's horn on the right 
Hernia of the flank of the calf; and this may happen when the calf is trying to suck a strange 
Fourth Stomach cow. After such an accident a swelling forms on the right flank near the last 

rib. It may be either hot or painful, even at first, but is soft to the touch. 
It can be made to disappear by careful pressure when the sides of the aperture through which it has 
passed can be felt. Try this application of pressure to remove the hernia immediately after the 
occurrence, when the edema which accompanies the swelling has disappeared. 

Treatment.— If a hernia is reducible, that is", can be pushed back into the abdomen, it is advisable 
to maintain it in its natural position, and to allow the walls of the laceration to adhere or grow together. 
Here are some directions given by an eminent French veterinarian for the treatment of this form of hernia: 
First prepare a bandage (must be of strong material) about 10 yards long and between 3 and 4 
inches broad, and a flexible and solid piece of pasteboard, adapted in size to the surface of the hernia. 
Then replace the protruding organ in the abdomen and maintain it in that position during the appli- 
cation of the bandage. This being done, a layer of melted pitch and turpentine is quickly spread on the 
skin covering the seat of the hernia, so as to extend somewhat beyond that space. This adhesive layer 
is then covered with a layer of fine tow, then a new layer of pitch and turpentine is spread on the tow, 
and the piece of pasteboard is applied on the layer of pitch, its outer surface being covered with the same 
preparation. Lastly the bandage, adhering to the piece of pasteboard and to the skin, is carefully 
applied so as to form an immovable, rigid and solid bandage, which will retain the hernia long enough 
for the wound in the abdominal walls to heal permanently.. While treating this condition it is 
important to keep the digestion perfect and passage of feed through the alimentary canal unobstructed. 
To this end feed Davis Stock Food regularly with the ration. 

or hernia of the navel, is very common in very young animals. The umbilicus, or 
Umbilical Hernia, navel, is the aperture through which the blood vessels pass from the mother to 

the fetus and, naturally, the sides of this aperture ought to adhere or unite after 
birth. In new born calves and other very young animals this aperture in the abdominal muscles remains 
open and a part of the bowel or a portion of the mesentery may slip through the opening, constituting 
what is called umbilical hernia. The wall of the sac is formed by the skin which is covered on the inner 
surface by a layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is sometimes, but not always, a layer 
of peritoneum. 

Causes. — In the new born animal the opening of the navel is generally too large, and this opening 
may sometimes give way to the pressure of the bowel on account of the weak and relaxed condition of the 
abdominal muscles. This defective and abnormal condition of the navel is frequently hereditary. Roughly 

—334— 



i 



RUPTURES. 335 



pulling away the umbilical cord may occasion it ; also kicks of blows on the belly ; severe straining, by 
which the sides of the navel are stretched apart. It is best in new born calves to tie the umbilical cord 
tightly about 2 inches from the navel and then leave it alone, when it will drop off in a few days in most 
cases, leaving the navel in a closed condition. 

Treatment — Small hernia of this nature will, as a rule, heal of themselves. However, in cases 
where there are no indications that a spontaneous cure will take place, the calf should be laid on its back, 
and immediately on this being done the hernia will often disappear into the abdomen. If it does not its 
reduction may be brought about' by gentle handling, endeavoring, if need be, to empty the organs forming 
the hernia before returning them into the abdomen. After returning the hernia, clip the hair from 
the skin covering it, and apply a compress composed of ten or twelve folds of linen or cotton, first smearing 
the skin with pitch, and then a bandage about 3 inches wide should be passed around the body so as to 
retain the compress in position. The lower part of the compress should be smeared with pitch, and also 
those parts of the bandage which pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent it from shifting. In some 
cases it willbe found that the contents of the sac cannot be returned into the abdomen and this generally 
arises from the fact that some parts of the contents of the sac have grown to or become adherent to the 
edges of the umbilical opening. In such cases a veterinarian should be called, and the skin must be 
carefully laid open in the long direction, the adhesions of the protruding organs carefully separated from 
the umbilicus, and after the protruding parts have been returned into the abdomen, the sides of the umbil- 
icus must be freshened if necessary by paring, and then the edges of the opening brought together by 
catgut stitches; the wound in the skin must then also be carefully dressed every day and a bandage 
passed around the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on. 

In small hernia nitric acid has been used successfully in the same manner as has been described 
in speaking of the treatment of ventral hernia: Sulphuric acid has also been used for similar purposes, 
diluting it to the extent of one part of acid to three or four of water. In thin skinned animals the weaker 
preparation ought to be preferred, and caution must be exercised in using such preparations so as not 
to destroy the tissues on which they are applied. Another method of treatment is, after the contents of 
the sac have been returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord around the pendulous 
portion which formed the outer covering of the hernia. The string is apt to slacken after two or three 
days, when a new piece of cord should be applied above the first one. The constriction of the skin sets up 
inflammation which generally extends to the umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere together, and 
by the time the portion of the skin beneath the ligament has lost its vitality and dropped off, the umbil- 
icus is closed and there is^io danger of the abdominal organs protruding through. This is what takes 
place when this method has a favorable result, though if the umbilicus does not become adherent the 
skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude through the opening. None of these measures should be attempted 
by any but a competent veterinarian. 

When only penetrating the skin such wounds are not dangerous, and we shall 
W OUnds of therefore here consider merely those wounds which penetrate the entire thickness 
the Abdomen. ot the abdominal walls and expose to a greater or lesser extent the organs 
contained in this cavity. 

Causes. — Such wounds may be occasioned by animals falling on broken glass fragments or other 
sharp objects; blows from the horns of other animals, or incautious use of caustics in the treatment for 
hernia may produce them. The parts generally escaping through such wounds are the small intestine 
and floating colon. 

Symptoms. — When wound is small the bowel exposed presents the appearance of a small, round 
tumor, but a few moments afterward a loop of intestine may escape from the opening. The animal 
then shows symptoms of severe pain by pawing with his feet, which has the effect of accelerating the 
passage of new loops of intestine through the wound, so that the mass which they form may even touch 
the ground. The pain becomes so great the ox now not only paws the ground, but lies down and rolls, 
thus tearing and crushing his bowels. In such cases it is best to slaughter the animal at once; but in 
the case of a valuable animal, in which the tearing and crushing has not taken place, the bowels should 
be returned and the wounds in the muscle and skin brought together in a manner somewhat similar to 
that which has been described in speaking of common hernia. 



RUPTURES. 



Jaundice is indicated by a yellowish appearance of the white of the eyes, and the 
Jaundice, the Yel- membrane of the mouth. A swollen condition of the membrane of that part 
lOWS, Congestion of the bowel called the duodenum may produce jaundice. In constipation 
of the Liver, there is an inactive or torpid condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes 

into the intestine may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. 
Jaundice is one of the symptoms of Texas fever and depends on the congested condition of the liver 
existing in that disease. It may also arise from injury to the nervous system, or from parasites and gall 
stones present in the bile ducts, obstructing the onward flow of bile. The conditions under which cattle 
most frequently need treatment for bile is when.they have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. 
At such times there is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood-, which is associated with 
increased fulness of the 1 portal vein and hepatic artery. 

Symptoms. — The disease is most common among stall fed cattle. Appetite is poor; pressure 
along the margin of the short ribs on the right side produces pain ; the animal drinks little or nothing. 
The membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow, the urine is yellow or brownish in appearance ; the animal 
prefers lying down, and moves with reluctance, moans occasionally and has a tottering gait. Ears 
and horns are alternately hot and cold. In cows the secretion of milk is much diminished, and what is 
secreted is bitter to the taste. Sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough, and presents a dull, 
stupefied appearance. 

Treatment. — Prevention is better than a cure, here as elsewhere, and Davis Stock Food, if used 
regularly with the ration, will usually prevent jaundice. If, however, the disease has been allowed to 
come on, it is advisable in the treatment first to produce a free action of the bowels, so as to remove 
the usually congested condition of the portal vein and liver. For this use the following dose: Sulphate 
of soda, 16 ounces; fluid extract of taraxacum, x / 2 ounce. Dissolve the sulphate of soda by stirring it 
up in 2 quarts of tepid water. The extract of taraxacum is mixed with it, and the mixture should be 
administered as one dose. When a purgative action has been produced, 1 dram of sulphate of cinchona, 
Yi ounce of fluid extract of taraxacum and 1 ounce of spirits of nitrous ether may be shaken up in 1 pint 
of water, and given night and morning for several days in succession. This treatment may be assisted 
by giving occasional injections, of soap and warm water. Let the diet be laxative, and moderate in quan- 
tity — coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass in season and hay in moderate quantities ; with each feed give 
2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food, and after the digestive and assimilative functions have been 
regulated, 1 tablespoonful to each feed. 

or inflammation of the liver, is a more advanced stage of the disease just described. 
Hepatitis, It is frequently restricted to a certain part of the liver, the rest of the organ 

being healthy. 
Symptoms. — Yellowishness of the eye and of the membrane lining the mouth ; poor appetite ; 
body presents an emaciated appearance, but there is frequently a fulness of the lower part of the abdomen. 
The gait is weak and the animal lies down more than usual, and while doing so frequently has its head- 
turned around resting on the side of its chest. 

Treatment. — One-half pound of sulphate of soda and }4, ounce of fluid extract of taraxacum 
should be mixed with 2 quarts of tepid water, and this should be given night and morning until a 
relaxed condition of the bowels is produced, as the object is not to produce a strong purgation but a laxa- 
tive effect which should be continued for some days. The diet should be similar to that recommended 
in speaking of congestion of the liver, with 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food added to each feed. 
After the treatment with laxatives has been continued for several days, 1 dram of sulphate of cinchona 
and 1 dram of dilute nitromuriatic acid should be shaken up in 1 quart of cold water and this dose should 
be given three times a day until the animal has regained its strength. Oil of turpentine, or, better still, 
Davis Veterinary Liniment, should be rubbed in well once a day over the region of the liver. The 
skin on which it should be applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to 6 inches 
in front of the last one, and from the backbone to 12 inches on the right side of it. Extreme 
heat and pasturing animals on low lying ground .are conditions favorable for the production 
of this disease. 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 337 

is caused by a parasite which infests the biliary ducts of the liver. It varies in 
The Fluke Disease size from % of an inch to a little over an inch in length and has a brownish flat- 
tened body. It belongs to the group of so called trematoda, or sucking worms. 
The fluke passes through several different stages of development, before it reaches the liver of the ani- 
mals which it infests, and is not only found in cattle, but in sheep and several species of wild animals. 
Parasites which have attained their full size usually after a time pass out of the animals in which 
they have been harbored, and die, when they have attained the limit of their existence. It has been 
.estimated that after the death and decomposition of one full grown fluke upward of 40,000 eggs will 
be liberated from its uterus. The agency of winds, rains, insects, the feed of cattle and other animals, 
disperse and carry these ova to considerable-distances, so that a large proportion of them find their way 
to pools, ditches, and streams, where the conditions exist necessary to their future development. After 
a time they reach the stage in which they are transferred with the fodder or drink to the digestive 
organs of their host. It will be understood from this that the disease mainly prevails on low, swampy 
lands, and especially on land which is subject to inundation. During a wet, rainy season the area 
over which it extends becomes much wider, and the losses which the disease occasions are 
consequently greater. 

Treatment. — The presence of these parasites in the biliary ducts does not at first seem to impair 
the health of the animal ; indeed, it has been stated that for a short time the animal appears to thrive better. 
This is accounted for by the statement that the presence of the flukes in the biliary ducts stimulates 
the secretion. of the bile; that this occasions a more complete digestion of the fatty elements of the feed, 
and a consequent improvement in the animal's condition in the early stage of the disease. When the 
flukes attain their full size, however, and are present in a large number, they set up inflammation in the 
walls of the biliary ducts. As a result of these parasites the liver becomes indurated and its secreting 
structure becomes atrophied and wasted. The animal becomes dull and weak, swellings of a dropsical 
nature form between the jaws and along the throat. There is fever, great emaciation, and dropsical 
accumulations in the chest and belly, which are soon followed by death. Treatment is usually 
of no avail. Preventive measures, aiming at always keeping the digestive and assimilative functions 
of the animal in healthy condition and the circulation full and uninterrupted, will, however, do much 
to obviate the contraction of this malady; and if you always keep Davis Stock Food at hand, feeding it 
in the proportions of 1 tablespoonful to each full grown cow and Yi tablespoonful to the calves in your 
herd, you will, under all ordinary conditions of sanitation and hygiene, practically insure your cattle 
against flukes. Once, however, an animal has contracted the disease you may as well kill it as soon 
as possible. * . • 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. • 

may be divided into certain varieties, according to its mode of causation: (1) 

Peritonitis traumatic, when the disease arises from wounds penetrating the abdomen; (2) 

idiopathic, when the disease arises from exposure to cold and wet. The second 

variety of peritonitis occurs chiefly among working oxen. Sudden chilling of the skin.may bring it about. 

Causes. — If you work up your oxen into a sweat and thereafter for a time allow them to stand 

exposed to cold winds or rain, the surface of their bodies will soon become chilled. In the same way, 

when you drive your cattle through fivers or into ponds, so that their bodies become wet, and they 

afterward lie on the ground when the weather is cold, such exposure is likely to bring on an attack of 

peritonitis. The disease may also be caused by wounds penetrating the abdomen. 

Symptoms. — Either continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies down but appears uneasy; 
it frequently turns its head toward its belly and lows plaintively ; pressure on the flanks produces pain ; 
the animal has no appetite, muzzle is dry and rumination suspended; while standing its legs are placed 
well under the body; the pulse is small and hard. If this disease is complicated by the presence of 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 

inflammation of the bowels the pain is more severe and the animal is restless. The skin is cold and 
dry in the early stages of the disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be succeeded by 
heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse and 
tension of the left flank are symptoms, the presence of which should enable one to reach the conclusion 
that peritonitis exists. 

Treatment. — In the traumatic form of peritonitis, as when the horn of another animal has been 
thrust through the abdominal walls, the lesion must be treated in accordance with the directions heretofore 
given, but the general treatment is outlined below. Peritonitis, resulting from castration or from 
parturition fever, must also be treated in connection with the special conditions which give rise to it, 
the general treatment for this disease must be modified to some extent by the existing cause. The 
body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable when practicable to have a blanket which has been 
wrung out of hot water placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which are main- 
tained in position by straps and ropes passing around the body. The wet blanket must be changed 
as it cools, the object of the treatment being to warm the surface of the body and to carry as much 
blood as possible to the skin. After the clothing of the body has been attended to the aim of the treat- 
ment should be as follows: (1) to obtain rest for the affected parts; (2) to subdue inflammation and 
fever; (3) to sustain the animal's strength. There is nothing better known for the treatment of perito- 
nitis than Bradbury's Brazilian Specific, given as directed. It is possible, though, that the stockman may 
not have it on hand, in which case the following treatment should be given: An ounce and a half of 
laudanum or powdered opium. An ounce and a half of the first or a dram of the second may be 
given in a pint of tepid water, and if the pain is not perceptibly allayed the dose should be repeated in 
two hours. It is dangerous to give purgatives in peritonitis as they stimulate the movement of the bowels, 
increase the suffering and aggravate the disease. Tincture of aconite should be given in 10-drop 
doses every two hours for the purpose of reducing fever and inflammation. Bleeding for this purpose 
has been recommended, but should only be applied by a veterinarian when the pulse is strong and the 
animal is in good condition, bearing in mind that if the inflammation has existed for two days, it cannot 
have any beneficial effect, but the reverse. Let the diet consist of laxative feed and drinks, and always 
add Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each" feed, to the ration in order to insure easy digestion 
and passage through the alimentary tract. Linseed tea may be given with advantage. If peritonitis 
assumes chronic form the diet should be nutritious, such as hay, corn stalk leaves, linseed cake, and 
Davis Stock Food, grass, etc., and iodide of potassium should be given in dram doses dissolved in 1 
■ pint of water. 

or Ascites, is a disease indicating a serous or watery effusion in the cavity of 

Dropsy Of the abdomen. 

the Abdomen, Causes. — Old animals worked and fed on innutritious feeds become what is 

termed anemic ; in other words, their blood becomes impoverished and dropsy is 
a common result. The same effect may .also be produced in young animals. Exposure of cattle to sudden 
changes of temperature and the chilling effect of cold and wet acting on the skin may produce the disease. 
Peritonitis may cause it or it may result from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver. When resulting 
from disease of the liver, it develops slowly, and t"his is also the case when insufficient feed is the cause. 
Symptoms. — Gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its lower part, while the flanks become 
hollow; pallor of the mucous membrane of the mouth and eyes; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite 
and irregularity in ruminating. If the hand and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as 
possible, on moving the hand from one side to the other, the fluctuatipn caused by the presence of the 
fluid in the abdomen may be felt. 

Treatment. — Nutritious diet, adding Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, to the ration. 
In cases where the disease was caused by insufficient nutrition, this generally will be all the treatment 
necessary. It should be remembered that Davis Stock Food acts at the same time as a tonic, gently 
stimulating all the organs of the body; as an appetizer, doubling the action of the kidneys and tymphatic 
glands, thus carrying off the fluid ; and as a digestive, acting directly upon the glands of the stomach 
and alimentary canal, causing the animal to assimilate every morsel of the digestible feed that passes 
into the stomach. Especially if the disease is pronounced, Davis Stock Food in double doses should be 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 339 

mixed with the animal's feed three times a day; or, if there is any uncertainty of its being taken that 
way, it should be mixed with syrup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's tongue 
with a flat wooden spoon. The administration of purgatives, which promote a watery discharge from 
the mucous surface of the bowels, also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about absorp- 
tion and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdomen. Large doses are not recommended; 
give moderate doses morning and night, so as to produce laxative effect on the bowels for some days. 
To attain this the following may be used: Sulphate of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, 3^ ounce; 
mix in 2 quarts of tepid water, and then give at one dose. If Davis Stock Food is used regularly the 
above treatment will, as a rule, be unnecessary. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

Poison is a word the exact defining of which, according to the best authorities, 
Poisons. is not quite possible. So much so is this the case that even in law it has never 

been possible to clearly define it, and whenever we attempt to explain its simple 
meaning we always are prone to include either too much or too little in our statement. Here is about 
as lucid and graphic definition as has yet been given by science: "A poison is a substance having an 
inherent deleterious property, rendering it capable of destroying life by whatever avenue it finds access 
to the system; or, it is a substance which, when introduced into the system or applied externally, injures 
health or destroys life, irrespective of mechanical means or thermal changes." And the popular con- 
ception of a poison is any substance which will destroy life, in small quantity, excepting such as act by 
purely mechanical means, as, for instance, powdered glass. We know that poison, especially, is 
something which we must always be on our guard against and careful in handling. 

may be either local, exerted directly on the tissues with which they come in 
The Action contact, or remote, acting through the circulation or nervous system; or both 

of Poisons local and remote action may be exerted by the same drug. Poisons acting 

locally generally either destroy by corrosion the tissues with which they come in 
contact, or by inhalation set up acute inflammation. If a corrosive agent is taken into the stomach 
in poisonous quantities a group of symptoms is developed which is common to all. It destroys the 
tissues with which it comes in contact, sloughing and acute inflammation of the surrounding structures 
takes place; this is followed by intense pain in the abdomen, ending in death. In the same way, but 
with less rapidity, a similar result is reached if the agent used be not of a sufficiently corrosive nature 
to destroy the tissues, but sufficiently irritating to set up acute inflammation of the mucous membrane 
of the digestive tract. Of the poisons exerting a remote influence, the action is quite different, little 
or no local effect being produced upon the digestive organs. The poisons when absorbed and trans- 
mitted through the agency of circulation, exert their baneful influence, and though some of them act 
with extreme rapidity, no effect can be produced until the agent has been absorbed. The poisonous 
effect of any substance is modified by the quantity used; by its chemical combinations; by the part 
of the animal structure with which it comes in contact; and also by the physical condition of the 
subject. For instance, opium may be given with safety in much larger doses to an animal suffering 
from acute pain than to one free from pain, and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young 
one. The rapidity with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of the body with which it comes 
in eontact, is also of importance. So marked is this, that some poisons having the power of destroying 
life with absolute certainty when introduced beneath the skin, may safely be taken into the 
stomach, causing no inconvenience at all, as, for example, curara, the arrow poison, or the venomous 
secretions of the fang of the snake. Other agents in chemical combination may tend to intensify, lessen, 
or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect. Thus, arsenic in itself has well marked poisonous prop- 
erties, but when brought in contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble compound and becomes 
harmless. Idiosyncrasies are not so noticeable in cattle practice as among human beings, but the 



340 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



uncertainty with which some drugs exert their influence would lead us to believe that well marked 
differences hi susceptibility exist. Even in some cases a tolerance for poison is engendered, so that in a 
herd of animals equally exposed injurious or fatal effects do not appear with uniformity. Thus, among 
tie that arc compelled to drink water holding in solution a salt of lead, the effect of the poisoning 
will be found varying all the way from fatality to imperceptibility. To reduce these symptoms and 
conditions 10 anything like an exact science has, however, so far, not been quite possible, and no set 
standards or rules arc laid down to determine accurately the cause and effect that govern this phenomenon. 

These vary so greatly in the different poisonous agents that it is nearly impos- 
The General sible to give even a general rule of symptoms which adapts itself to all cases. 
Symptoms As a rule, poisoning is not suspected until after death. It is necessary to determine 
of Poisoning. the presence or absence of poison in the system, especially in order to arrest its 
effect on other animals which may have been exposed in the same way as the 
victim, or, among men, to promote the ends of justice in criminal jurisprudence. The symptoms exhib- 
ited before death are likely to give reason to' suspect either intestinal irritation, with manifestations 
similar to those of colic, or disordered brain function with the characteristic indications of vertigo, 
coma, paralysis, dilatation, or contraction of the pupil, etc. The animal secretions or excretions may be 
perverted, augmented or suppressed. It usually takes a chemist to determine with absolute certainty 
the presence of many of the poisons. But at the same time diagnosis may be reached with reasonable 
certainty where the previous history of the case is known, as well as the surroundings and the poisonous 
agents to which the animal would be most likely to have access. To ascertain this and treat acc6rdingly 
will to all intents and purposes serve the end of the farmer, whose main care is that of saving his animal 
and guard the remainder of the herd against being poisoned in a like manner. 

Treatment. — The following is but an attempt to broadly outline a treatment, or a series of treat- 
ments, that in a general way will conform to the requirements of the most common forms of poisoning 
applying to a majority of cases, and which may be tried, as a rule, with good results. Have a stomach 
pump at hand._ This will pay all raisers of stock, and when indications of poisbning appear in an animal 
you should lose no time in emptying the stomach- of its contents and carefully washing the organ by 
either injecting pure water or a solution of the proper antidote. If the stomach cannot be emptied the 
antidote should be administered which will counteract or neutralize the particular poison from which 
the animal is suffering, such as powdered chalk to neutralize acid poisoning. If the poison has been 
taken in solid form and there is a probability that part of it is still undissolved, its further destructive 
action may be stopped by the administration of mucilaginous drinks, as for instance, infusions of flaxseed, 
white of eggs", acacia (gum arabic), etc. Where the poison is known to be one that will not 
exert its influence on the stomach directly, but remotely, every effort should be made to neutralize any 
part of it that may remain unabsorbed, and to, so far as possible, fortify the system against its action, 
as by the use of atropia in opium poisoning, or the placing of the patient under the influence of chloro- 
form or ether when poisoned by strychnine. A poison may be so gradually introduced into the system, 
as to slowly develop the power of resistance against its action. In other cases, where the poison is intro- 
duced slowly, the poisonous action becomes Cumulative, and, although there is no increase in the quantity 
taken, violent symptoms are suddenly developed, as if the whole amount, the consumption of which 
may have extended over a considerable period, had been given in one dose. And there are other poisons, 
not necessarily fatal, but which tend to deteriorate and impair the functional activity of some of the 
important organs of the body, thus producing ill health. These are called chronic poisons. It is also 
well for the farmer' to know that poisons, in themselves dangerous when administered in large doses, 
are used medicinally for curative purposes, and that a very large percentage of the pharmaceutical 
preparations used in the practice of medicines if given in excessive quantities might produce serious 
results. In the administration of medicines, therefore, care should be taken, not only that the animal 
is not poisoned by the administration of an excessive dose, but, that injury is not done by continued treat- 
ment with medicine, the use of which is not called for. In all common cases the prompt use of the 
stomach pump, washing out of the stomach according to the direction given above, will do the work; 
and when this occasionally fails use the antidote. In all serious cases, where the stomach pump fails to 
work, or -when you have not been instructed in its use, call in a veterinarian. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 341 

In the case of lead poisoning the treatment should first be directed toward removing the cause. 
If you have no stomach pump give a large dose of purgative medicine: Bromide of potassium in 3^-ounce 
doses every four or five hours, and applications of cold water to the head. Dilute sulphuric acid in 
j^-ounce doses mixed with ^ pint of water should be given with the purgative medicine. Epsom salts 
is the best purgative in this case, and may be given in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds, dissolved in warm 
water. After the acute symptoms have abated, iodide of potassium may be given in doses of 2 drams 
each, dissolved in water, three times a day for a week. 

In acid poisoning any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote; chalk, whiting, baking soda, etc., 
are usually most convenient. Empty the stomach as quickly as possible. This holds good both for 
mineral and vegetable acids. 

As an antidote a*gainst mercurial poisoning, one of the most terrible of corrosive poisons, which 
is fatal even in very small doses, the white of eggs has the power of completely neutralizing its poisonous 
effect, providing it is administered before the poison has had time to exert its deadly influence. In using 
the remedy separate the white from the yolk of eggs, mix it with water, and give in large quantities; 
after its administration the stomach should be emptied by means of a stomach pump. 

For alkaline poisons, which rank side by side with mineral acid poisons in destructiveness to their 
victims, the treatment should be the unloading of the stomach as promptly as possible by means of the 
stomach pump. If this cannot be done the poisonous effect of the alkali may be neutralized by the 
administration of dilute acids. The administration of such an antidote and its action must be carefully 
watched during administration. In the chemical change which takes place when the acid and alkali 
are combined, carbonic acid gas is liberated, sometimes to an extent causing considerable distention of 
the abdomen, even amounting to asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should this danger 
present itself it may be averted by opening the left flank, permitting the gas to escape. 

Coal oil given in too large doses as a treatment for intestinal parasites produces poisonous effects, 
often followed by death. Against this condition use mild stimulants, such as aromatic spirits of ammonia 
or strong coffee in large quantities. Encourage the animal to eat soft, mucilaginous feed, to which Davis 
Stock Food has been added. The best remedy is to prevent the poisoning by abstaining from the use of 
coal oil for the purpose mentioned. . 

Carbolic acid, although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies known, when taken internally, 
or used over a large surface externally, is likely to produce a poisonous effect. As an antidote internally 
under such circumstances, lime water sweetened with sugar should be given in large quantities, 
or a solution of sulphate of soda. When the poisoning occurs through too extensive application to 
wounds or the skin, as in treatment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off any 
of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a 3 per cent solution is strong enough 
for ordinary purposes. Remember that Phenalin is a much more effective dressing and no danger 
accompanies its use. 

In the case of opium poisoning the stomach should be emptied by means of a stomach pump, 
if possible, and the patient kept moving, even though what would otherwise be cruelty is necessarily 
inflicted. When other means fail to excite, sharp blows close to the ear will sometimes serve to arouse. 
Give stimulants internally, such as whisky, aromatic spirits of ammonia, brandy, and strong infusions 
of coffee. 

For strychnine poisoning empty the stomach if it can be done before the poison is absorbed, 
but after the spasms occur it may excite the animal and hasten a fatal termination. In such a case 
the best method is to put the patient under the influence of ether or chloroform, and keep it there 
continuously until the effect of the poison has worn off. 

Aconite poisoning, likely to occur on any farm, as for some years past aconite has become a more 
popular stable remedy, should be treated with the stomach pump, and the animal thereupon treated 
with finely powdered animal charcoal in the hope of absorbing the poison. The only chemical 
antidote of value is tannic acid, which forms an insoluble compound with the aconite. The depressing 
effect on the heart should be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis, and other diffusible 
stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite to aconite. 



342 DI SEASES OF TH E DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

Poisons also are likely to find their way into the system m the feed the animal consumes, coming 
under the name of dietetic poisons. Thus the loco weed (Astragalus mollissimus), found in the natural 
pastures of some of our western states and territories, produces a remarkably poisonous effect. The 
plant grows on high, gravelly or sandy soil. It has rather an attractive appearance and retains its soft, 
pale green color all winter* A mass of leaves, 4 to 19 inches high, grow from the very short stem. The 
leaves are pinnated similar to those of the locust tree, with ten pairs of leaflets and an odd terminal one. 
The flowers, shaped like pea blossoms, appear in June or July, are yellow, tinted with violet. The seed 
is contained in a pod about half an inch long. Horses and cattle acquire a taste for it, although it is 
not a plant that would be considered as feed, or that would be eaten with relish the first time. In 
early spring when the herbage is scarce its green appearance may attract the animals, and the- habit 
is thus acquired. Its effect is not noticeable until a considerable quantity has been eaten, when it works 
as a poison on the nervous system. If the case is permitted to go on the animal becomes more and 
more addicted to feed on the plant, until it will eat nothing else. It becomes excitable, convulsions appear 
at intervals, the eyes are glassy and staring, gait slow and measured, and by degrees the victim becomes 
delirious, violent and vicious in spells until death occurs. Treatment in time, by "removing the cause, 
will cure the effect. No medical treatment is of any use. Quiet stabling, with a liberal supply of feed, 
to which is added Davis Stock Food, in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, will 
counteract the poison and bring the cow about. 

Ergot also has a poisonous effect on cattle in the winter and spring of the year. The bovine 
species seems to be more susceptible than all other animals to the influence of ergot, possibly on account 
of the slowness of the heart's action. When the effect has been sufficient to entirely arrest the circulation 
in -any part of the body the structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself in lameness in one limb 
or more; swelling about the ankle, etc., causing what is known as dry gangrene. The treatment should 
consist in change of feed, adding Davis Stock Food to the ration, and local antiseptics, such as Phenalin. 
It is best to prevent the disease by taking steps against it as soon as the first symptoms show; 
once affected it is a tedious and slow process to eradicate the poison from the system of the cow. It has 
been asserted by some that the feeding of corn with ergotized feed will neutralize the poisonous effect. 

may occur from the bites or stings of insects or- from contact with poisonous 
Local Poisons plants on exposed parts of the body, such as poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron), 

when brought in contact with -the udder or teats, or from the application of 
caustic acid or alkaline solutions. In the case of the caustic, its effect should be neutralized by the 
application of the proper antidote and the resulting wound treated with Phenalin, as a burn or frost 
bite. The stings of bees or wasps and the bites of other poisonous insects should be treated by the 
application of Phenalin or turpentine gently applied. 

act often as powerful poisons on their victim, resulting in serious local irrita- 
Snake Bites tion, and in the case of the most. venomous and poisonous snakes even in the 

causing of death. This the poison may do in two ways. First, when very 
strong, by exerting a narcotic influence similar to that of other powerful poisons, destroying nervous 
function, with the symptoms of extreme depression, feeble flickering of intermittent pulse, cold extremi- 
ties, dilated pupils, insensibility, collapse and death. Second, when less powerful, by diffused inflamma- 
tion of the areolar tissue, numerous abscesses, gangrene, and extensive sloughing. Local swelling 
occurs immediately after the bite, there is severe irritation, the extent of the swelling and subse- 
quent gangrene depending on the potency or amount of the poison introduced. Unless in very large 
quantities, death ensues so rapidly that the swelling process is not completed. There are, however, 
many snakes whose bite is harmless. If an examination is made after death of an anrrdal succumbed 
to snake bite, a dark alkaline condition of the blood, intense congestion of the lungs and spleen, and 
other conditions indicative of death of the blood will be found. The viscera emit a peculiar, sickly 
odor. The muscles are contracted from the death convulsions attending upon the poisonous bite. 
Treatment should be local and general. Locally use every effort to prevent the absorption 
of the poison. If discovered at once, the bitten part had better be excised or cut away. If that is 
impracticable and a ligature can be applied, as in the case of a bite to one of the limbs, no time should 
be lost in applying it above the injury. It should be made so tight that it will, so far as possible, arrest 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 343 

the circulation to and from the bitten part. The poison should be extracted by cupping. If this is 
impracticable, or after it has been done, sear the wound with a red hot iron to destroy, so far as possible, 
any of the poison that may remain unabsorbed. The depressing effect on the system by the poison 
should be counteracted by liberal drenching with stimulants — wine, brandy, whisky, etc. In the human 
being preparations of arsenic, bromine, bichloride of mercury, and iodide of potassium in frequently 
repeated doses are recommended. In animal practice alcoholic stimulants, as recommended above, 
have been most successful. In the emergency which arises when such an accident occurs the means at 
hand must be used to the best advantage. First, the application of a- tight ligature can nearly always 
be made ; then opening the wound to the bottom with a penknife, and encouraging the flow of blood 
will be likely to wash out at least part of the poison, if done promptly. Cupping cannot be practiced 
among cattle with the same facility as among human beings, owing to the covering of hair. This obstacle 
may be overcome by smearing the hair full of tar or balsam on the surface to which the cupping glass 
is to be applied. The operation may be easily performed, using a jar or a bottle with a good sized neck, 
but not so large as to prevent its having a firm seat on the skin around the wound. A piece of cloth 
dipped in oil and lighted is dropped into the bottle, the neck of which is quickly applied to the wound. 
The flame of the burning cloth consumes the oxygen of the air and creates a partial vacuum into which 
the blood from the wound should flow freely. The injection hypodermically of a 20 per cent solu- 
tion of permanganate of potash directly into the wounded tissues aids in neutralizing the effect of the 
concentrated poison in the immediate vicinity. After the treatment carefully wash the wound with a 
solution of Phenalin and tepid water. Keep the digestive organs and the circulation of the patient 
in order by using Davis Stock Food with the feed ration. We commend the farmer and stockman to 
carefully read and remember this chapter on poisons, so that when the emergency comes he may be 
prepared to apply the various methods of treatment given, thereby saving many valuable animals that 
would otherwise be lost to him. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 

or inflammation of the pericardium (heart sac) , is often associated with pneu- 
Pericarditis, monia and pleurisy, rheumatism and other constitutional diseases. But it 

also occurs as an independent trouble brought about by causes similar to those 
of other chest affections, as exposure to cold or dampness, chills, changes of weather, drifts, etc. 

Symptoms. — It may come with a chill, followed by fever, of more or less severity. The animal 
tands still, is dull, the head hangs down, its expression is anxious. Pulse may be large, perhaps hard; 
lere is also a venous pulse. If you put the hand against the chest you will feel the beating of the heart, 
/hich is often irregular, sometimes violent, and in other instances weak. The legs are cold; breathing 
mickened, and usually abdominal; if you press on the left side of the chest, or strike it, the animal will 
fince much pain (remember that most of these symptoms are also seen in the case of pleurisy, and care 
lust be taken to distinguish between the two). There may be spasms of the muscles in the region of 
le breast, neck or hind legs. After a time, which varies in length, the legs may become swollen, and the 
swelling is also likely to occur under the chest and brisket. In those animals in which the heart 
mnds ma3^ be heard somewhat distinctly, the ear applied against the chest will detect a to and fro 
riction sound corresponding to the beats of the heart; this sound is produced by the rubbing of the 
iternal surface of the heart sac against the external surface of the heart. During the first stages of the 
inanimation these surfaces are dry, and the rubbing of one against the other during the contraction and 
relaxation of the heart produces the to and fro friction sound.- The dry stage is followed by the exudation 
of fluid into the heart sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid is absorbed sufficiently to allow the 
surfaces to come in contact again. A churning noise may take the place of the friction sound. If the 
friction sound does not return, adhesion of the surfaces may be suspected. The friction sound of peri- 
carditis cannot be mistaken for the friction sound of pleurisy, if the examination is a careful one, because, 
in the heart affection, the sound is made in connection with the heart beats, while in pleurisy the sound 
is synchronous with each respiration or breath of air taken into or expelled from the lungs. 



344 WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS. 



Treatment. — If pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or other diseases, they must be treated 
as indicated in the description given of them. The animal should be kept in a quiet, comfortable place, 
where it will be free from annoyance or excitement. Apply warm clothing to the body, and rub the legs 
vigorously with the hand until the circulation in them is reestablished; then bandage them snugly. 
Let the feed be of nutritive quality and moderate in quantity, adding Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls 
to each feed. This will insure perfect digestion, assimilation and attendant circulation, and will speed 
the animal on the road to recovery. In the way of medical treatment (which, if the disease is taken in 
time, and Davis Stock Food fed regularly, may in all but severe cases be dispensed with) , at the beginning 
give as a purgative, Epsom salts, 1 pound dissolved in about 1 quart of warm water and administered 
as a drench. When there is much pain, 2 ounces of laudanum, diluted with 1 pint of water, may be 
given every three hours, until relief is brought about. Do not give the laudanum unless demanded by 
the severit}' of the pain. After attack abates use mustard mixed with water; rub well over left side of 
chest. Try to prevent the occurrence of the disease in your cows by proper care and feeding. Davis 
Stock Food, 1 tablespoonful to each feed in health, will go far to insure the animals against disease. 

__. ... An inflammation of the' muscular structure of the heart. Probably always 

y * connected with pericarditis and endocarditis. 

An inflammation of the membrane lining the cavities of the heart. Usually 
Endocarditis. a complication of rheumatism. Symptoms much the same as those of peri- 
carditis. Same treatment as for pericarditis may be followed. Nourishing 
feed, with Davis Stock Food added, rest, quiet, fresh air, etc. 

-j , An enlargement of the heart. Sounds of the heart are high and pronounced, 

f¥* tt ; and may be heard on both sides of the chest distinctly. There is palpitation 



of the Heart. 



to a greater or lesser extent. A rare disease in cattle. 



WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS. 

When a blood vessel is opened you can tell at a glance whether it is an artery or a vein by remem- 
bering that bright red blood comes from arteries and dark red from veins. In severing a small artery 
the blood flows from it in a continuous, even stream, but if you cut one of the large arteries it comes in 
jets and spurts. The general treatment for wounds will be found on another page. We shall here but 
refer briefly to some of the most practical methods used in arresting hemorrhages. 

The seriousness of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel from which 
Hemorrhage. the blood escapes. It is most serious in severed arteries. Slight hemorrhages 

may be checked by continuous application of cold water to the wound, ice, 
snow, etc. You may throw the water on the wound from a hose, or dash it on with the hand, or from 
a* cup. Folds of cotton cloths may be held to wound and kept wet. Hemorrhages of vagina and womb 
may be arrested by injecting hot water, 115 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature. Tow, raw cotton, 
lint, or sponges may be forced into a wound and held or bound there with a bandage. • If blood persists 
saturate bandages with tincture of iron. Do not use this except when absolutely necessary as it retards 
the healing. In all serious cases, after administering the first aid, call in an expert veterinarian. Mild 
hemorrhages and wounds you can treat yourself. The best means is compression. To most wounds 
bandages may be easily applied. Make the bandage of linen, muslin, etc., sufficiently wide and long to 
cover the wound. Bed sheets torn in strips are good for this purpose. Cotton batting, tow, or a 
piece of sponge may be placed on the wound and held in place by the bandage. When necessary (as in 
the case of snake bites) ligate the vessel. In this case tie the ligature around the end of the artery. 
When this is difficult, include some of the surrounding tissue. Do not ligate any but large vessels 
(and even then only when other means are not available), as it causes danger of inflammation. To apply 
a ligature you should have a pair of artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may do) by which to draw 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 345 



out the artery in order to tie the string around it. Sponge the blood from the wound to find and grasp 
the artery. If the end of the vessel has retracted a sharp pointed hock, called a tenaculum, is used to 
draw it out far enough to tie. In all serious cases let your veterinarian attend % to this. In cases of 
wounds to small vessels another method of checking called torsion may be applied. Catch end of the 
bleeding vein, draw it out a little, then, twist it around a few times with the forceps. This lacerates the 
internal coats, effecting a check of the blood. In small vessel it is very effectual and to be preferred to 
ligatures, as it leaves no foreign substance in the wound. A needle or pin may be stuck through the 
edge of the wound, and a string- passed around between the free ends and the skin drawing it together. 

is a circumscribed dilation of an artery, due to disease and rupture of one or two 
Aneurism of the arterial coats. True aneurism communicates with the interior of the 

artery, and contains coagulated blood. No treatment is possible for this disease. 

are due generally to coagulated blood in the veins, producing sacculated or 
Varicose Veins knotty protuberances on the blood vessels affected. The formation of these 

coagula is an effect of inflammation in the coats of the vein ; this inflammation 
may be slight or may run on to suppuration, giving rise to small abscesses. Underfed cattle, or animals 
kept in wet, cold places, are especially liable. Cause seems to be debility of circulation, want of tone in 
the coats of the vessels, etc. 

Treatment. — Better feed, Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, to restore proper cir- 
culation and digestion; tonics and pressure by bandages. In case of suppuration open the abscesses, 
apply Davis Veterinary Blister, or any other reliable blister. Do not use pressure. 

* Owing to the suction action in the chest, when a large vein is opened in the 
Air in the Veins, vicinity of the chest air may be sucked in, which, if in great quantity, will cause 

death. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 

or cold in the head, is an inflammation of the membranes of the nostrils and 
Catarrh, upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not serious. If neglected, however, it 

is liable to complicate with laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, etc., 
becoming serious, sometimes 'fatal. Catarrh is a common cattle disease. 

Symptoms. — Redness of membranes of nose ; red and watery eyes ; mucous membrane first becomes 
dry, then watery discharge appears. Discharge becomes mucopurulent in severe cases. Little or no 
fever in mild cases; in severe cases fever may run high. Animal becomes dull, languid, disinclined to 
move about; appetite poor; temperature variable. In milch cows secretions become diminished , mucus 
from the eyes and nose becomes thicker and yellower. 

Treatment. — House the animal in a well ventilated place, with good hygienic surroundings.. Keep 
warm with blanketing in cold, damp weather. Give hot, medicated inhalations of Phenalin in severe 
cases. Bradbury's Brazilian Specific or Davis Distemper Cure are a positive cure for the fever. If this 
is not at hand give nitrate of potassium, from 1 to 2 ounces, in drinking water, three times daily until 
fever is reduced. Good nursing, with Davis Stock Food added to the feed ration, is indispensable. 

or bleeding from the nostrils, is rare in cattle. It is usually caused by injury 
Epistaxis, to the mucous membranes, violent exertions, in coughing and sneezing, etc. 

Seldom serious. , 
Treatment. — Generally it will stop of itself. Keep the anima quiet and bathe head and nostrils 
with cold water. Find cause of bleeding and treat accordingly. In unusually severe cases tie animal's 
head to a high rack or beam and apply cold water, ice, etc. If the hemorrhage still persists give a drench 
composed of 1J^ drams of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint -of water 



J46 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 



or Sore Throat, is an inflammation of the membrane lining the larynx. May 

Laryngitis, be either primary or secondary, complicated or uncomplicated. Due usually 

' to sudden exposure, change from warm to cold, wet weather, storms. May 

also result from inhaling irritating gases, or external violence. In acute cases there is an elevation of 

temperature, pain when pressing on larynx, coughing, noisy and difficult respiration. Nostrils are 

dilated, nose extended; animal looks frightened; swallowing is difficult. 

Treatment. — Fomentations and hot applications over the throat. Stimulating liniments, such 
as Davis Veterinary Liniment, mustard, or other counter irritants should be used in severe cases. Elec- 
tuary (soft or solid) medicines alone should be given. Large drafts of medicine produce violent cough- 
ing and should not be given. Davis Distemper Cure, a heaping tablespoonful placed well back on the 
tongue, will usually cure the most obstinate case. If this is not at hand, try the following: Aloes, 
powdered opium and gum camphor in equal parts; mix. Rub an ounce on the molar teeth every four 
hours. Or give internal treatment: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8 ounces; fluid extract of 
belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1 ounce; powdered licorice root, 8 ounces; syrup, sufficient 
quantity; mix. At frequent intervals place a small tablespoonful on tongue or back teeth. Keep 
digestion in order and bowels open by feeding Davis Stock Food with the ration, 2 tablespoonfuls to 
each feed. Diet should be such as patient can easily swallow; warm sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal 
gruel and linseed tea are good. In the most severe cases, when suffocation is threatened, tracheotomy 
by a veterinarian must be resorted to. When disease has assumed a chronic form use Davis 
Veterinary Blister to the throat. Repeat application if necessary. 

is an inflammation of the membrane of the bronchial tubes. When a primary 
Bronchitis disease it comes from what is known as catching cold. It may also be 

secondary or complicated with other diseases of the respiratory system. 
Breathing irritating gases, and introduction of foreign substances into the bronchial tubes may also 
be the cause. It may be acute or chronic. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite; elevation of temperature; generally to 104 or 105 degrees Fahren- 
heit. Inspiration is incomplete, short and painful. A characteristic, painful cough is present. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in a light, well ventilated stall. Keep bowels in soft condition by 
enemas. Avoid violent purgatives. Keep body warm by blanketing. Let the feed be light and nutri- 
tious, adding Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. At beginning of disease give Bradbury's 
Brazilian Specific as directed; or, if this is not at hand, try giving three times daily a draft composed 
as follows: Extract of belladonna, 2 drams; solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 fluid ounces; water, 
Yi pint. In the latter stages substitute with the following, given twice daily: Carbonate of ammonium, 
3 drams; solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 fluid ounce; 
water, Yx pint. Treat early before the disease becomes chronic. 

is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest cavity and envel- 
Pleurisy oping the lungs. Is usually complicated with pneumonia; arises from exposure 

to cold or wet. Is occasionally caused by a penetrating wound. 

Symptoms.— Great pain in the first stage; temperature ranges from 104 to 105 degrees Fahren- 
heit; pulse is small, quick, frequent and hard; respirations are abdominal, breath taken in short, jerky 
inspirations; emitted in long expirations; sharp, suppressed, painful cough; pressure on diseased part 
is painful, the animal flinching and giving a grunt; muzzle is dry and hot; mouth slimy and saliva scant. 
Symptoms increase in severity with advance of disease. 

Treatment. — Same general care as recommended for bronchitis and pneumonia. In early stage 
give Bradbury's Brazilian Specific or some other good febrifuge to reduce the fever. For relief of cough 
give electuary formula given in treatment for laryngitis. Keep bowels relaxed and kidneys secreting 
freely. In the stage of effusion give the following three times a day: Digitalis tincture, 1 ounce; 
iodide of potassium, 30 to 60 grains; mix. In case of collapse of the lung, or' when it is threatened, a 
surgical operation is sometimes necessary; this, however, must be performed by a veterinarian. Give 
good, wholesome feed, and Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed. 



DISEASES OF 'THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 347 

is an inflammation of the lung substance, divided into three different forms,' 

Pneumonia viz.: First, croupous; second, catarrhal; and, third, interstitial. Here, however, 

we shall treat the subject under the general heading of pneumonia, which 

answers our purpose — that of teaching the stock raiser how to diagnose the general disease, and how to 

treat it in its milder stages. The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of other 

inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. 

Symptoms. — It is ushered in with a chill. This is followed with an elevation of temperature, 
usually 105 or 106 degrees Fahrenheit, or even higher. , Respirations are quick and shallow; nostrils 
dilated; pulse full and hard; cough may or may not appear at this stage; nose is hot_and dry; tongue 
sometimes protrudes and is slimy; coat staring; skin dry and harsh; the urine usually is diminished in 
quantity, highly colored, and bowels constipated. Animal stands with fore legs wide apart to facilitate res- 
piration. In the second stage the temperature generally drops 1 or 2 degrees, and respiration is per- 
formed with much difficulty. Animal has a haggard appearance; the pulse becomes small and wiry 
at this period ; the extremities are hot and cold alternately ; the lung has assumed a characteristic, liver 
like appearance. In the third stage, if disease is to terminate favorably, cough becomes loose; ani- 
mal improves; appetite returns and the symptoms -described rapidly subside. If not progressing, the 
lung substance is broken down, is heavy, and will not sink in water. In fatal cases breath has a peculiar, 
fetid, cadaverous odor, is taken in short gasps, and horns, ears and extremities become cold and clammy. 

Treatment. — Good hygienic surroundings, good nursing with wholesome, plain feed, adding Davis 
Stock Food to the ration, are essential in connection with the medical treatment. In early stages, when 
there is high fever, give Bradbury's Brazilian Specific or some other good febrifuge. Discontinue as 
soon as the fever abates. In a plethoric animal, with strong, bounding pulse, bleeding may be resorted 
to. If bowels are constipated, give calomel, 1 to 3 drams. In second stage diffusible stimulants are 
advised, viz.: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 x /i ounces; spirits of aromatic ammonia, 1 ounce; mix and 
give in gruel three times a day. Davis Veterinary Liniment, or some other good liniment, a mustard 
plaster, turpentine, etc., may be applied externally as counter irritants. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

or Staggers, means inflammation of the brain and its membranes. Owing to 
Encephalitis, various symptoms, depending on the part affected, the disease is known by 

different names, such as staggers, stomach staggers, mad staggers, sleepy 
staggers, coma, frenzy, etc. 

Causes. — Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head coming in violent contact 
with the ground or other hard substance in a fall; irritation caused by tumors in the brain; feed con- 
taining deleterious matters, for example, ergot and other fungi. When the disease is not caused by 
direct violence the quality of feed should be suspected. 

Symptoms vary. Sometimes there may be frenzy at the start ; generally, however, the animal 
is dull and sleepy; there is little inclination to move about; head may be pressed against wall or fence, 
legs kept moving, as though the animal were trying to walk through the obstruction. Body may be 
leaned against stall for support. Bowels are constipated; urine, when passed, small in quantity, 
darker in color than usual; trembling and spasms of muscles in different parts. In the dull stage 
animal may breathe less frequently than natural, each breath may be accompanied with snoring like 
sound. Pulse may be large and less frequent than normal. In all animals that have died from this 
disease the lungs after death were found to be very much congested. 

When delirium ensues the animal is commonly said to be mad. She may bellow, stamp her feet, 
run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at the mouth. If confined in a stable, she rears and plunges; 
body may be covered with perspiration; she may fall; muscles twitch and jerk; often head is raised and 
then dashed against the ground until blood issues from nose and mouth; eyes may become bloodshot 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



and sightless; limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about restlessly; head may be 
drawn back and tail drawn up ; urine may be squirted out in spurts ; often the washer is forced over 
the eye. When convulsions cease they may be followed by a period of quiet unconsciousness — coma. 
Then the animal may get on its feet and partake of feed, or it may arise with much difficulty and stagger 
blindly about the stall or field. These symptoms, of course, are not always seen together in the 
same case. The various symptoms, however, increase in frequency and intensity until ending in death. 
Treatment. — Call a veterinarian at once. Treatment will be useless if not exceedingly prompt. 
In early stages pulse is large and usually will admit of bleeding. Have veterinarian take 8 or 9 quarts 
of blood from the jugular vein. Follow with a purgative, for a cow of average size, as follows: 
Epsom salts, 24 ounces; pulverized gamboge, ]/ 2 ounce; warm water, 3 quarts; mix all together and 
give at once as a drench. Inject about 2 quarts of warm water or warm soap suds into the rectum 
with a syringe every three or four hours. Keep animal quiet. Give her all the cold water .she will 
drink; withhold feed, except bran slops occasionally, adding Davis Stock Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to 
each feed; give feed in small quantities, or grass, if in season. Prevent animal from injuring herself 
during the convulsions; hold her head down to the ground, with straw under it; pour water 
continuously on the head ; or bags filled with small pieces of ice may be applied to head. After the 
convulsions, or between them, a blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized 
cantharides, Yi ounce; hot water, 4 ounces; well mixed together, may be rubbed in over the loins, spine, 
back of the head and on each side of the neck. If the purgatives act and animal shows signs of 
improvement in the course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodide of potassium may be given every 
night and morning, dissolved in half a bucket of drinking water, if animal will drink, or may be dissolved 
in ]/% pint of water and given as a drench. Be extremely careful about the feed; let it be nutritious, 
but not coarse; feed at first in small quantities, gradually increasing as animal improves. Use Davis 
Stock Food throughout the treatment with 1^he feed. After some progress to recovery has been 
made, 13^ drams of pulverized nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the iodide of potassium 
drench, administered as long as the staggering gait continues. Recovery, at best, is doubtful. In the 
rare cases that pull through, recovery, as a rule, is but partial, as generally a sequel, such as paralysis, 
remains. If this be the case, better fatten the animal for the butcher. 

The form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apoplexy is described 
Apoplexy. elsewhere in this book. Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, 

is rare in cattle. If it occurs it is generally due to degeneration and conse- 
quent rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. The attack is sudden, the animal falling as if hit with an 
ax. Convulsions, as in staggers, may ensue, or there may be unconsciousness without movement; 
eyes are open and blindly staring; mouth frothy; body cold; breathing may be loud and snoring; pulse 
frequent and small. Death soon ensues. Plethoric cattle are most liable to attacks of what is known 
as congestive apoplexy, the congestion or superabundant quantity of blood in the vessels of the brain 
being followed with rupture of the vessels. It occurs usually in hot weather. Here bleeding should be 
resorted to immediately, and purgatives administered if possible. Cold applications to the head and 
the general treatment given for staggers, with Davis Stock Food added to a plain, wholesome diet, is 
required if the animal is to recover. 

is caused by severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard 

Concussion object while running, falling on the head, etc. Bones may be fractured by 

of the Brain the injury, causing compression of the brain. 

Symptoms. — Depend on the severity of the injury. Animal may lie 
prostrate, entirely unconscious, but some slight convulsive movements remaining. Death may follow 
quickly, or if the injury is not serious, recovery takes place in a short time. Or there may be partial 
recovery, followed in a few days by encephalitis. If fracture of the bones of the cranium has resulted, 
trepanning may be necessary, and a veterinarian should be called. In emergency you may relieve com- 
pression of the brain by elevating the depressed bone with a thin but strong piece of steel. If the ani- 
mal is not a very valuable one, better butcher it. In concussion of the brain, during the first stage, when 
surface of. body is cold, cover body and legs with warm blankets. Apply cold water and crushed ice to 
head. Assist animal to its feed. When consciousness returns the purgative drench advised for encephalitis 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 349 

should be administered. Keep animal in quiet place; feed small quantities of feed only, in the 
form of bran slops or grass, including 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to assist the digestion and 
assimilation, and as a tonic. Do not bleed. If case runs into encephalitis, treat according to directions 
given for this disease. 

An affection characterized by the onset of sudden convulsions. Animal may 
Epilepsy. appear in good health, but suddenly have an attack, stagger, fall, and violent 

convulsions ensue. Urine and dung may be voided involuntarily during the 
fit, breathing be stertorous, etc. Disease may be due to teething, worms or chronic indigestion. 

Treatment. — If there are symptoms of worms or indigestion, give treatment as advised for these 
diseases. If due to irritation from teething inflamed gums must be lanced. Examination of the mouth 
may develop the fact that one of the temporary teeth causes irritation by remaining unshed; if so, this 
tooth must be extracted, so as to leave room for the growth of the permanent tooth. If the cause cannot 
be discovered there is not much hope of treating epilepsy successfully. Careful diet, using Davis Stock 
Food regularly, 1 tablespoonful to each feed in health, and 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed in disease, will, 
however, do much to prevent these fits. 

or Prostration from Heat, is a condition brought about by extreme heat of 
Sunstroke, the summer months. 

Symptoms. — Early signs are those of exhaustion, dullness, panting, 
frothing, tongue hanging out, irregular gait, uneasiness, palpitation. If condition is not mitigated in 
a little while, animal will stagger, fall, struggle for a while, then gradually become quiet, or struggles 
may continue with fruitless attempts to regain standing position. Serious attacks may be very sudden, 
unconsciousness occurring at once. 

Treatment. — At first, when not serious, remove to quiet, sheltered place, reduce diet for a few 
days, giye Davis Stock Food with the ration, and recovery will take place. When animal has fallen 
apply cold water to the head; rub body and limbs with wisps of straw, continuing for a considerable 
time. If power of swallowing is not lost (which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the 
mouth) give 3 drams of liquor of ammonia fort., diluted with a quart of water. Be careful in drenching 
the animal when lying down. Repeat drench in half an hour. If patient is unconscious and drench 
cannot be given, same quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe into the rectum. 
When ammonia cannot be obtained quickly, 20 drops of oil of turpentine, shaken with 1 pint of milk, 
may be injected into rectum. Take animal to shelter as soon as it is able to rise; assist it to its feet.; 
let the diet be light for several days, with Davis Stock Food always added. Give the patient all the cold 
water it will drink. When signs of returning strength appear, 12 ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in 1 
quart of warm water, may be given in those cases which have been down and unconscious. 

The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and paralysis, 
Injuries to the more or less, may be the result. If the fracture produced is above the middle 
Spinal Cord. of the neck, it will cause death. As a matter of course, when the back is broken, 

there is no remedy; bleed the animal to death, and convert^it into meat at once. 
The animal not being able to rise after the accident, together with the fact that sensation is lost, as 
evidenced by sticking a pin into the paralyzed parts, should decide the question. 

or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of the brain, of the spinal cord, 
Paralysis, or of the nerve. It may also be caused by reflex irritation. As has already 

been pointed out, it may likewise be caused by concussion of the spine; 
fracture of a bone of the spinal column ; concussion of the brain ; compression of the brain. Paralysis 
affecting both sides of the body is technically called paraplegia; when only one side of the body is 
affected the term hemiplegia is used to indicate this condition. 

Causes. — Paraplegia may be traced to moldy feed. C©ws heavy with calf are sometimes 
affected with a form of paraplegia, usually attacking them from about a month to a few days before 
calving. As a rule, the animal recovers after calving, and requires only general care, good bedding, 
regular diet, with a tonic and digestive as Davis Stock Food added. Cqws after calving are occasion- 
ally attacked with a form of paralysis not associated with parturient paralysis. Inflammation of the 
womb may be the cause, or injuries to the nerves while calving. 



350 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Treatment. — For parturient and ordinary paralysis, both paraplegia and hemiplegia, simple 
treatment, such as enemas of warm soap suds, 2 quarts injected into the rectum in case of constipation, 
should be administered ; if this is not sufficient to keep bowels moving, } o pound of Epsom salts dissolved 
in 1 quart of warm water should be given as a drench. If paralysis continues after calf is born give the 
cow a purgative — 1 pound of Epsom salts dissolved in 1 quart of warm water; also 1 cupful of Davis 
Stock Food every night and morning in the feed, if she will eat it, or with some water as a drench. 
The blistering compound recommended in the treatment of encephalitis may be rubbed well over the 
loins. If you are treating for the form of paralysis associated with indigestion or impaction of the rumen 
(paunch) use the same remedies, but let the treatment be more drastic, especially the purgative. Always 
give 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed, and you will "find that the digestive and assim- 
ilative powers will soon recuperate and the paralysis gradually disappear. If a cow will persist in 
lying down while suffering from this disease, and not even her inveterate enemy, the dog, can succeed 
in arousing her, there at times is no other remedy but to butcher her. • Btit these instances are rare. 

or Lockjaw, may affect cattle, but it is a rare disease among them. It con- 
Tetanus, sists in a continued spasm of the voluntary muscles. By turning to the chapter 

on horses, the reader will find a pretty complete description of this disease and 
its cause and cure. Among horses and mules it is quite common. The cause of tetanus is not at all 
times clearly demonstrated and defined, all authorities, however, agreeing upon one point, namely, 
that it is most frequently met with in connection with a wound of some sort and at such times is caused 
by a germ — Bacillus tetani. It is not only large, prominent wounds, -nor a very painful wound alone 
that are apt to be followed by tetanus ; but, in fact, it is often associated with a wound of the most trivial 
character. And a wound in any part of the body may be followed by tetanus. It may ensue a few days 
after the infliction of the wound, but the rule is one and two weeks after and when the wound, as a rule, 
has healed. Operations, as well as accidental wounds, may be followed by tetanus. Castration very 
often produces it. Uncleanliness of the instruments or hands of the operator undoubtedly are to blame 
in such instances. With a good antiseptic wash, such as Phenalin, at hand, and scrupulous cleanliness 
observed on all points, the danger is greatly minimized. Although the wound has much to do with the 
cause of tetanus, no expert holds that it in itself can produce it. Something of a specific nature — the 
germ — must gain access to the wound to develop the disease, it is asserted. The evidence proves that 
the disease in both man and animal is the same. Be careful, therefore, in ministering to an animal 
suffering from this terrible and deadly affection. 

Symptoms. — Contraction or spasms of the muscles. . General sensitiveness ; the afflicted beast 
is ever on the alert, startled by the slightest noise; first symptoms noticed generally is some stiffness 
in the manner of carrying the head ; muzzle is elevated ; ears stiff ; the washer is forced over the eye from 
the inner corner ; animal moves stiffly about ; legs are almost rigid ; when walking they are used like 
sticks; when turning the body is kept straight, moving around like a log; tail is elevated and stands out 
like a pump handle ; animal will eat as long as it is possible to open the jaws wide enough to take anything 
into the mouth. Pulse usually hard, but does not vary very much from the normal in other respects. 
As disease progresses symptoms become more marked. Animal usually remains on its feet as long as 
possible; should it go down after the disease is well developed it is rarely able to rise alone, and in 
trying to do so, struggles convulsively, the struggles generally ending in death. 

Treatment. — Tetanus, although always extremely serious, is not always, a fatal disease. To begin 
treatment as early as possible is of supreme importance if a cure is to be effected. At appearance of 
first symptoms when animal can still swallow, give the following drench: Epsom salts, 10 ounces; 
common salt, 10 ounces; calomel, 2 drams; pulverized gentian, 1 ounce; warm water, 2 quarts. After 
administration of this, do not drench any more. Examine for wounds; look between the claws, search 
over the body and legs, even examine the mouth. Place animal in darkened, quiet stall, and thoroughly 
wash out all wounds, large or small, with a solution of warm water and Phenalin, or hot soap suds. Then 
use the following: Bichloride^ mercury, 30 grains; pure carbolic acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 quart; mix. 
Pour some of this solution on the wound, and with a clean piece of cotton or muslin rub the medicine 
into all parts of the wounds; be sure that it comes in contact with every portion of them, literally scour 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 351 

every bruise or scratch, but do no unnecessary injury. Then make soaking wet some .absorbent cotton 
and bind it well on the wound. Once a day change this dressing. Painful wounds on the feet should 
be poulticed twice a day with linseed meal for three or four days ; each time poultice is changed wound 
should be washed with the medicine. When poultices are no longer necessary continue to dress the 
wound with the absorbent cotton and medicine once a day. Give animal all the cold water it will 
drink. As swallowing is very difficult, feed slops made with bran, corn meal, small quantities of linseed 
meal, with Davis Stock Food added. Dissolve 1 ounce of bromide of potassium in every 2 gallons of 
water the animal can be induced to drink. It is not advisable to put cattle in sling, but it may be 
necessary to have the animal in a stall where it may be supported in canvas. When it lies down it is 
very difficult to raise it. Do not suspend it in the sling — just support. If disease is not recognized 
before power of swallowing is gone, there is little to be accomplished by treatment. 

or, in simpler language, excessive secretion of urine, is a disease occurring 
Diuresis, Polyuria, frequently in cattle fed on distillery swill, caused by the great consumption of 
Diabetes Insipidus, liquid feed. The condition, in spite of the fattening influence of the feed, 

is unwholesome. Diuresis also may occur from increase of blood pressure in 
the kidneys, diseases of the heart and lungs, the eating of digitalis, English broom, contraction of 
the blood vessels on the surface of the body in cold weather, etc. Also from acrid or diuretic plants, 
from excess of sugar in the feed, frozen feed, molds in the feed, alkaline waters, etc. The condition 
in some of these cases may be beneficial instead of vice versa. But in other cases the health and con- 
dition suffer and inflammation of the kidneys may occur. Treatment consists in a change of diet to 
more solid aliment. Boiled flaxseed added to wholesome dry feed, each feed containing 1 tablespoonful 
of Davis Stock Food, is recommended. In serious cases give a dose of 2 drams each of sulphate of iron 
and iodide of potassium twice a day. In obstinate cases, 2 drams of ergot of rye may be added. 

is a common disease among cattle, especially on low,, damp, undrained lands. 
Bloody Urine, Red The bloody urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys 
Water, Wood 111, or urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, kidney worms, 

sprains of the loins t etc.) Among the causes producing it may be mentioned 
water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable matter, and containing alkaline salts, and the presence 
in the water of bacteria growth; hence the prevalence of red water in marshy districts and on 
clayey soils. 

Treatment. — In the milder forms of red water a smart purgative (1 pound to \y 2 pounds of Glauber 
salts) will clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the fever. If, then, wholesome feed, boiled 
flaxseed, bran, etc., to which Davis Stock Food is added, are fed, the trouble will generally take care 
of itself. If much blood is lost, double doses of Davis Stock Food should be continued for some time. 
For cases in which an excess of diuretic plants has been taken, it may be well to replace the salts by 1 
to 2 pints of olive oil, adding 1 ounce of laudanum and 2 drams of gum camphor. Also to apply fomen- 
tations or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. In all cases use Davis Stock Food and a tonic, stimulating 
diet, the different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton seed) being 
especially called for. In case of fever use Bradbury's Brazilian Specific. 

or Albuminuria, is always present in bloody urine. Among the causes are 

Albumen in (1) excess of albumen in the blood; (2) blood pressure; sudden suppression 

the Urine, of milk; (3) after cutting (or disease) of the motor nerves going to the kidneys, 

causing congestion of these organs; (4) violent exertion in any form; (5) in 

most fevers and inflammations of important organs; (6) in burns and congested states of the skin; 

(7) under the action of poisons, etc. It can also be produced experimentally by puncturing the back 

part of the base of the brain. In abscesses, tumor, or inflammation of the bladder, ureter or urethra,, 

the urine is albuminous. 

Treatment. — Direct, as a rule, to the disease on which it is dependent. It no other recognizable 
disease exists use mucilaginous drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm or gum; tannic acid, J^ dram twice 
daily, and fomentations, or even mustard poultices over the loins. In chronic cases without fever: 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Tonics (Davis Stock Food with the feed ration), hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in 1 pint of water; phosphate 
of iron, 2 drams, or sulphate of quinia, 2 drams, twice daily. Keep patient carefully from cold and wet, 
and allow a good, nutritious ration, adding Davis Stock Food in the proportion prescribed. 

or Nephritis, is attributed to the same causes as those producing bloody urine, 
Inflammation of such as irritant and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister or other- 
the Kidneys, wise, exposure to cold and wet, the presence of stone and gravel in the kidneys, 

injuries to the back or loins, as by riding each other, drinking of alkaline water 
or putrid, stagnant water; containing bacteria, consumption of musty fodder, etc. 

Symptoms. — In severe cases there are colicky pains in a violent form; animal frequently shifts 
from one foot to another; stamps, kicks at its belly, looks anxiously at its flank at frequent intervals, 
moans plaintively, lies down and quickly gets up again, grinds its teeth, whisks its tail, keeps the back 
habitually arched and rigid, etc. Bowels may be costive, feces glistening with a coat of mucus, or 
may be loose and irritable, paunch and even bowels may be distended with gas (bloating). In some ani- 
mals, male and female, the rigid arched condition of the back will give way to such undulating movements 
as are sometimes seen in the act of coition. 

Treatment. — Remove acrid or diuretic plants from the feed; purge and clean out stomach and 
bowels by a moderate dose of castor or olive oil ; treat sprains of back and loins with soothing fomentations 
or poultices, or by fresh sheepskin with the fleshy side applied; keep patient in narrow stall in which 
it cannot turn even its head. Apply warm blanketing. Check fever by the use of Bradbury's Brazilian 
Specific or by 15 drops of tincture of aconite, given every four hours. If pain is acute, relieve by giving 
1 ounce of laudanum or 2 drams of solid extract of belladonna. When the severity of the disease 
has passed, use tonics (quinia, 2 drams, or gentian powder, 2 drams, daily). Diuretics, too, may be 
cautiously given at this advanced stage (oil of turpentine, 2 teaspoonfuls ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 teaspoon- 
ful, repeated twice a day). This will relieve dropsy and give tone to the kidneys and general system. 
Pure water is essential but should not be given when chilled ; warm drinks are preferable. In the chronic 
form of kidney inflammation the same protection against cold and similar general treatment are 
demanded. Tonics are important to improve the general health, and Davis Stock Food, added to a 
wholesome, nutritious ration, will prove of the utmost value in building up the debilitated system. By 
correcting the digestive and assimilative functions and stimulating the appetite and circulation, it will 
save many a valuable animal if given regularly. The above medication may be dispensed with if Davis 
Stock Food is at hand, for it in itself will usually effect a cure. 

Of the larger parasites attacking the kidneys may especially be mentioned 
Parasites of the cystic form of the echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the 

the Kidneys. unarmed or beef tapeworm of man, the dividing bladder worm. These give 

rise to general symptoms of kidney disease. 

Inability to pass urine may come from three conditions: (1) spasm of the neck 
Retention of the bladder ; (2) paralysis of the body of the bladder ; (3) obstruction of the 

of Urine. channel of outlet by a stone (calculus). 

Causes. — Lodgment of small stones or gravel ; feeding on irritant diuretics ;. 
enforced retention of urine while at work or during painful or difficult parturition ; extensive application 
of Spanish flies to the skin; indigestion; spasms of the bowels, etc. 

Treatment should be made to conform to the cause. In indigestion, get rid of the irritant 
contents of the bowels by laxatives, injections of warm water, etc. Wash Spanish fly blisters from the 
surface; relieve spasms by injecting 3^ ounce of solid extract of belladonna in water into rectum, or 
by solution of tobacco. Fomentations of warm water may be made over the loins and between thighs ; 
insert oiled hand in rectum and press moderately on anterior part of the bladder. All other measures 
failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a tube (catheter). This, however, can only be done by a 
veterinarian. After relief has been obtained the administration of belladonna, 2-dram doses daily 
for several days, is recommended. Let the diet be nutritious and wholesome, and keep the circulation 
and digestive organs in good order by the use of Davis Stock Food; then you will rarely find any of your 
cattle suffering in this way. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 353 

or stone or gravel in the urine and kidneys, consists of hard bodies, mainly made 

Urinary and up of the solid earthy constituents of the urine which have crystalized and 

Renal Calculi. remained in the urinary passage or kidneys. Calculus in cattle is essentially 

a disease of winter, and of such cattle as are denied succulent feed, confined to 

dry fodder as their exclusive ration. In this connection it should be noted that a great drain of water 

from" the system, by any other channel than the kidneys, predisposes to the production -of gravel or 

stone. There are a good many different names for the different phenomena or conditions under which 

this affection presents itself, but for our purpose, that of teaching the progressive stockman hew to 

recognize and overcome, or better, prevent the trouble from occurring, it is not necessary to enlarge upon 

these. Suffice to say that when the obstruction, stone or gravel, is located in the kidney, it is called 

renal calculi. In an animal leading a quiet, uneventful life, such as the ox, stones of large size may be 

present in the kidney without producing any disorder. In cattle fattened on dry feed in winter, or on 

magnesia limestone, it is exceptional to find the substance of the kidney free from calculi about the size 

of a grain of wheat or less. 

Treatment, both in the case of ureteral and . renal calculi, is not very successful, as 
only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter and enter the bladder, and even if they should do 
so they are liable to a progressive increase there, so that later they may cause the symptom of stone in 
the bladder. Treatment, therefore, should largely be preventive, feeding properly and always keeping 
the digestion and circulation in good working order by the use of Davis Stock Food with the regular 
ration. If this is done the disease will rarely develop. If, however, the disease be present and treat- 
ment demanded, -it should be primarily soothing and anti-spasmodic. Fomentations with warm water 
over the loins should be persisted in without intermission until relief has been secured. Large doses 
of laudanum (2 ounces), or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams), will not only soothe the pain but 
relax the spasm and favor the onward passage of the calculus. Encourage animal to drink large quanti- 
ties of cold water, to favor the free secretion of very watery urine; this will both serve to obviate irritation 
and press the stone forward to the bladder. In certain cases it will tend to disintegrate it. A succulent 
diet, gruel, sloppy mashes, turnips, beets, potatoes, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, always 
adding Davis Stock Food to the ration (2 tablespoonfuls to each feed in disease, and 1 tablespoonful 
in health), with plenty of cold, fresh water, will do much to prevent and relieve milder forms of 
stone and gravel. 

The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra consists of the removal of the stone by incision 
and the use of forceps, and must be done by a veterinarian who will give the necessary directions 
for after-treatment better than can be done here. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

Too frequent sexual intercourse in the male may be the cause; also injury and 
Excess Of Venereal congestion of the base of the brain; congestion or inflammation of the testicles 
Desire — Satyriasis or mucous membrane covering the penis. Symptoms are frequent or constant 
in Male, Nympho- erections, attempts at sexual connection, and sometimes discharge of semen 
mania in Female, without connection. Loss of flesh, emaciation and physical weakness may 

be the result. In the female the morbid desire is still more noticeable and 
injurious. Highly nitrogenous feed, stimulating the blood in cows, especially when they have no free 
exercise in the fields, and are subject to constant association with a vigorous young bull, may excite 
it until it becomes a disease. Disease of the ovaries, however, is preeminently the cause. Tumors and 
cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the neck of the womb, so that conception cannot occur, and the 
too frequent services of the male stimulate the unsatisfied appetite, and a purulent discharge from the 
womb and vagina also are factors. The treatment in each case should vary with the cause. Stop 
overfeeding on highly nitrogenous feeds, allow the stock to exercise in the open fields, have diseased 
ovaries removed; tumors of the womb may also often be detached and extracted, although a veterinarian 

Big. 23. 



Sip. * 



a:a DISEASEvS OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

of course, will be required for these operations. Let the ration be plain and wholesome 
and keep the digestion and assimilation normal and healthy by the regular use of Davis Stock Food 
with the feeds. 

will occur in either sex from low condition. and ill health. Chronic, organic 

'Diminution or LOSS diseases, emaciation, weakness, prolonged semistarvation in winter, etc., may 

of Venereal Desire cause it. Degeneration of the secretive organs (testicles, ovaries) of the male 

and female respectively, are predominant factors. The old, fat, lazy bull 
becomes sluggish and unreliable in serving, not due to his weight and clumsiness alone, but largely to 
fatty degeneration of the testicles and. their excretory ducts. Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, 
above all the show cow, fails to come in heat at the usual intervals, shows little disposition to take the 
bull, and fails to conceive when served. Her trouble is the same in kind, namely, fatty degeneration 
of the ovaries. The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in sound hygiene. Let the breeding 
animal be of adult age, neither over nor underfed, digestion' and circulation healthy and normal by the use 
of Davis Stock Food with the regular ration, vigorous in health. In bull and cow which are becoming 
unduly fat and showing indications of sexual indifference the treatment must be active. Turning 
out on short pasture where it must work hard for a living will often suffice. If the bull cannot be 
turned out, he may sometimes be used in the yoke or tread power, or kept part of his time in a field or 
paddock chained by a ring in his nose to a strong wire extending from side to side of the lot, attached 
securely to two trees or posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which will move 
from end to end at frequent intervals. In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb in the female, 
dilatation, performed by a skilled veterinarian, is the only remedy 

A number of other causes will produce sterility in cattle. Among these are: Breeding 
at too early an age, causing small, stunted growth; the immature bull put to too many cows; highly 
fed, plethoric females occasionally seem to escape conception by the very intensity of the generative 
ardor ; feeding on a very saccharine diet, favoring the deposition of fat ; abortion caused by ergoted grasses ; 
smutty wheat or corn, laxative or diuretic drinking water; improper musty feeds that cause colic, indi- 
gestion and disease of the urinary organs, notably gravel; irritants of the bowels or kidneys may all 
contribute to barrenness. Hermaphrodites, so called, whose organs are not distinctively either male 
or female, of course are barren. Bulls with both testicles retained within the abdomen may go through 
the form of serving a cow, but the service is unfruitful. A bull or cow that has been too closely inbred 
in the same line for generations, may be unable to generate together, but be prolific when coupled with 
animals of other strains of blood. 

or Orchitis, may result from blows or other direct injuries, excessive service, or 
Congestion and formation of some new growth (tumor) in the glandular tissue. It may be treated 
Inflammation by rest, 13^2 pounds of Epsom salts given in 4 quarts of water, restricted diet 
of the Testicles, on some succulent feed, adding Davis Stock Food to the ration. Pain may be 

allayed by a smearing with a solution of opium or extract of belladonna. 
Should a soft point appear, indicating the formation of matter, it may be opened with a sharp lancet 
and the wound treated daily with a solution of 1 teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. In 
severe cases the gland is ruined for procreative purposes and must be cut out. 

may occur in bulls from infection during copulation, and from bruises, blows, etc. 

Inflammation Is most common in the ox in connection with comparative inactivity of the parts. 

of the Sheath The treatment will depend on the stage of the disease. If recent and in no instant 

danger of rupture of the bladder, the sheath should be cut open in the median 

line below, and the sac emptied out with the finger or a spoon, after which it should be thoroughly washed 

with tepid water. Then a catheter or small rubber tube should be inserted. This, however, requires the 

service of a veterinarian who will give further directions. If the blad e- is ruptured the case is hopeless. 

or Gonorrhea, may infect the bull like otner males. If recognized before 

Inflammation the discharge sets in, a dose of \y 2 pounds of Epsom salts, and local warm fomen- 

' of the Urethra, tations would be appropriate. After the onset of the whitish discharge a daily 

injection into the penis of a solution of 20 grains of permanganate of potash 
in 1 pint of water will be beneficial. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 355 



of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous masses in the sheath, or from 
Ulcers on having served a cow with leucorrhea. Treat by frequent injections into the 

the Penis sheath of a lotion made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic acid and 

1 quart water. 

is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and often connected to it by 
PolypUS of the a narrow neck. Growing in the vagina it may project as a reddish, rounded 
Vagina or Uterus tumor from the vulva, especially during the act of passing water. It 

can be distinguished from descent of the womb by the absence of the orifice 
of that cavity, which may be felt by the oiled hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the vagina. In 
the womb a polypus is less easily recognized. At the time of calving it may be felt through the open 
mouth of the womb, and recognized by the experienced touch (it must be carefully distinguished from 
the mushroom formed cotyledons, to which in ruminants the fetal, membranes are attached). Often 
the polypus can only be detected by examining the womb with the oiled hand introduced through the 
rectum. Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge, or they may only be suspected when they prove 
an obstacle to parturition. The best way to remove them is to put the chain of an ecraseur around the 
neck or pedicel of the tumor and tear it through ; or the narrow neck may be torn through by the emas- 
culator; or, in an emergency", it may be twisted through by rotating the tumor on its own axis. The 
removal of the tumor will allow calving to proceed, after which the sore may be treated by a daily 
injection of Yi dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram of Phenalin, and 1 quart of milk warm water. 

If cow remains for three or four weeks after service without showing signs 
Signs of Pregnancy, of heat (bulling) she is probably pregnant. A few exceptions may exist, but 

that is the rule. The bull, no matter how ardent his sexual instinct, cannot 
be made to pay any attention to a cow not in heat. When she has conceived, the cow usually becomes 
more quiet and docile, lays on flesh and fat more rapidly, especially during the first four months of ges- 
tation. The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges below and to each side, 
while it falls in at the flank between the outer angle of the hip bone and last rib, are significant features 
which usually mark pregnancy. In the early stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly; toward the 
end more rapidly. After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be observed in the right 
flank when the cow is drinking cold water. Another method of examination is through the flank, by 
touch. The palm of the hand is pressed strongly inward about 8 inches in front of the stifle and a 
little below several times in succession, and is then brought to rest with the pressure maintained. Pres- 
ently there are felt distinct characteristic movements of the fetus, which has been disturbed and roused 
to action. Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the rectum gives the earliest 
satisfactory indications. The hand and arm well oiled are inserted, and the excrement having been 
removed, if necessary, the palm of the hand is turned downward and the floor of the pelvis carefully exam- 
ined. There will be felt in the median line the pear shaped outline of the bladder, more or less full, 
rounded or tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains. Between this and the hand will be felt 
a soft, somewhat rounded tubular body — the womb, inside which the head, limbs and body of the fetus 
may be distinctly made out. Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be hei.rd 
in the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the flank in front of the right stifle, or from 
that downward to the udder. The average duration of pregnancy in the cow is 285 days. 

The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as regards both her exercise and 

Hygiene Of the feed, nothing is better than a run on a smooth pasture. Keep her quiet, do not 

" Pregnant COW. scare her, nor permit anybody else to do so; do not let her ride nor be ridden by 

other cows; driven rapidly through narrow gateways, caused to jump ditches 
or fences, etc. Let the diet be good, not a kind to fatten, but with a liberal supply of nitrogenous con- 
stituents. Aliments rich in lime and phosphates, like wheat, bran, middlings, etc., can be used to 
advantage, especially when 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food is added to each feed. In the period 
of pregnancy it is especially important to keep the digestion and circulation unimpaired, and no better 
agent in the world exists to further this end than Davis Stock Food. In the case of plethoric and heavy 
milking cews-of mature age, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the last week for the scantiest 
possible fare, and the bowels must be kept open by laxatives, if need be, if the owner would avoid milk 






DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



fever. Keep the cow as much as- possible confined to the breed or herd to which she belongs, and do 
not allow her to mingle freely with strange cattle. Remember that you must avoid strong purgatives 
and diuretics, unless in the very last days of gestation in very plethoric cows. When Davis Stock Food 
is used regularly throughout the period of gestation such remedies even then need rarely be resorted to. 

is common during pregnancy, and may sometimes be remedied by raising the' 

Protrusion of hind part of the stall higher than the front part. Or a truss may be applied, 

the Vagina as for eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving approaches. 

Hernia (breach) of the uterus also often occurs in advanced pregnancy, the 

womb in some cases escaping through a great laceration of the abdominal muscles to one side of the 

udder, the hernial mass extending down to one side of that organ. However unsightly, this often 

allows the cow to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a broad, supporting bandage placed around 

the abdomen is all that can be recommended. After calving, you had better fatten the animal. 

Cramps of the hind legs may be caused, the compression by the womb and fetus of the nerves 
passing through the pelvis being the cause. It disappears under friction and motion and is never seen 
after calving. In the latter months of pregnancy the hind legs may swell beneath the hocks, or a soft 
swelling, which pits on pressure with the finger, appears from the vulva down between the thighs to the 
udder and in front. It is mainly due to the pressure of the enlarged womb on the blood vessels, is not 
dangerous, and disappears after calving. 

The pregnant womb is liable to become overdistended by an excess of fluid in 
Dropsy Of the the inner water bag in which the fetus floats. It draws on the cow's system, over- 
Membranes of the taxes her strength and deranges her digestion, so that the result may prove fatal 
FetllS — Dropsy to both mother and offspring. On the other hand, even the worst cases may 
of the Womb. right themselves without help. The best remedy is to draw a portion of the 

fluid through a hollow needle passed through the neck of the womb or through 
its tense wall adjacent. Repeat this several times if necessary. 

may occur in ill fed, unthrifty and weak cows during the last weeks of preg- 
Paralysis Of nancy. Something may be done for these cases by a warm, dry bed, an abun- 
the Hind Parts dant diet fed warm, with Davis Stock Food added to each feed (2 tablespoon- 

fuls), frictions with straw wisps or with Davis Veterinary Liniment (if this is not 
at hand use equal parts of oil of turpentine and sweet oil on the loins, croup and limbs) . The case becomes 
increasingly hopeful after calving, though some days may still pass before the animal can support 
herself upon her limbs. 

Such cases are rare and usually divided into three types: (1) that in." which 
Extra- Uterine the fetus is formed in or on ovary (ovarian gestation); (2) that in which it is 
Gestation, FetUS lodged in the fallopian tube or canal between the ovary and womb (tubal ges- 
D'eveloping Out- tation) ; and (3) that in which it is lodged in the abdominal cavity and attached 
side the Womb, to one or more of its contents from which it draws its nourishment (abdominal 

gestation). The symptoms are those of pregnancy, which may be suddenly 
complicated by inflammation (peritonitis), owing to rupture of the sac containing the fetus; or at full 
term signs of calving appear, but no progress is made, and examination with the oiled hand in the vagina 
or rectum finds the womb empty and the mouth closed. Further examination will disclose the fetal 
sac attached in some part of the abdominal cavity. Little can be done in such cases except to quiet 
pain and excitement by anodynes (opium, chloral, etc.) and leave the rest to nature. 

Even when fully developed within the womb, the fetus may fail to be delivered 
Prolonged Reten- at the proper time; labor pains having quickly subsided, and the cow resumed 
tion of the FetUS. her usual health. In such cases the calf dies and its soft parts are gradually 

liquified and absorbed, while the bones remain for years in the womb enclosed 
in the remains of the fetal membranes. Or they may be expelled at any time. If remaining, they 
prevent conception. 

If the true condition is recognized at the time of labor pains, or rather the subsidence.of these, 
the mouth of the womb may be dilated by the fingers, by the insertion of sponge tents, or by a mechanical 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 357 

dilator, the fetal membranes may be ruptured and the calf extracted. After the removal of the calf 
and its membranes the danger of putrid poisoning may be obviated by injection of antiseptic solutions, 
such as Phenalin and water. Or an antiseptic may be made by a solution of 10 grains of bichloride of 
mercury in 1 quart of water. 

Abortion properly means too early birth, or expulsion before the offspring is 
Abortion — Slink- able to live out 'of the womb. If expelled after it is capable of independent 
ing of the Calf, existence it is premature parturition. In the cow this may be after seven and 

one-half months of pregnancy. Dairymen use the term abortion for the expul- 
sion of the product of conception any time before the completion of pregnancy, and we will use it here 
in the same manner. Abortion in cows is either contagious or non-contagious. 

Abortion most often occurs at those three weeks' intervals at which the cow 
Non-Contagious would have been in heat if non-pregnant. Poor condition, weakness, too watery 
Abortion. a state of the blood are often predisposing causes,' and this again may be caused 

by poor or insufficient feed, excessive drain upon the udder while bearing the 
calf, use of deficient, unsuitable feeds, chronic wasting diseases, round or tapeworms in the 
bowels, flat worms in the liver, other worms in the liver and lungs, dark, damp, ill ventilated 
buildings, etc. The nourishment may be so poor that the fetus dies in the womb and is expelled 
in consequence. Davis Stock Food should always be added to a wholesome, nutritious ration during 
the period of gestation in order to guard against this. Other causes of abortion are excessive loss of blood, 
chronic diseases of the abdominal organs, fatty degeneration of the heart, especially in old cows; indi- 
gestions of all kinds; putrid, stagnant water; the smut of maize, wheat, barley and oats; rust; the riding 
of one another by cows ; keeping in stables that slope too much behind ; deep gutters behind the stalls 
into which one or both feet slip unexpectedly; the excitement, jarring and jolting of a railroad journey; 
irritant poisons; and abortion, may also result from the death of the fetus, the slipping of a young fetus 
through a loop in the naval string so as to tie a knot which will tighten later and interrupt the flow of 
blood; and there are a number of diseases of the mucous membranes of the womb, fatty or other 
degeneration, etc., which interfere with the supply of blood to the fetus or change its quality so that death 
is the natural result, followed by abortion. 

Although the symptoms may appear the same, this is really the only channel 

Contagious through which abortion can be carried from herd to herd. It has even been 

Abortion. found that the virus of aborting cows may cause abortions in the sow, ewe, goat, 

rabbit, and guinea pig, and that it has been intensified by passing through either 

of the two last named animals; it will affect also the mare, bitch, cat. Too much care to isolate animals 

infected in this way cannot therefore be exercised. The precise germ or germs causing abortion have 

not as yet been demonstrated beyond question. 

Symptoms of Abortion. — In the first two or three months of pregnancy no symptoms may be 
observed, and unless the aborted product is seen the fact of abortion may escape notice. Some soiling 
of the tail with mucus, blood, and the waters may be noticed, or the udder may show extra firmness, 
and in the virgin heifer or dry. cow the presence of a few drops of milk may be suggestive, or the fetus 
and its membranes may be found in the gutter or elsewhere as a mere clot of blood. In advanced preg- 
nancy abortion is largely the counterpart of parturition, so that especial description is superfluous. The 
important thing is to distinguish the early symptoms from those of other, diseases, so that the tendency 
may be arrested and the animal carried to full time if possible The cow is dull, sluggish, separates 
herself from the herd, chewing the cud languidly, or there may be frequent lying down and rising, 
uneasy movements of the hind feet or tail, etc. The thing is not to confound it with urinary or 
digestive disorder, but in a pregnant cow to examine at once for increase of mucus in the vagina, or 
for blood or liquid there or on the root of the tail; enlargement, firmness or tenderness in the udder, 
and above all, for any slight straining, suggestive of labor pains. 

Prevention. — Generous feeding, Davis Stock Food, the right kind of feed (wheat, bran, rape 
cake, cotton seed,„oats, barley, beans, peas, etc.), rich in earthy salts, will correct bloodlessness and 
weakness. Always add Davis Stock Food (2 tablespoonfuls to each feed to the ration of pregnant cows). 
This more than any other agent will insure against loss by abortion. Avoid infested pastures, ponds, 



GENERAL MAXIMS FOR THE A6SISTAN-T IN DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 



streams, shallow wells, etc., in order to guard against worms. Take the utmost care, sanitary and hygienic 
m carrying your cow through the gestation period. Disinfect the stable and stall with solutions of 
Phenalin and water. 

Treatment of Contagious Abortion.-If treated promptly abortion may be prevented even though 
the first svmptoms have appeared. Place cow in a quiet stall alone, and administer agents to check the 
labor pains. Laudanum in doses of 1 ounce for a small cow and Ounces for a large one should be promptly 
administered, and repeated in three or four hours should the labor pains recur. Keep up for 
days or weeks if necessary. Free use of germicides and disinfectants are especially valuable in the 
treatment of contagious abortion. Keep the stable scrupulously clean throughout. Scrape or wash 
back part of stall and gutter and water it with a solution of Phenalin; if this is not at hand with a solu- 
tion of 5 ounces sulphate of copper (bluestone) in 1 gallon pure water. Repeat cleansing once a week 
at least. If possible, treat the whole stable in the same way, as it is impossible to say how many cows 
may have become infected and harbor the germ. Dissolve 1 dram corrosive sublimate 1 ounce of 
alcohol and 1 ounce of glycerine; shake up in a gallon of water and use as vaginal injection and wash 
for the parts about the vulva and root of the tail. . (Be careful about this wash, as it is very poisonous 
both to man and beast.) Every morning the vulva, anus, back of the hips, and root of the tail should 
be sponged with this liquid, and you had better apply it to the whole herd. When a case of abortion has 
occurred the fetal membranes must be removed by the hand without delay, and, together with the fetus 
destroyed by burning or boiling, or buried deeply. Then cleanse and water stable with Phenalin or the 
copper solution. Then wash out womb with iy 2 gallons of the corrosive sublimate solution injected 
through a rubber tube to the depth of the womb and with a funnel in its outer elevated end ' Repeat 
daily for a week. One injection of the same kind should be given into the vagina of the other cows in 
the herd, after which only wash their external parts and tails with the solution daily. A certain number of 
cows will harbor the germ in the womb when treatment is started and it is therefore not to be expected 
that abortions will cease at once, but keeping up the treatment you may get rid of the trouble the following 
year. As an aborting cow is generally of little use for the dairy, you had better separate and fatten her 
Once more, remember that the main things are scrupulous cleanliness, hygiene, sanitation, disinfection 
combined with proper feed in the successful prevention and treatment of this troublesome malady' 



General Maxims for the Assistant in Difficult Parturition 

Do not interfere too soon. "Meddlesome midwifery is bad" with animals as with women 
\\ hen assistance is necessary the operator should dress in a thick flannel shirt from which the sleeves 
have been cut off clear up to the shoulders. Before inserting the hand smear arm with oil, lard or vase- 
line, care being taken that the oil or lard is fresh, neither salty nor rancid, and that it has been purified 
by boiling, or rendered antiseptic by the addition of Phenalin, or 1 teaspoonful of carbolic acid to the 
pound. The presenting limb or head should then be secured by a rope with a running noose, so that it ' 
may not slip back into the womb. Turn the head of the cow down hill. If the cow is lying down turn 
her on the side opposite that on which the limb is missing so that there may be more room for bringing 
the latter up. Even if the missing limb is reached it is vain to attempt to bring it up during labor 
pains. When pain has ceased attempt to straighten out the limb before the next pain comes on. If 
pains are violent and continuous you may check them by pinching the back or by putting a tight sur- 
cingle around the body in front of the udder. These failing, \y 2 ounces of chloral of hydrate in 1 quart 
of water may be given to check the pains. If the passages have dried up or lost their natural lubricating 
liquid, smear the interior of the passages and womb and the surface of the calf as far as can be reached 
with pure, fresh lard, or pure sweet oil may be run into the womb through a rubber tube (fountain syringe). 
Iraggiag up the fetus apply strong traction only while the mother is straining, and drag downward 
toward the hocks as well as backward. You thus follow the natural curvature of both fetus and 
passages and render the extraction easier. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 

or Bleeding of the Womb, occurs at times in the cow, though not nearly so 
Flooding, oft'en as in the human female. The treatment should consist in the removal 

of the fetal membranes and clots from the womb (which will not contract while 
they are present), the dashing of cold water on the loins, right flank, and vulva, and if these measures 
fail, the injection of cold water into the womb through a rubber tube furnished with a funnel. In obsti- 
nate cases a good sized sponge soaked in tincture of muriate of iron should be introduced into the 
womb and firmly squeezed, so as to bring the iron in contact with the bleeding surface. When nothing 
else is at hand an injection of oil of turpentine will sometimes promptly check the bleeding. 

or Casting the Withers, is, like flooding, the result of failure of the womb to con- 

Eversion Of tract after calving. Thus the whole organ may be turned inside out, sliding 

the Womb, back through the vagina and hanging from the vulva. Treatment will vary 

somewhat, according to the degree of the eversion. In partial eversion, 
womb protruding only slightly, cow standing, let an assistant pinch the back to prevent straining, 
while operator pushes his closed fist into the center of the mass and carries it back through the vagina, 
assisting in returning the surrounding parts by his other hand. In more complete eversion, cow still 
standing, let assistant check straining by pinching back, let two men hold a sheet so as to sustain the 
everted womb and raise it to the level of the vagina. Sponge clean with cold water, then with laudanum 
or weak solution of Phenalin. Plant closed fist in rounded end of the largest horn, push on it so as to 
turn it back within itself, carry it on through vagina, meanwhile using the other hand to assist in the 
inversion, etc. If womb has been long- everted, is gorged with blood, inflamed and friable, cow unable 
to rise, better call in a veterinarian and follow his directions. It may be necessary for him to amputate 
the womb. 

Retention of the returned womb is the next point. This is best accomplished by a rope truss. 
Take two ropes, each about 18 feet long, 1 inch thick. Double each rope at middle, lay one above the 
other at the bend so as to form an ovoid about 8 inches in its long diameter. Twist each end of the 
one rope twice around the other so that the ovoid will remain when they are drawn tight. Tie a strap 
or rope around the back part of the neck and a surcingle around the body. Place rope truss on the 
animal so that the ovoid ring shall surround the vulva, the two ascending ropes on the right and left 
of the tail and the two descending ones down inside the thighs on the right and left of the udder. Carry 
these descending ropes forward on the middle of the back, twisting over each other, and tie to surcingle 
and collar. Upper and lower ropes are drawn tightly so that the rope in the ring is made to press firmly 
all around the vulva without risk of displacement. This should be worn for several days until the womb 
has closed and all risk of further eversion is at an end. 

Treatment of this well known and troublesome disease in cows must vary accord- 
Retain ed ing to the conditions. When cow is in low condition, hot drinks and hot mashes 

Afterbirth. of wheat bran or other aliment, to which is added Davis Stock Food in propor- 

tion of 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, may be sufficient. If bowels also are some- 
what confined, 1 pound of ground ginger, or ^ ounce of black pepper, given with 1 quart of sweet oil, 
or 13^ pounds of Glauber salts, the latter in at least 4 quarts of warm water, will often prove effectual. 
Also give a bottle or two of flaxseed tea at frequent intervals. Ergot of rye, 1 ounce, or extract of same, 
1 dram, may be used to induce contraction of the womb. Mechanical extraction of the afterbirth mem- 
branes is, however, often necessary, and we shall here give what we consider to be the two best of several 
methods in use among practitioners: (1) Hang a weight of 1 or 2 pounds to the hanging portion, and 
allow this, by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect when the cow moves to pull the membranes 
from their attachments, and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contractions. This method has the 

—359— 



360 DISEASES FOLLOWING PAR T URITION. 

disadvantage that in neglected cases, when the dependent mass is already badly decomposed, the weight 
is liable to tear it in two, leaving a portion of the offensive material imprisoned in the womb. Again, 
this uncontrolled dragging upon the relaxed womb will (in exceptional cases only, it is true) cause it to 
become everted and to protrude in this condition from the vulva. (2) The skilled hand method, and 
cert aixtly the most prompt and successful, is as follows : First let the operator strip and dress as for partu- 
rition cases. Remember, the operation should be undertaken within twenty-four hours .after calving; 
later it will be difficult. Smear your arms with carbolized lard or vaseline to protect them against 
infection, particularly if it is a delayed case with putrid, offensive membranes.* Let an assistant hold the 
tail to one side, while you seize the hanging afterbirth with the left hand, introducing the right along 
the right side of the vagina and womb, letting the membranes slide through your palm until you reach 
the first cotyledon to which they remain adherent. If no such connection is within reach, gentle trac- 
tion is made on the membranes with the left hand until the deeper parts of the womb are brought within 
reach, and the attachments to the cotyledons can be reached. Then the soft projection of the mem- 
brane, which is attached to the firm, fungus shaped cotyledon on the inner surface of the womb, is seized 
by the little finger, and the other fingers and thumb are closed on it so as to tear it from its connections. 
To explain this it is only necessary to say that the projection from the membrane is covered by soft 
conical processes, which are received into cavities of a corresponding size on the summit of the firm, 
mushroom shaped cotyledon growing from the inner surface of the womb. To draw upon the former, 
therefore, is to extract its soft villous processes from within the follicles or cavities of the other. It is 
at times difficult to start this extraction, and it may be necessary to get the finger nail inserted between 
the two, and once started the finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi in turn out of their cavities. 
This process of separating the cotyledons must be carefully conducted, one after another, until the last 
has been detached and the afterbirth comes freely out of the passages. In the great majority of cases 
this method, if the job be performed by a careful man, knowing something about the anatomy of a 
cow, will prove successful. Always have an antiseptic wash of Phenalin or carbolic acid solution near 
you when performing this operation. You should be able to remove the whole mass -together with one 
operation. Take care in the operation not to cause eversion of the womb. If carefully conducted, 
so as not to tear the cotyledons of the womb, this operation, as stated, is eminently successful, the cow 
suffers little, and the straining aroused by the manipulation soon subsides. Keeping in a quiet, dark 
place, or driving a short distance at a walking pace will serve to quiet these. When the membranes have 
been withdrawn the hand, half closed, may be used to draw out of the womb the offensive liquid that 
has collected. If the case is a neglected one and the discharge is very offensive the womb must be 
injected as for leucorrhea. 

or Vaginitis, may occur independently of inflammation of the womb, usually as 
Inflammation the result of bruises, lacerations, or other injuries sustained during calving. 
of the Vagina, It is shown by a swelling of the lips of the vulva, which, together with their 
lining membrane, become a dark red or leaden color, the mucus discharge 
increasing, becoming whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. In all severe cases of this nature Phen- 
alin or other antiseptic solutions must be assiduously used. Use carbolic acid, y% ounce to 1 quart of 
water, or chlorine water, or peroxide of hydrogen solution may be injected at least three times a day. 
Hyposulphate of soda, 1 ounce to 1 quart of water, is an excellent application, and the same amount 
may be given by the mouth. 

mucopurulent discharge from the passages, is due to a continued or chronic 
Leucorrhea, inflammation of the womb, the vagina or both. It is so well known that little 

mention of its cause need be made here. Treatment with the injections advised 
for vaginitis is successful in mild or recent cases. In obstinate ones stronger solutions of Phenalin or 
carbolic acid must be resorted to, after the womb has been washed out by a stream of tepid water until 
it becomes clear. A rubber tube is inserted into the womb, a funnel placed in its raised end and the 
water, and afterward the solution, is poured slowly through this. If the neck of the womb is close so 
that the liquid cannot escape, a second tube may be inserted to drain it off. As injections may also be 
used chloride of zinc, Y^ dram to 1 quart of water, or sulphate of iron, 1 dram to 1 quart of water. 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCES SFUL TREATMENT. 361 

Three drams of sulphate of iron and x /i ounce of ground ginger may also be given in the feed daily, and 
in order to keep the digestion and circulation healthy and normal Davis Stock Food should be fed 
regularly, 1 tablespoonful to each feed. 

may appear two or three days after calving. The cow shivers ; hair stands 

Inflammation erect along the spine; horns, ears and limbs are cold; the pulse is small and 

of the Womb hard, also rapid, registering 70 to 100 degrees; appetite is lost; rumination ceases; 

pressure on the right flank gives manifest pain, causing moaning and grunting. 

Examination through the rectum detects enlargement and tenderness of the womb. When the neck 

of the womb is touched the cow winces with pain. The discharge from the vulva is at first watery, 

but becomes thick, yellow and finally red or brown, with a heavy, fetid'Odor. 

Treatment. — In slight cases of simple inflammation use the vaginitis treatment, but take care 
that injections penetrate into the womb. After having washed out the womb with a 1 per cent solution, 
of Phenalin, 1 ounce of glycerine and laudanum added to render it more soothing, it will usually answer 
every purpose. Open the bowels with 13^ pounds of Glauber salts, with 1 ounce of ginger in 4 quarts 
of warm water, if required.- You may also apply fomentations of warm water or even mustard poultices 
or turpentine to the right flank. In violent cases give salicylate of soda, x /i ounce, or quinia, 2 drams, 
repeated every four hours, to lower the temperature and counteract septic poisoning. Tincture o& 
aconite may be used in 20-drop doses .every six hours. If temperature rises to 106 or 107 degrees 
Fahrenheit, meet it by giving Bradbury's Brazilian Specific and direct applications of cold or iced water 
to the surface. Animal may be covered with wet -sheets and cold water poured on these at intervals 
until temperature in rectum is lowered to 102 degrees Fahrenheit. In summer cow may be allowed to 
dry spontaneously, while in winter it should be rubbed dry and blanketed. Carefully guard against 
infection of hands and arms in treating a cow for this disease. Smear arm and hand with lard or solution 
of Phenalin before introducing it into the passage. 



MILK FEVER: Its Simple and Successful Treatment. 

Milk fever is a very common and until recently a frequently fatal disease, affecting 
Preliminary cows in all the large dairy districts of this and other countries. As it usually 

Remarks. attacks the best milking members of the herd, and at a time when the milk 

flow is the heaviest, the malady is one which has caused very severe losses 
to our dairy industry. It is therefore of the greatest economic importance that every milk producer 
acquaint himself with the present extremely successful methods of treating this disease, especially the 
injection of filtered atmospheric air into the udder. This form of treatment • has been adopted within 
a comparatively recent time, and in view of the uniform success that has followed, every dairyman should 
become familiar with its use and should provide himself with a suitable apparatus for its application, 
especially if he is located where the services of a competent veterinarian cannot be secured. This method 
of dealing with the disease does not make the assistance of the veterinarian undesirable, in case it is 
obtainable, as the veterinarian may frequently be of the greatest assistance in treating complicated 
symptoms should they arise. 

The common name for this malady — milk fever — is an erroneous and misleading 

Name and one, as in reality fever is usually absent; instead, there is generally an actual 

Synonyms. reduction in body temperature. A far better and more distinctive term, 

and one that describes the actual condition much more precisely, is parturient 

paresis. The disease has also several other names in various parts of the country, such as calving 

fever, parturition fever, parturient apoplexy, parturient collapse, puerperal fever, vitulary fever, and 

dropping after calving. 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 

Milk fever is a disease of well nourished, plethoric, heavy milking cows. It 
Description occurs during the most active period of life (fourth to sixth calf), and is charac- 

of Disease. terized by its sudden onset, and the complete paralysis of the animal with loss 

of sensation, and by following closely the act of calving, or parturition, termina- 
ting in a short time in recovery or death. One attack predisposes the animal to a recurrence of the 
trouble. While this disease may occur at any time during the whole year, it is seen principally during 
the warm summer season. The affection is almost entirely confined to the cow, although a few cases 
have been reported in the sow and goat. Sheep are entirely free from the disease. 

There are few diseases among our domesticated animals regarding the exact 
Predisposition cause of which more widely different theories have been advanced than that of 
and Cause. milk fever. The causes may properly be divided into two kinds — predis- 
posing and direct. Experience shows one of the most prominent predisposing 
causes to be the great activity of the milk secreting structure, namely, the udder. This organ is most 
active after the fourth, fifth and sixth parturition, and this is the time of life when the vast majority 
of cases occur. The disease is almost unknown in heifers with the first calf and decreases in frequency 
steadily after the most active milking period is past. It is rarely, if ever, met with in pure beef breeds, 
such as the Shorthorn, Angus and Hereford, while its main inroads are made in the heavy milking breeds, 
auch as the Holstein, Jersey, and Guernsey. Another factor that is probably of equal importance with 
the activity of the udder in producing the disease is the existence of a plethoric condition of the system, 
the result of excessive feeding and lack of exercise before calving. In heavy milking cows all the feed 
eaten in excess of that required to make up for the normal waste of the system is turned into milk and not 
used for the laying on of flesh or fat. Fleshiness is therefore an unnatural condition in these animals 
and the period during which they are dry is usually very short; indeed, many of these cows continue 
to secrete milk right up to the time of calving. In those cases where the animals go dry the excess of 
nutriment in the feed has no avenue of. escape and immediately becomes stored up in the glands and in 
the blood, throwing the system into a high state of plethora. Now, at the time of calving all the blood 
which has been supplying the fetus is suddenly thrown back on the circulation, and if the udder does not 
begin active secretion very promptly, plethora becomes extreme. The blood plasma under these condi- 
tions is very rich and dense, containing a large percentage of albumen and glycogen, and causing a 
shrinkage in size of the blood cells. This condition is invariably seen when the blood of milk fever patients 
is examined under the microscope. 

Fatness of the animal has been ascribed an important place among the causes of milk fever. This, 
however, in itself, is probably not a predisposing cause. The beef breeds (Angus and Shorthorn) are 
usually in far better condition at the time of calving than the milking breeds (Jersey and Holstein), 
and yet milk fever is a rarity in the former. At the same time it must be understood that a fat Jersey 
is more predisposed than one poor in flesh. -In the fat Jersey the system is already loaded with an excess 
of nutriment and, at the time of calving, extreme plethora is more readily produced than in the thin 
animal where the excess of nutritive elements could be more readily used and stored in the depleted 
muscular and glandular structures of the body. Fatness is therefore only of importance in the 
production of the disease in so far as it tends to increase glandular activity, particularly of the udder, 
and because of the higher state of plethora of the fat animal. 

Regarding the direct cause of milk fever numerous theories have been advanced by various 
investigators, but only to be abandoned as further discoveries in pathology were made. Thus Schmidt, 
of Muhlheim, basing his theory upon the' striking resemblance of the symptoms of milk fever to those of 
sausage poisoning, claimed that the former was due to an auto-intoxication, produced by the absorp- 
tion of toxins from the uterus. This was a great advance over the theories which up to this time had 
a considered. Nevertheless, the medication recommended by this writer, which aimed at the anti- 
septic treatment of the womb, failed to decrease the great mortality of the disease, and his theory was 
finally entirely superseded in 1897 by that of J. Schmidt, of Kolding, Denmark. This able investigator 
first directed attention toward the udder by claiming (as Schmidt, of Muhlheim, had done) that the dis- 
ease was an auto-intoxication, but produced by the absorption from the udder of leucomaines, resulting 
from the decomposition of the first milk (colostrum). Following up this idea Schmidt considered that 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 363 

the treatment should be directed toward retarding the secretion of the udder and at the same time neu- 
tralizing the leucomaines, or toxins, already present, by the use of- some antitoxic agent. He there- 
fore advocated the injection into the udder of an aqueous solution of potassium iodide, which method 
was followed by an immediate decrease of the mortality to a very marked degree. The great success 
attendant upon this line of treatment at once gave the theory general recognition, and this very difficult 
problem was at last thought to be solved. Within the last few years the injection of etherized air, 
oxygen, and sterile atmospheric air have been used with wonderful success, reducing the death rate 
much lower than the potassium iodide had done. It therefore seems that a thorough distention of 
the udder is far more important than the antitoxic action of potassium iodide. 

In explanation of the efficiency of this treatment some writers have claimed that after calving 
the determination of blood suddenly changed from the uterus to the udder, which produces an anemia 
(bloodlessness of the brain). By thoroughly distending the udder the pressure therein causes a decrease 
in its circulation, which tends to equalize the distribution of the blood in other parts of the body, thus 
relieving the anemia of the brain and the consequent symptoms of milk, fever. It has also been suggested 
that the highly favorable results obtained by the injection of atmospheric air and other gases into the 
udder are due to the fact that milk fever is produced by an anaerobic organism (a germ unable to live in 
the presence of air) which invades the udder. If this should prove true it is probable that this organism 
remains localized in the udder, as the bacillus of lockjaw remains localized at the point of injury, 
and produces a highly potent toxin, which, when absorbed into the system, has a specific action on the 
nerve centers. These theories, however, have not been proved, and the determination of the cause 
of this affection still requires investigation. 

Symptoms. — This disease in its typical and most common form is comparatively easy to diagnose 
and one which almost every dairyman knows immediately before the arrival of the veterinarian. It 
usually comes on within two days after the birth of the calf and is practically never seen after the second 
week. In isolated instances it has been observed a few days before calving. At the commencement 
of the attack there is usually excitement; the cow is restless, treads with the feet high, switches the 
tail, stares anxiously around the stall or walks about uneasily. She may bellow occasionally, show slight 
colicky symptoms, and make ineffectual attempts at relieving the bowels. These symptoms are rarely 
recognized by the owner, but they are followed within a few hours by beginning paralysis, indicated 
by a staggering gait, especially in the hind legs, and by weakening of the knees. and fetlocks in front. 
The patient now becomes quieter, the gait more staggering and weak, and finally the animal goes down 
and is unable to rise. The paralysis by this time is general, the calf is unnoticed, and the cow lies per- 
fectly quiet with the eyes partly closed a«id staring and showing a complete absence of winking when 
the eyeball is touched. She is absolutely unheedful of her surroundings and flies may alight with impunity 
on all parts of the body without causing the slightest movement to dislodge them. While down the 
patient assumes a very characteristic position which is of great aid in diagnosis. The head 
is turned around to the side (usually the left) and rests on the chest, causing a peculiar arching of 
the neck. If the head is drawn out straight, it immediately flops around to the side again when the 
force is removed. The body usually rests slightly to one side, with the hind legs extended forward, 
and the fore legs doubled up in their normal position. This is paralysis of the muscles of the throat, 
so that swallowing is impossible, and in case drenching is attempted there is great danger of the 'fluids 
going into the lungs and setting up traumatic pneumonia. Paralysis of the rectum and bladder is also 
complete and the movement of the intestines is so suppressed that purgatives are frequently powerless 
to reestablish it. Fermentation in the paunch with consequent bloating is sometimes seen, particularly 
when the patient is allowed to be stretched out on her side. The secretion of milk is diminished and may 
be suspended entirely. Sugar is voided in the urine, depending in quantity on the severity of the attack. 
The pulse is weak and at times hardly susceptible to the finger, averaging from 50 to 70 beats per minute. 
Later in the disease, however, and especially in those cases with unfavorable terminations, it may reach 
100 per minute. There is seldom noticed a rise in temperature." Sometimes at the commencement of 
the attack the temperature may reach 103 degrees Fahrenheit, but there is a steady decrease to as low 
as 95 degrees Fahrenheit* as the disease progresses. The*temperature rapidly rises again as improvement 
is manifested.- Convalescence occurs rapidly, and on the day following the onset of the disease, and in 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND S U CCESSFUL TREATMENT. 

some cases even within a few hours, the animal may be up eating and drinking in a normal manner. 
Sometimes, however . a slight paralysis of the hind quarters persists, and may remain for a week and even 
jer, indicating that some structural change must have occurred in the nerve centers. In fatal cases 
the animal may remain perfectly quiet and die in a comatose condition from complete paralysis of the 
nervous system, but more frequently there is some agitation and excitement prior to death with tossing 
about of the head. Death, like recovery, usually occurs in from eighteen to seventy-two hours after 
the onset of the malady. 

Appearances After Death. — The post mortem appearances in an animal that has succumbed 
to this disease are frequently entirely negative and not in the slightest degree characteristic. This 
further upholds the theory that milk fever is an intoxication and not a bacterial infection, as in the latter 
case the lesions would be more marked and distinguishable. The post mortem also fails to substantiate 
the fermentation theory of Schmidt-Muhlheim, as the uterus is usually found contracted and its mucous 
membrane intact. The third stomach is sometimes found impacted with dry, hard masses of feed, and 
there may be some fermentation in the intestines. Sugar in varying percentage is always found in the 
urine in the bladder as well as in that drawn prior to death. Various particles of feed may be found in 
the larynx, together with congestion and swelling of the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi. 
Pneumonia, traumatic in origin, may also be observed if drenching has been attempted after paralysis of 
the throat has occurred. The blood usually appears dark and thick and congestion of the spinal cord 
and of the base of the brain is also quite frequently present. 

Prognosis and Mortality. — Prior to the introduction of the Schmidt treatment milk fever was 
considered an exceedingly serious malady and the death rate was placed by various authors at 40 to 50 
and even 70 per cent. However, after the introduction and general application of potassium iodide 
injections into the udder, the mortality was reduced in Denmark and Germany to 17 per cent, and in 
Switzerland to 22 per cent, and in Austria to 25 per cent, while in this country the statistics collated at 
the Iowa Experiment Station shows 119 recoveries without complication out of 166 cases, a mortality 
of 28 per cent. Since the use of sterile atmospheric air for the injection of the udder, the death rate is 
even much lower than with the potassium iodide treatment, and in Denmark out of 914 patients, 884, 
or 96 . 7 per cent recovered. In general, the nearer the attack follows the act of calving the more severe 
it proves and the graver the danger. The severity also greatly increases with each subsequent attack. 

Treatment. — In the administration of medicine by the mouth, and especially drenches, great care 
should be taken to prevent the fluids from getting into the larynx and from there into the lungs where 
they will set up traumatic pneumonia, which is almost invariably fatal. In case the throat is not paralyzed 
the drench may prove of value and should be given slowly and immediately stopped at the first sign of 
uneasiness or coughing on the part of the animal. While the patient lies on the side she must raise the 
weight of her body at each inspiration, which is very exhausting, and hypostatic congestion of the depend- 
ent lung is greatly favored. Consequently it is of importance that the cow should be kept propped up on 
the breastbone by means of bags of chaff or straw placed against her side. In the way of medicinal treat- 
ment purgatives may be given in the first stage of the disease when, the animal can swallow, with the 
precautions above mentioned. One pound of Epsom salts and 2 ounces of creolin dissolved in 1 pint of 
water will prove beneficial. The creolin is added for its antiseptic action to prevent fermentation in 
the paunch with the consequent danger of the eructation of feeds and their subsequent passage into the 
windpipe. Ammonium carbonate in 2-dram doses dissolved in 2 ounces of water will be found to act 
equally as well as the creolin in this respect. Epsom salts is rather slow in its action, and an injection 
under the skin with a hypodermic syringe of 1)^ to 2 grains of eserine sulphate, when obtainable, will 
be found quicker and more efficacious. The rectum should be emptied and injections of 1 to 2 gallons 
of warm water given to stimulate intestinal movements. However, the normal movement of the bowels, 
once lost, is exceedingly hard to reestablish, and sometimes all efforts in that direction fail. The urine 
should be drawn with a catheter or by pressure on the bladder with the hand in the rectum, as the bladder 
is paralyzed and unable to empty itself. » 

The feeble pulse and subnormal temperature call for the administration of stimulants. Injections 
under the skin of 1 dram of the following solution every three hours are probably the most efficacious: 
80 grains of caffein, 60 grains of sodium salicylate, and 4 drams of water. Similar injections of 1 grain 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 365 



of strychnia sulphate three times daily will also be found very beneficial, although numerous other drugs 
may be recommended, as spirits of camphor, veratrin, tincture of digitalis, alcohol, etc. In case the 
animal is very excitable the head should be restrained in such a manner as to prevent injury, and, in case 
the violence becomes excessive, 1)4, ounces of chloral dissolved in 1 quart of water may be injected into 
the rectum, or 5 grains of morphine sulphate under the skin. 

The Potassium Iodide Treatment. — As previously stated, Schmidt, of Kolding, advanced the 
theory in 1897 that the cause of milk fever was the absorption of leucomaines from the udder, and recom- 
mended that potassium iodide be injected to prevent the formation of the toxin and to neutralize that 
already existing. This was the most rational theory so far advanced and the treatment proved to be 
beneficial, being followed by astonishingly good results. After this treatment was generally resorted 
to throughout Europe and America, the death rate fell from 40 per cent to 17 per cent. The apparatus 
required for the Schmidt treatment is exceedingly simple, and consists of a piece of rubber tubing about 
4 feet long, to one end of which is attached an ordinary milking tube which is inserted into the teat. 
At the other end a funnel is fitted, into which the solution is poured. Previous to the injection the udder 
should be thoroughly milked out and washed off with warm water and soap, followed by a 5 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid or creolin. A clean towel should be placed under the udder to keep it from 
coming in contact with the stable litter or other filth. Two and one-half drams of potassium iodide 
are then added to 1 quart of water previously boiled for fifteen minutes and allowed to cool to the tem- 
perature of the body. The funnel and tubing should likewise be disinfected before the injection. The 
milking tube is inserted into the four teats in succession, each quarter of the udder, after it has been 
milked out clean, receiving % pint of the liquid. The udder should then be thoroughly massaged to 
make sure that all the milk canals are penetrated by the liquid. In case improvement does not occur 
the injection may be repeated once or twice at intervals of eight hours, always observing the same anti- 
septic precautions, as it is possible to produce a gangrenous mammitis (caked bag) and ruin the udder 
by careless injections which introduce pathogenic bacteria. This danger, however, is entirely obviated 
by the use of ordinary antiseptic precautions, as described above. 

Of all known methods of treating milk fever, the injection of sterile atrrios- 
The New Air pheric air into the udder with the Davis Milk Fever Outfit is by far the most 
Treatment. simple and practicable as well as the most efficacious and harmless one at 

our disposal, and only occasionally requires that medicinal treatment be given. 

For a considerable length of time the entire value of Schmidt's treatment was considered to be the 
antitoxic action of potassium iodide, and soon numerous investigators began injecting various other 
antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, creolin, etc., with equally good results. Sterile water and sterile salt 
solutions were tried with no increase in the mortality, and it was therefore considered that the disten- 
tion of the udder was as important a factor as the antitoxic action of the iodide of potash. Continuing 
along these lines, Kortman used antiseptic gases (etherized air) with beneficial results. Oxygen was then 
tried by Knusel with increasing success and the deaths among the experimental cases virtually ceased. 
The apparatus for treating with oxygen and etherized air, however, are expensive and cumbersome, and 
this greatly limits their use by the average practitioner. 

To Anderson, of Skanderborg, belongs the credit of first having made use of plain atmospheric 
air,- although Schmidt had previously recommended the admittance of air with the potassium iodide 
solution for the purpose of obtaining greater diffusion of the liquid. Anderson first injected air along 
with sterile water and then by itself. The results were astonishingly successful. Thus Schmidt reports 
that out of 914 cases treated in Denmark, 884, or 96. 7 per cent, were restored to health. The record of 140- 
of these animals shows that recovery occurred in the average time of Q% hours. Of this number twenty- 
five cases required a second injection, while in three of the latter number it was necessary to give a third 
treatment before they were able to get upon their feet. The treatment is also practically harmless, 
as the statistics of the above mentioned 914 patients show that only one cow was affected with a 
severe attack of caked bag after this treatment, while in four other cows a milder inflammation of the 
udder was apparent. Equally good results have likewise been obtained in this country. 



366 



MILK FEVER : ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCE SSFULTRF.ATMFNtt 




The method of injecting filtered air into the udder is easy of manipulation requires but IteU 
tune, and is readily accomplished by means of the Davis Milk Fever Apparatus surf, ZTT 
iHustration. It consists of a metal cylinder with milled screw caps on eiZ end Cap mlyt ZZ^l 
m order to place sterile absorbent cotton within the chamber. To this cap the rubber belws arTc on 

nected by 9 inches of rubber tubing. 
Cap is to be removed together with 
the attached 18 inches of rubber hose, 
at the free end of which is the self 
retaining milking tube for the purpose 
©f disinfection before treating each 
case. The pulling on or off of the 
tubing on the nozzles of the milled 
caps is thus rendered necessary. 
Within the metal cylinder is a wire 
net, which prevents the obstruction of 
Pavis Milk Fever Outfit. the outlet of the chamber by holding 

permits of the unscrewing of the lower cap and the disinfection of tMs ^orttn tf ttJlp^ S3 ,2* 

localities and is better, though slightly more expensive, than "the pSin coZ " ^ " ^ 

andth^H i0US i, t0 M akmg ^u ^ inJeCti ° n ' the hands ° f the °P erator sh ^W be thoroughly cleansed 
theil Wt f 1 "^ thG ^^ CarefUl antiS6ptic treatment as has been recommended n discuss ne 

and thus a continuous flow of air is forced through the filtering chamber and into tne udder Sieht 

wTh Te' " Th " ° f ^ ^^ WlU ^^ ^ WrmOSt "™* the milk tabules to become distended 
with the injected air. After one-quarter of the udder is well distended the milking tube is removed 
care being taken to prevent the outflow of air by having an assistant tie a small piecf of tape abT t the 
teat rtT*£* mi,kmg tUbC " Withd — ^e same treatment is repeated vrll tZo^Tt^t 
ZT ■ , "f G l 1S SatlSfaCtori1 ^ tended. In case the air becomes absorbed and no imp^Z 

auttntrarfirsr TheY ^f^ ** *"**"* ^ ^ madfi ^ the Sa ™ ^"^ 
cautions as at first. The tape should be removed from the teats two or three hours after the cow eets 

on her feet, the constricting muscles at the tip of the teats being now depended on for etain 4 tne at 

In this manner the air may be left in the udder for twenty-four hours, and when recovery "assured 

durSis P Sd 7 milkGd ° Ut - " ^ needlGSS * ^ that the Calf **" ^ be SdS 

before efhZhWion f ^ttt? ^ ^ * ^^ * the milkin Z tube is thoroughly disinfected 
e^sed If the?r ' T t ^ *** md h * g &n& the hands ° f the °P erator ^ been properly 
u^SHneta £t£ZZ 2" T V *"* *? Sm dUSt and dirt ' the absorbent or ™™ cotton 
L been reate fis 1 H , ^ 'T 'T^ f t0 diSt6nd the ^^ ° £ six COWS - After *his — ber 
X^oot^ LcylX rePkCethe OM COtt ° n With a frCSh Sterile -P P ly, which should be 



MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 367 

While this method of treating milk fever is comparatively easy for a farmer or dairyman to 
adopt, he cannot expect to have the same successful results as those obtained by a skilled veterinarian, 
and it is therefore advisable that the services of such a veterinarian ^should always be obtained in those 
districts where it is_ possible. In many cases it will be found that the injection of air into the udder 
will be sufficient to combat the disease without any other treatment, but it is always advisable to study 
the symptoms of each individual case and administer in a rational manner the indicated medicines. 

Prevention. — Until recently most stringent measures were resorted to by every careful dairyman 
to prevent the development of the disease in' his herd. However, since the treatment of the present 
day has so greatly reduced, and even in some cases obliterated the mortality, prevention is no longer 
such an important problem and therefore preventive measures which have a severe and lasting effect 
upon the animals should be abandoned from an economic standpoint. It has long been advocated to 
starve all suspected animals for two weeks "prior to the birth of the calf. It is frequently noted that 
this has an injurious effect on the milk flow of the animal, from which it may require several weeks for 
her to recover and gain her normal output of milk. This measure is no longer considered advisable, 
as it is better to have the cows attacked with the disease once in a while (the mortality being less than 
5 per cent) than to decrease the flow from every heavy milking cow for one or two weeks after she comes 
fresh by starving her before calving. 

A method which is not quite so sure 'of reducing the plethoric condition of the cow, but which 
nevertheless proves very efficient and is without the slightest permanent injurious effect,' is the adminis- 
tration of 1 to 13^ pounds of Epsom salts two or three days prior to calving. In case this has been 
neglected and a well nourished, heavy milking cow has passed through an easy, non-exhausting calf 
birth, the administration of the salts after the labor is over should by no means be neglected. Blood 
letting has also been advocated, but there is always the danger of exciting the blood making organs 
to excessive activity, thus largely neutralizing the effect. It should therefore be resorted to only when 
the cow is extremely fat, is a heavy milker, and has had one or more previous attacks. The blood should 
be drawn from the jugular vein until the pulse softens perceptibly, \ x /2 pints for every 100 pounds of 
the animal's body weight being about the right amount. 

Another very good preventive measure and one easily carried out, though frequently overlooked, 
is to give the cow plenty of exercise up to the time of calving. Many animals are allowed to run contin- 
uously on pastures from the time they go dry until a week or two before calving, when they are trans- 
ferred to the stable without any subsequent exercise. This is very conducive to the enriching of the blood 
and the development of the disease. 

The most recent preventive treatment suggested is in line with the favorable results obtained 
by the injection of air into the udder. It consists in allowing the susceptible cow to retain in the udder 
for twenty-four hours after calving all the milk except the small quantity required by the calf, which 
should be taken if possible from each quarter. The distention of the udder -naturally follows as in the 
air treatment and acts as a preventive against milk fever. In the Island of Jersey and at the Biltmore 
Farms, N. C, where this practice is common, the number of milk fever cases has been greatly lessened. 
General sanitary conditions should also be looked after, such as the supply of pure air and clean stabling, 
with plenty of clear, cool water and laxative feeds, such as grasses and roots. Some observers who 
believe in the microbic origin of the disease have recommended the cleaning of the manure and dirt 
from the animal and spraying the hind quarters and genitals with a 4 to 5 per cent solution of Phenalin, 
carbolic acid, lysol, or creolin just prior to calving. From our present knowledge of the disease, 
however, this is probably unnecessary. 

consists of a more or less complete loss of control of the hind limbs occurring 
Palsy After Galv- after calving, and due either to low condition, weakness, and exposure to cold, 

ing D Topping or to injurious compression of the nerves of the hind limbs by a large calf 

After Calving passing through the . pelvis. Its symptoms do not differ from those of palsy 

of the hind limbs, occurring at other times, and it may be treated in the same 
way. Bruises of the vagina may demand special soothing treatment. 



368 MILK FEVER: ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 

may occur in heavy milkers before and just after calving. Friction, the 
_ . , sucking of a hungry calf and the kneading it gives the udder with its nose, 

fK TT A A wi * 1 * ie ^ p to re ^ eve ft* Active rubbing (being administered three times a day 

when the cow is milked), etc., will also aid in correcting this condition. 
Camphorated ointment is good. 

accompanied with fever, should be treated by giving the patient copious drinks 
Inflammation of warm water thrown in from horn or bottle; equally copious warm injections; 

of the Udder, the application of heat in some form to the surface of the body (by a rug wrung 

out of hot water, etc.) The administration of a pint of strong alcoholic liquor, 
or of 1 ounce of ground ginger, may serve to cut short the attack. After half an hour's sweat, rub dry and 
cover with a dry blanket. If, on the other hand, there is little or no fever, and only slight inflammation, 
rub well with camphorated ointment, or a weak iodine ointment, or Davis Veterinary Liniment, and 
milk three, four, or six times a day. Milking should be done with gentleness, squeezing the teat 
instead of stripping and pulling it. To keep the digestion and circulation active, feed Davis Stock 
Food, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed, with the ration. This will also act as a tonic and invigorator. 
If abscess of the affected part threatens, it may be favored by fomentation and opened as soon as 
fluctuation from finger to finger shows the formation of matter at the point formerly hard. Gangrene 
is often fatal in these cases and demands the attention of a veterinarian. But the simple abscess, after 
it is opened, you may attend to, dressing it twice daily with a lotion of Phenalin, water and glycerine — 
Phenalin, 1 part; water, 20 parts, and glycerine, 1 part. 

Absence of milk in the udder may result from ill health, debility, emaciation, 
Suppression of Milk, chronic disease of the bag, wasting of the gland from previous disease, or insuf- 
ficient feed. Treatment will consist in removing the cause of the disease, to feed 
well on rich albuminoid feed made into warm mashes. Davis Stock Food, given in the usual propor- 
tion, will here prove of the utmost value, and will speedily restore a plentiful flow of milk. In cases 
where the cow has a tendency to give bloody milk, the treatment should vary with the cause. In 
congested glands give 1 pound of Epsom salts, and daily thereafter ^ ounce of saltpeter, with 1 dram 
of chlorate of potash; bathe the bag with hot and cold water, and rub with camphorated lard. If the 
feed is too rich or abundant it must be reduced. If the cause is acrid plants these must be removed 
from pasture or fodder. Induration of the udder may be met by rubbing with a combination of 
iodine ointment, 1 part; soft soap, 2 parts; or mercurial ointment and soap may be used. Careful 
milking is imperative. 

Watery milk is blue, but the presence of a germ (Bacillus cyanogenus) causes 

Blue Milk. a distinct blue shade even in rich milk and cream. It may reach the milk 

after it has been drawn, or it may find its way into the opening of the milk 

ducts and enter the milk as it is drawn. In the latter case frequent milking and the injection into the 

teats of a solution of 2 drams of hyposulphite of soda in 1 pint of water will serve to destroy the germs. 

may be caused by fungi developing in the liquid. Like most other fungi this 
Stringy Milk does not grow out into filaments within the body of the cow, but in five or six 

hours after milking the surface layers are found to be one dense network of 
filaments. If a needle is dipped in this and lifted, the liquid is drawn out into a long thread. Impure 
water, water originating from black muck soil, and pools mixed with the dejections of the stock, will 
develop fungi of this character. Keep the cows away from such springs and other unsanitary and 
unhygienic conditions, and give each of them 2 drams of bisulphite of soda daily; always remembering 
to add Davis Stock Food to the daily feed ration and you will soon have pure, sweet and rich milk, with 
no trace of blood or strings to mar its quality. 

Chapped teats may be caused by anything which irritates them. Soothing 
Chapped Teats, Etc. applications of vaseline, or a combination of equal parts of spermaceti and oil 

of sweet almonds may be applied. If healing is tardy add 10 grains balsam 
of Peru to 1 ounce of ointment. If the irritation is very great, wash first with a solution of 1 dram of 
sugar of lead in 1 pint of water, and then apply benzoated oxide of zinc ointment. Warts on the teats 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 369 



also are often quite troublesome. They may be greatly benefited or entirely removed by smearing them 
thickly after each milking with pure olive oil. If they persist they may be cut off with a sharp pair of 
scissors and the sore touched with a stick of lunar caustic. They may then be oiled and the caustic 
repeated as demanded to prevent their renewed growth. 

When the calcareous matter of the milk has been precipitated in the form of 
Teat Blocked by a smooth, rounded stone, or a fine, sand like debris, it may cause obstruction 
Calculus (Stone), and irritation. The milk usually will contain gritty particles. Extraction 

may be attempted by simple milking in the case of the finely divided gritty 
matter, or with the spring dilator in the case of the larger masses. Should this fail the teat may be laid 
open with a knife and sewed up again or closed with collodion, but such an operation is best deferred until 
the cow is dry. 

In cases where the teats are blocked by warty or other growths inside, the condition may be 
relieved, at least with all looser growths, by snaring them with a fine spring passed as a loop through 
a fine tube (like a teat tube open at each end), and introduced into the teat When this is 
impracticable, the only resort is to cut in and excise it while the cow is dry. 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 

may occur in two conditions: when the cord is cut off too close to the navel 
Bleeding From and left untied, and when it tears off at the navel. It may also bleed when torn 
the Navel across naturally, if it is sucked by the dam or another calf. Where any cord is 

left it is always safe to tie it, and it is only when it is swollen and may possibly 
contain a loop of the bowel that there is danger in doing so. By pressing upward any bulky contents 
such danger is avoided. If torn or cut too close to be tied, the bleeding may be checked by applying 
alum, copperas, or for a fraction of a second the end of an iron rod at a dull red heat. If much blood 
has been lost it may be requisite to transfuse several ounces of blood, or a weak common salt solution 
into the open umbilical vein. 

Before birth the urine passes from the bladder by a special tube through the 
Urine Discharged navel and navel string into the outer water bag. This closes at birth, and in 
Through the Navel, the calf the tube is drawn in toward the bladder. It is only in the bull calf 

that it is likely to remain open, doubtless because of the long, narrow channel 
through which the urine must otherwise escape. The urethra, too, is sometimes abnormally narrow, 
or even closed in the male. If part of the cord remains, tie it and allow the whole to wither up naturally. 
If the cord has been removed and the tube (urachus) protrudes, discharging the urine, that alone must 
be tied. If there is nothing pendant the urachus must be seized, covered by the skin, and a curved 
needle being passed through the skin and above the duct it may be tied along with this skin. A 
blister of Spanish flies, or better, Davis Veterinary Blister, causing swelling of the skin, will often 
close the orifice. 

sometimes occurs as the result of irritation from calving or by the withered cord, 
Abscess of the Navel etc. Inflammation may attack the loose connective tissue of the navel to the 

exclusion of the urachus and veins, and go on to the formation of matter. In 
this case a firm swelling appears as large as a fist, which softens in the center and may finally burst 
and discharge. The opening, however, is usually small and may close prematurely, so that abscess after 
abscess is formed. It is distinguished from hernia from the fact that it cannot be returned into the 
abdomen, and from inflammation of the veins and urachus by the absence of swellings forward and 
backward along the lines of these canals. Treatment consists of an early opening of the abscess by a 
free incision and the injection twice a day of an astringent antiseptic (chloride of zinc, ^ dram; 
water, 1 pint). 



370 DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 



icurs in young calves within the first few months after birth. The symptoms are 
Pyemic and Septi- swelling of one or more joints, which are very hot and tender. The calf is stiff 
cemic Inflamma- and lame, lies down constantly and cares not to suck. There is very high 
tion of Joints in lever and accelerated breathing and pulse, and there is swelling and purulent 
Calves — Joint 111 — discharge (often fetid) from the navel. There may be added symptoms of 

disease of the liver, lungs, heart, or bowels. -The important point, however, 
is to determine the condition of the navel in all such cases of diseased and, swollen joints beginning in 
the first month of life. Cases of this kind, if they do not speedily die, tend to become emaciated and 
perish later in a state of weakness and exhaustion. Treatment in the main is antiseptic. Slighter forms 
may be painted daily with iodine; or an ointment of biniodide of mercury 1 dram and lard 2 ounces, 
may be rubbed on- the affected joints daily until they are blistered. In case of swellings containing 
matter this may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe and the following solution 
injected: Compound tincture of iodine, 1 dram; distilled (or boiled) water, 2 ounces. Internally the 
calf may take 5 grains quinia twice daily and 15 grains hyposulphite of soda, or 20 grains of salicylate 
of soda three times a day. 

may exist at birth from imperfect closure of the muscles around the opening. 
Umbilical The symptoms are a soft swelling at the navel, with contents that usually 
Hernia — Breach gurgle on handling, and can be returned entirely into the abdomen by pressure. 
at the Navel — Treatment is not always necessary. A small hernia, like an egg, in a new born 

calf will usually recover of itself as the animal changes its diet to solid feed 
and has the paunch fully developed as an internal pad. In other cases apply a leather pad 8 inches 
square around the body by two elastic bands connected with its four corners, and an elastic band passing 
from its front border to a collar encircling the neck, and two other elastic bands passing up over the 
back. Another most effective resort is to make a saturated solution of common salt, filter and boil it, 
and when cool inject under the skin (not into the sac) on each side of the hernia a dram of the fluid. 
A bandage may then be put around the body. In ten hours an enormous swelling will have taken place, 
pressing back the bowel into the abdomen. "When this subsides the wound will have closed. 

This appearing in the calf at birth is due to the orifice between the two auricles 
The Blue Dis- of the heart (foramen ovale) being too open, allowing the non-aerated (venous) 
ease — Cyanosis. blood to mix with the aerated (arterial) blood, and it is beyond the reach of 

treatment. It is recognized by the blueness of the eyes,-nose, mouth and other 
mucous membranes, the coldness of the surface, and the extreme sensitiveness to cold. 

■ 

At birth the bowels of the calf contain the meconium, a tenacious, gluey, brownish 
Constipation. yellow material largely derived from the liver, which must be expelled before 

they can perform their functions normally. The first milk of the cow (colostrum, 
beestings), rich in albumen and salts, is nature's laxative to expel this now offensive material, and should 
never be withheld from the calf. If, for lack of this, from the dry feeding of the cow, or from any other 
cause, the calf is costive, straining violently without passage, lying down and rising as in colic, and 
failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief by an ounce dose of ca6tor.oil, assisting its action 
by injections of soap suds or oil. Whatever meconium within reach should be carefully removed. It 
is also important to give the cow a sloppy, laxative diet. 

may occur from different causes, such as costiveness; too liberal a supply of milk; 
Indigestion too rich milk; the furnishing the milk of a cow long after calving to a very 

young calf; allowing a calf to suck the first milk of a cow that has been hunted, 
driven by road, shipped by rail, or otherwise violently exercised; allowing the calf too long time between 
meals so that impelled by hunger it quickly overloads and clogs its stomach; feeding from the pail of milk 
that has been held over in unwashed (unscalded) buckets, so that it is fermented and boiled; keeping 
the calves in dark, damp, filthy, ill smelling pens, etc. Symptoms are dullness, indisposition to move, 
uneasiness, gas, sour breath, loss of appetite, lying down and rising as if in pain, fullness of the abdomen. 
The costiveness at first gives place to diarrhea. 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 371 

Treatment. — Prevention is the best treatment, but if the trouble has been allowed to come on, 
1 or 2 ounces of castor oil with 20 drops of laudanum may be given. For sourness, 1 tablespoonfui 
of lime water or 34 ounce of calcined magnesia ; repeat three times a day. If disorder- continues, 1 large 
tablespoonfui of rennet, or 20 grains of pepsin may be given at each meal along with 1 tablespoonfui of 
tincture of gentian. Davis Stock Food, 34 tablespoonfui to each feed, will be of great assistance. Any 
return of constipation may be treated by injections of warm water and soap. In case of the formation 
of loose hair balls inclosing milk undergoing putrid fermentation, temporary benefit may be obtained 
by giving 1 tablespoonfui of vegetable charcoal three or four times a day, but the only real remedy for 
this is to cut open the paunch and extract them. This requires the service of a veterinarian. Remember 
that if you would avoid the various diseases in calves, the mother of the calf should be fed on succulent, 
nourishing feed, always adding 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed; as soon as the 
calf commences to eat solid feed it should be given 34 tablespoonfui of Davis Stock Food to each feed. 
This will insure healthy circulation and perfect digestion in the young animal, and it will grow and thrive 
much more quickly than would otherwise be the case. 

Scouring is a common result of indigestion. At the start it may be nothing more 
Diarrhea ' (SCOUT- than an attempt of nature to relieve the stomach and bowels of irritating con- 
ing) in Calves, tents. As the indigestion persists, however, the fermentations going on in the 
Simple and undigested masses become steadily more complex and active, and what was at 
Contagious, first the mere result of irritation of suspended digestion comes to be a genuine, 

contagious disease. The prevention of these cases is the prevention of con- 
stipation and indigestion with all their varied causes, the selection of a strong, vigorous stock, and, above 
all, the combating of contagion (diarrhea in its developed stage is caused by a contagious germ), especially 
in the separation of the sick from the healthy, and in the thorough purification and disinfection of the 
buildings (with Phenalin, carbol, whitewash, etc.), cleansing and sweetening of all drains, removal of 
dung heaps, and the washing and scraping of floors and walls . Feed the cows on succulent, nourishing 
feed, with Davis Stock Food always added to the ration, 2 tablespoonfuls to each feed while the calf is 
sucking, 1 tablespoonfui when she serves simply as a milch cow. Calves fed by hand should be fed three 
times a day, the milk being of a temperature (slightly warmed) that agrees with them. The utmost 
cleanliness of feeding dishes should be preserved. 

Treatment for diarrhea or scouring should vary according to the nature and stage of the disease. 
Davis Scour Cure will prove a sure and efficient cure after the irritant matter has been removed from 
the stomach and bowels. For this 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil may be given, according to the size of 
the calf. If the stools smell particularly sour, it may be replaced by 1 ounce of calcined magnesia, and 
in any case 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of lime water should be given with each meal. If the outbreak is more 
general and evidently the result of contagion, the first consideration is to remove all sources of contami- 
nation. Test the milk of the cow with blue litmus paper, and if it reddens, reject the milk of that cow 
until by sound feeding, including Davis Stock Food with each feed, and perhaps a course of hyposul- 
phite of soda and gentian root, her milk shall have been made alkaline. The castor oil of magnesia 
will still be demanded to clear away the infectious irritants, but they should be combined with anti- 
septics, and while the lime water and carminative mixture may still be used, a valuable addition is: 
calomel, 10 grains; prepared chalk, 1 ounce; creosote, 1 teaspoonful; mix; divide into ten parts and give 
one four times a day. Injections of solutions of gum arabic are often useful, and if the anus is red and 
excoriated 34 dram of copperas may be added to each pint of the gummy solution. All the milk given 
must be boiled, and if that does not agree, eggs made into an emulsion with barley water, may be sub- 
stituted. Small doses (tablespoonfui) of port wine are often useful from the first, and as the feces lose 
their watery character and become more consistent, tincture of gentian in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls may 
be given three or four times a day. Counter irritants, such as Cavis Veterinary Liniment, mustard, 
ammonia, or oil of turpentine may be rubbed on the abdomen when that becomes tender to the touch. 

Cattle exposed to severe cold or damp weather are likely to suffer from this 

Rheumatism. disease, or it may appear as a sequel to some disease of the lungs or skin. Some 

animals seem to be naturally predisposed to it. In its nature it is inflammatory 

and is more likely to involve the organs of locomotion than any other, though the heart and other 



3T2 SIMPLE SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 



int« • are occasionally involved as a secondary result. It generally appears as a sudden lameness, 

with noticeable swellings around some of the joints of the affected limb, though it is quite likely 
that the swelling will no1 bear any proportionate relation to the amount of pain evinced. Disease may 
be confined to a limb, or more than one may be affected. May also appear simultaneously in various 
parts of the body. May suddenly disappear from one part and reappear in another. The local symp- 
tom- ways accompanied with constitutional disturbance of a feverish nature. Temperature likely 
to run up from 104 to 108 degrees Fahrenheit. In acute attacks mouth will be found hot and dry; pulse 
hard nun of urine lessened; urine acid in character, charged with impurities. Bowels are less 
active; there is a tendency to lie down continuously. Disease may become chronic. 

Treatment. — At the outset give a purgative dose of Epsom salts, from 1 to \}A pounds for an ordi- 
nary sized cow. If the pain is very acute it may be relieved by occasional doses of laudanum or opium, not 
more than 1 ounce of the former or 1 dram of the latter, three times daily. When opium is u:;ed care 
must be taken to keep the bowels acting regularly. For this purpose it may be necessary to give occa- 
sional small doses of Epsom salts. In conjunction with the above or alone, if opium is deemed 
unnecessary, give 3^-ounce doses of nitrate or bicarbonate of potash three times a day. Keep patient 
comfortable, and the digestive and circulatory functions in proper working order by feeding' Davis Stock 
Food regularly with the feed ration. This in itself may in all milder cases be all that is necessary to over- 
come the disease. It liberates the salivary and stomach juices, and through the enhancement of the 
digestive and assimilative powers, makes pure, healthy blood, freeing the system of the uric acid on the 
existence of which the symptoms of rheumatism are largely based. 



SIMPLE SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 

ought always to be done before the calf has attained sufficient strength to 
Rklging make his resistence a matter of serious difficulty. An ordinary halter is usually 

the Bull all that is required, the strap being secured to a tree or post. A jointed steel 

or copper ring is ordinarily used. Copper is preferable. The method of punching 
a round piece out of the nasal septum for introduction of ring is objectionable, as it causes portions 
of the fine nervous filaments to be destroyed. Insertion of the ring by. a trocar or canula is preferable. 
An eminent veterinarian states that for some years he has made use of a little instrument devised by 
himself, which can be made by any worker in metal, consisting of a steel point riveted into a shorter 
canula made to fit one end of the ring while open. When attached to the ring iteasily and quickly passes 
through the septum, the half of the ring following, as a matter of course. It can then be removed and 
the ends of the ring brought together and fastened by means of the screw for that purpose. By this 
means any animal can readily be ringed by anyone in less time than it takes to describe the process; 
whereas, by any other method which necessitates first puncturing and piercing the septum and 
subsequently introducing the ring, the operation is (even when the struggles of the animal do not 
complicate matters) necessarily rendered tedious and uncertain by the fact that the openings through 
the skin and cartilage are not in apposition. 

Rightly done this need not be a cruel operation at all. The operation of 
Dehorning. dehorning causes pain certainly, as all surgical operations necessarily do, but 

it is not by any means more painful than many other operations (notably cas- 
tration; to which we regularly subject animals without a second thought. Cruelty to animals is defined 
as the infliction of unnecessary pain. The pain in this instance is, according to well known veterinarians, 
transient as well as slight, and is insignificant before the severe and lasting injury daily inflicted by 
horned animals upon each other. Horns were necessary to cattle in their wild state, but domesticated 
and in confinement they become a menace to their companions and an encumbrance to themselves. 

Moreover, a method has been devised providing against the growing of horns at all. The owner 
of the two or three days old calf if he decides on making it a mooly can dehorn it, or, to speak correctly, 



SIMPLE SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 373 



prevent the horns from developing at all, by means of a chemical preparation which reduces the pain to 
a minimum, while it is even more effective than the saw and forceps. The most effective and there- 
fore the cheapest of the several chemical dehorners which are freely advertised, is March's Chemical 
Dehorner, handled by Sears, Roebuck & Co. The operation which is uniformly successful if performed 
before the calf is three days old, is performed as follows: Catch the little animal and gently lay it over 
on its side. Let one of your assistants hold it there while you clip the hair off the trifling prominence 
on the frontal bone which marks the spot on the uppermost side ofthe head where the horn would develop 
ordinarily. Take your March's Chemical Dehorner and carefully apply it as directed over the part 
just clipped for say ten seconds. The calf is now turned over, the corresponding spot on the other 
side of the head is clipped and thoroughly treated in the same way as the first. This is by far the best 
method to dehorn animals intended for steers or dairy cows, and the only exception favoring the old method 
would be in the case of the bull, which, in order to protect ourselves against his viciousness, should 
be dehorned after he has learned to rely upon his horns as a weapon. Should we dehorn him as a little 
calf by the chemical process, he will naturally adopt as a weapon the catapult like tactics of the mooly, 
equally dangerous to man, or, humorously speaking, the question leaves us the choice of being butted 
to death or hooked to death. However, the bull deprived of his horns later on rarely develops these 
tactics, and becomes comparatively harmless. 

The operation of dehorning mature animals is in itself simple and you can perform it yourself. 
Only be careful to guard against the struggles of the animal hurting itself or you or your attendants. 
Throw the animal and tie him securely. Fasten a strong halter and long rope around its girth before 
it is cast. Pass the free end of the rope through the ring on the halter and pull head back against the * 
ribs. A hitch underneath the tail should bring the rope forward to the halter, where it may be 
fastened so as to be easily loosed when the first horn has been removed. To remove the other horn, 
loose the head, turn the animal over and refasten the head as before. The only instrument needed is an 
ordinary jointing saw, which should be used as quietly and quickly as possible. The bull may be 
dehorned at any time except in fly time or when the mercury is liable to drop to the zero point. It is 
well to deprive him of feed for twelve hours before dehorning. 

is sometimes necessary in disease, although it fortunately has become a rare 
Bleeding or operation. In the ox it is usually performed on the left jugular vein, which 
Blood Letting is large and easily rendered so prominent as to prevent the possibility of mistake, 

by tying a cord around the neck below the place where the incision is to be 
made. Rope should be tied in a slip knot, so as to admit of its being easily undone. The best 
instrument to use is a large bladed fleam. After the animal is secured, stand by its shoulder, the fleam 
in your left hand, blade just short of touching the skin and parallel to the direction of the vein, holding 
the stick or mallet with which to strike it in your right; one quick, sharp blow should be sufficient. If 
the hair is long, it is a wise precaution to moisten and smooth it down. When sufficient blood has been 
drawn the rope is removed and the orifice closed by means of a pin inserted through the lips of the 
incision in the skin only, and a piece of fine string or tow wound either over or under it, or in a circle 
between the skin and the pin. To prevent the animal from rubbing the part and tearing or dislodging 
the pin, it is advisable to tie the head up for a couple of days, providing the animal's health will admit 
of it, after which the pin may be removed and the wound left to heal in the usual manner. Remember 
in blood letting that the effectiveness of the operation depends more on the quickness with which the 
blood is drawn than on the quantity extracted, for the reason of which it is of importance that a liberal 
opening should be made into the blood vessel and the blood allowed to flow until a perceptible 
impression has been made upon the pulse. 

The castration of the male may be either what is called the uncovered or covered. 
Castration In the former an incision is made down to the testicle proper, and in the latter 
Of the Male. you cut through the scrotum of the outside covering and through the dartos 

of the next coat, being careful to cut no deeper tissues or coats. The age at 
which the operation is performed varies, but usually it is performed between the second and third 
month. If done in early life there is less danger of complications. There are many different methods 
of operating, but we shall here only mention one or two of them which we consider the best. In 



; ^~t DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



the uncovered operation a good, free incision should be made, exposing the testicle completely Now 
it may be removed by simply cutting it off. The only danger of doing this is the hemorrhage that is 
likely to follow. To obviate this, before the division of the spermatic cord, it should be twisted several 
times in the following manner: Take hold of the spermatic cord with the left hand, having the cord 
between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist the free portion several times with the right hand 
all the time being careful to push with the left hand toward the body of the animal. In this way the 
danger of injury to the cord during the animal's struggles will be overcome. The hemorrhage will be 
none or very little, if it has been done properly. This is the simplest manner of torsion. There are 
forceps and other instruments made to perform the operation in this manner. Instead of practicing 
torsion in any of its ways to prevent hemorrhage, we may apply a ligature either directly to the sper- 
matic artery from which the hemorrhage comes, or to the entire cord. Use either a silk or catgut liga- 
The next method with the clamps, although extensively used upon the horse, is not practiced 
to any great extent upon the bovine at the present time. A modern method for the castration of the 
bull which is very successful is by the ecraseur. The chain of the instrument is placed around the 
spermatic cord and tightened so as to crush the tissues and thus prevent hemorrhage. The clamp 
and ligature are the methods principally employed in the covered operation, and in order to thoroughly 
understand this procedure it will be necessary for you to have at least a crude anatomical knowledge 
of the parts. The former, or the uncovered, is the usual mode of operating, except in certain abnormal 
cases. If the animal is in any way abnormal, better call in a veterinarian to perform the operation. 

also called ovariotomy or. spaying, should be performed when the cow is in her 
Castration prime and giving the greatest flow of milk, care being taken that she is in good 
Of the Female, health and- moderate condition, not too plethoric, or, on the other hand, anemic. 
Also that she be not in heat nor pregnant. The operation may be performed in 
two ways, by the flank or vagina, each operation having its special advantages. In the flank operation 
the animal may be operated upon either while standing or while in a recumbent position. If standing 
she should be placed against a wall or a partition and her head held by a strong assistant. The legs 
also must be secured to prevent the animal from kicking. A vertical incision should be made in the left- 
flank about the middle of the upper portion, care being taken not to make the opening too far down, 
in order to avoid the division of the circumflex artery which traverses that region. The operator should 
now make an opening through the peritoneum, which is best done with the fingers. Next introduce the 
hand and arm into the abdominal cavity and direct the hand backward toward the pelvis, searching for 
the horns of the uterus. Follow them up and the ovaries will easily be found. They should then be 
drawn outward and may be removed either by ecraseur or torsion. The closing and suturing the wound 
will complete the operation. An adhesive plaster bandage can be beneficially applied. The operation 
by the vagina is more complicated, and as it requires technical knowledge and special and expensive 
instruments, we recommend you to employ a veterinarian if you decide to follow this method ; in fact, 
if you do not possess some anatomical knowledge of the parts and their functions respectively, it is always 
better to call in a skilled practitioner when such operations are to be performed. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

commonly known as Nettle Rash or Surfeit, is a mild inflammatory affection of 
Urticaria, the skin, characterized by sudden development of patches of various sizes, from 

that of a nickel to as large as a hand. 
Causes.— Derangements of the digestive organs are the most common causes, such as overloading 
the stomach when the animal is turned out to graze in the spring, certain constituents of feed and high 
feeding among fattening stock. Spinal irritation and other nervous affections may produce it. 

Treatment.— Administer a full"dose of Epsom salts' Give soft, easily digested feed, to which 
always add 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to keep the digestion and circulation in order. Then 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 375 



wash the affected parts with a solution of bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda), 8 ounces to the 
ballon of water, twice a day. If it assumes a persistent tendency, and you don't happen to have Davis 
Stock Food, give 1 tabiespoonful of the following powder in the feed three times a day: Cream of tartar, 
sulphur, and nitrate of potash, equal parts by weight ; mix. 

or Wens, are formed by an involution of the skin, with a growth of hair on the 
Deimapilous and inner wall of the sac. They may become imbedded deeply in the tissues subcu- 
SebaceOUS Cysts, taneously, or may just penetrate the thickness of the skin, where they are mov- 
able and painless. They are generally found within the ear or at its base, 
although they may form on any part of the body. Usually they 'form a small opening, from which thick, 
cheesy matter can be squeezed out. The rational treatment is to dissect them out, using Davis Wire Cut 
Remedy and Phenalin as antiseptics after the operation. 

or the Itch, is a disease of a local nature, due to a mite, which induces irritation 
Scabies,' on the surface of the body generally. It is always contagious, requiring for 
Acariasis, its development the transplantation of the parasites or their eggs from the 

Mange diseased to the healthy animal. The disease is very common among cattle 

in America. 

Treatment. — It is of the utmost importance to cleanse the skin, removing the crusts, etc., before 
the parasites can be effectually eradicated. For this purpose use soft soap and warm water, and give 
the animal a thorough scrubbing, especially in regions where the skin has been rubbed. Then use Phen- 
alin or Davis Mange Cure, following the directions for its use given on the package. If you do not succeed 
in removing all the crusts by the first washing (with soap and water) apply sweet oil to soften them before 
you use the remedy. You may then wash them off the following day and apply Phenalin. If you 
do not have this remedy at hand you may substitute with the following: Creolin, 1 ounce; oil of tar, 
1 ounce; soft soap, l A pint; sulphur, Y 2 pound; alcohol, 1 pint. Wash it off in two days with soap 
and water. Three or four days later a second application should be made to destroy all remaining para- 
sites. Cleanse and whitewash the stable and stalls where affected cattle have been put up. In cleansing, 
use Phenalin as an antiseptic and disinfectant. This treatment is intended for individual cases only. 
If you have a herd that becomes affected they should be dipped in vats. 

or Lousiness, is a skin disease common to cattle as well as other animals. The 
Phthiriasis, lice of cattle are of two kinds, the suctorial lice, which are found only upon 

mammals, and the biting lice, which attack mammals and fowls. Those belonging 
to the first named variety are the short nosed ox louse, and the long nosed ox louse, as they are popularly 
called. The short nosed ox louse is1;he larger and harder to exterminate. It infests almost exclusively 
the neck and shoulders and those parts are frequently worn bare by the animal in its efforts to rid itself 
of these tormentors. There is but one species-of biting lice known to occur on cattle. The Tricbodectes 
scalaris. This is very common to cattle. It is very distinct from the suctorial species in appearance, 
and this is readily recognized by all observers, for it is generally called the little red louse in contrast 
with the blue louse. They are also less injurious than the former. 

Symptoms. — Lousiness generally becomes manifest in winter and toward spring, when the animal 
is found to rub the infested portions of the body, occasionally to such an extent as to produce excoriations 
of the skin. It becomes thin in flesh and debilitated. A close examination will reveal the true state, 
and prompt attention is advisable. 

Treatment. — Davis Fly Chaser is the standard remedy for all afflictions of this nature. It should 
be used with a spray, applying a light coat and afterward covering the animal with a blanket to insure 
the death of all parasites. If this is not at^hand the following is a good remedy: Make a decoction of 
Cocculus indicus — fish berries. Take ^ pound for each animal, pound fine, then add 2 quarts of vinegar, 
and set it on the stove to simmer for an hour. Apply this thoroughly by rubbing it well into the hair 
over the infested region. This will not injure the skin nor sicken the animal, and it remains effective 
long enough to kill all the young lice as they are hatched from the nits. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 



or grub in the skin, arc characterized by tumors in the skin along the back 
Astriasis — and loins of cattle, which contain a grub deposited by the Hypoderma bovis,' 

Warbles, or gadfly. When the cattle are attacked by this fly it is easily known by the 

terror and agitation of the whole herd. The unfortunate object of the attack 
runs bellowing from among the herd to some distant part of the field or the nearest water. The tail, 
from the severity of the pain, is held with a tremulous motion straight from the body, and the head 
and neck are stretched to the utmost. 

Treatment. — Whenever cattle have these tumors along the back in the winter it is advisable 
to enlarge the opening which already exists and press out the grub, or it may be caught with the point 
of a shoemaker's awl and extracted. Davis Wire Cut Remedy may then be applied, or Phenalin as an 
antiseptic is good. 

may become dangerous to cattle in sections where malignant anthrax prevails, 
Flies and as they may be carriers of poison from the diseased or dead animal to the healthy 

Mosquitoes one. The tsetse fly (Glos6ina morsitans), of Africa, is very destructive to cattle, 

its sting causing death in many cases. Maggots hatched from the eggs depos- 
ited by flies upon wounds frequently are very annoying to the animal, and retard the healing process. 
The maggots from the screw worm (Lucillia macellaaria) burrow in wounds of the skin, and no time 
should be lost to get rid of them. The application of Davis Fly Chaser should be used to destroy the 
vermin; it will prove a positive remedy for this trouble. 

Ringworm is an affection of the skin due to a vegetable parasite. Tinea ton- 
RingWOrm — Tinea surans is due to the presence of a minute or microscopic fungus, the Tricho- 
Tonsurans and phyton tonsurans. It affects the hair and the epidermic layers of the skin, 
Tinea Favosa, and is highly contagious, being readily transmitted from one animal to the other. 

It is a common disease among young cattle in the winter and spring, and is 
communicable to man. The disease becomes manifest by the formation of circular patches on the 
skin, which soon becomes denuded of hair. 

Treatment. — Remove all crusts by washing with soap and water, then apply acetic acid, sulphur 
ointment, or nitrate of mercury- ointment once a day. Use Davis Wire Cut Remedy and Phenalin as 
antiseptics; cleanse the stable, using Davis Stable Disinfectant as a disinfector, and whitewash the walls 
in order to destroy the spores scattered by the crusts. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

denotes an active inflammation of_ the sensitive structures within the 
Laminitis wall of the hoof, which may in severe cases result in suppuration, and the 

loss of one or more claws. 
Causes. — It may be caused by overfeeding, overheating, or by driving long distances over rough 
and sandy soil. 

Treatment. — Cold packs to the feet, or if the animal can be made to stand in a running stream 
of water, having a soft bottom, this will often relieve the inflammation without the necessity of any 
additional treatment. Give, however, a full dose of Epsom salts, 1 to \ x /i pounds, followed by double 
feeds of -Davis Stock Food two or three times daily. 

may occur in cattle that are driven over stony roads, especially such as have 

Soreness — been stabled or pastured on soft ground. Draft oxen, for this reason, require 

Foot Soreness to be shod. When the soreness is excessive* it may develop into an active 

inflammation of all the sensitive structures of the foot — laminitis. 

Treatment. — Rest, poulticing the feet with moistened clay, followed by astringent washes, made 

of Davis Wire Cut Remedy, strong, white oak bark or alum water. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 377 



is caused at times by cattle becoming fastened between planks or otherwise, 
LOSS of Hoof pulling off the wall of one or both claws in the effort to extricate themselves. 
Again, the claws of one or more feet may be shed as the result of acute laminitis. 
Treatment. — The best way is to apply a thick coating of Kentucky Foot Form or pine tar over 
the bleeding surface, then cover with a layer of oakum or absorbent cotton; apply another coat of tar 
over this, then bandage closely and firmly. This may remain without disturbance until the new wall 
becomes sufficiently strong to sustain the pressure and weight of the animal. But if pus should form 
under the dressing, indicating itself by oozing or bad smell, the bandage should be removed and as much 
of the suppurating surface dressed as may indicate any unhealthy condition. Before applying tar to 
the second dressing the foot should be soaked in a solution of chloride of zinc, 1 dram to 1 pint of water. 
This may have to be repeated every few days, continuing as long as there is any pus formation. If 
loss of hoof is due to laminitis, the parts denuded of its horn}- covering must be thoroughly cleansed and 
disinfected with the zinc solution. Then apply a moderately thick layer of absorbent cotton, and apply 
the tar and bandage over this. After this the zinc solution may be poured in at the top of the dressing 
dailv, soaking and saturating the dressing and inflamed tissue. It may be necessary to remove the 
whole dressing once a week to give the parts a fresh cleansing, and then to reapply it. In all cases where 
it can be avoided, the first dressing should never be removed entirely, but holes made through it for the 
escape of pus. 

. occurs generally as an inflammation of the foot between the claws or toes, 
Foul in Foot sometimes extending entirely around the bulb of the heels. It is never 

— Foot Rot contagious among cattle like foot rot among sheep. 

Treatment. — In the first stages of the disease, before pus burrows beneath 
the horn, a thorough cleansing and an application of Phenalin, clean stabling, laxative feed, adding 
Davis Stock Food to the ration always, in order that the digestive and circulator}- functions may act 
healthily, will soon remedy the evil. If deep sloughing has taken place Phenalin should be used, and a 
wad of oakum or cotton smeared with pine tar shoitld be secured firmly in the cleft. This can be done 
by taking a strip of cloth, 2 inches wide, passing the middle between the claws, then tying the ends after 
winding them in opposite directions above the hoof. Sometimes warm poulticing with oil cake meal, 
boiled carrots, or boiled mashed potatoes, becomes necessary to relieve excessive fever and pain. If 
pus. burrows under the horn its channel must be followed by paring away the horn until the bottom is 
reached. After treatment to be the same as already recommended. If joint becomes affected an ampu- 
tation of that toe will be the quickest and surest method to relieve suffering of the animal, and offers 
the best chance for an earlv recovery. - 

or Split Hoof, is rarely seen among cattle. It may occur in weak walls, in heavy 
Fissure of bodied cattle, by stepping on an uneven surface, especially when the point of 

the Wall, the toe is grown out long. 

Treatment. — The divided sections may be brought into approximation 
and held in place by drilling a small hole from "one side into and through the other, commencing 
3^-inchbackof the fissure on each side ; then drive a light horseshoe nail through the hole and clinch it. 
Pare the injured claw as short as it will bear and apply Kentucky Foot Form. 

from prick, fork or nail, etc. If the wound be penetrating, enlarge the orifice 
Pricks and to permit free discharge of pus; then apply flaxseed poultice, changing it three 

Wounds, times a day until fever has abated. Keep animal on a clean floor until all 

lameness has disappeared. If an animal is cut in the foot with barbed wire, 
piece of glass, or any other substance, after proper cleansing, dress the wound with Davis Wire Cut 
Remedy. If any uneven edges of horn or skin or lacerated flesh project, trim them off, and in all 
cases where it can be done a tarred bandage should be applied. If the wound has extended into a 
joint, surgical treatment by a veterinarian may be necessary. Occasionally an animal becomes fas- 
tened by the foot in some crevice and sustains severe bruising, wrenching, or fracture of some part of 
the foot. In such cases use cold water packs until the fever and swelling disappear Then let 
animal rest until usefulness of foot is restored. If complications do not arise this is all that is required 
in such cases. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

P Vi 1 r ' appears as a rule in an enzootic form, and affects quite a number in the herd. 

. . . . . - r> It is usually attributed to some irritant material carried in the atmosphere or 

n Vi + Vi 1 ' emanating from the soil. It is most prevalent on low grounds, and rarely 

" * occurs during the winter months. It affects young and old animals alike. 

Symptoms. — A mucopurulent discharge of the eyes ; an intense degree of inflammation of the mucous 
membrane, accompanied by swelling of the eyelids and an early opacity of the cornea. Flow of tears 
is mixed with pus, sometimes streaked with blood, gathering in large masses on the cheek. Eyes are 
kept continually closed. The implication of the cornea in the disease frequently blinds the animal 
for a time. The attack from the outset is marked by high fever, loss of appetite, partial loss of milk, 
suspended rumination, and separation from the herd. 

Treatment. — Among all the remedies experimented with, scientifically combined in our laboratories 
by expert chemists and put to the practical test among stock raisers throughout the country, the ingre- 
dients contained in the Davis Ophthalmia Specific we found to be the most effective, speedy and harm- 
less. Hence we can honestly recommend this as a remedy par excellence for this serious and 
destructive disease among cattle, which often renders otherwise valuable and high priced animals prac- 
tically worthless, except for the butcher. Under treatment the animal should be housed in a cool, dark 
stable, supplied with plenty of fresh water to drink and given soft, succulent feed, to which always add 
1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food (1 tablespoonful in health and 2 in disease to each feed, is the 
regular proportion). Before using Davis Ophthalmia Specific administer 1 pound of Epsom salts (if a 
large animal, 1}4 pounds) dissolved in 2 or 3 pints of water. If, for any reason, Davis Ophthalmia 
Specific should not be at hand, try tincture of veratrum given every two hours in 30-drop doses and 
Yi ounce of saltpeter three time's a day. In the majority of cases improvement under the Davis Oph- 
thalmia Specific becomes manifest in a few days, and the eye will become clear -and free from inflam- 
mation in ten days or two weeks. In order, in so far as possible, to prevent this disease from spreading 
in a herd, all the unaffected animals should be moved to another locality; that is, to fields which possess 
a different character of soil and feed. The water should also be changed, especially if they have been 
obtaining their drinking water from a running stream or stagnant pond. 

is an inflammation of the cornea proper, more or less complicated. It is divided 
„ .... into diffuse and suppurative. 

_ ... Causes. — The cornea constitutes the most prpminent part of the eyeball, 

' hence it is subject to a variety of injuries — scratches, pricks, contusions, 

lacerations, etc. 
Symptoms. — Diffuse keratitis is characterized by an exudation into an opacity of the cornea. 
Swelling of the anterior part of the eyeball may be of an irregular form, in points resembling small blad- 
ders. If the whole cornea is affected it has a uniformly gray or grayish appearance. Both eyes usually 
become affected, unless it is due to an external injury. Suppurative keratitis may be a sequel of diffuse 
keratitis, but more commonly becomes manifest by a raised swelling on or near the center of the cornea, 
that very soon assumes a yellow, turbid color. Suppurative keratitis is seldom noticed for the first day 
or two; not until distinct pus formation has occurred. When the deeper membranes covering the ante- 
rior chamber of the eye become involved the contents of this chamber may be evacuated and the sight 
permanently lost. 

Treatment. — Place animal in a darkened stable, give green or sloppy feed, with Davis Stock Food 
added, and, administer 4 ounces of Glauber salts (sulphate of soda) dissolved in 1 quart of water once a 
day. If the animal is debilitated, double feeds of Davis Stock Food should be mixed with the feed three 
times a day. As an application for the eye, Davis Ophthalmia Specific may be used several times a day. 

—378— 



DISEASES OF THE EAR. 



sometimes form about the base of the ear, either outside or inside, caused by 
Abscesses contusions. A serous cyst is found occasionally between the cartilage and the 

skin on the base of the ear, which may be due to a similar cause. 

Treatment. — Make a free incision with a knife into the most prominent part of the abscess or =. 
cyst, then wash out the sac with Phenalin or carbolized water, using a syringe^for that purpose. If 
the abscess recurs, open it again, wash it out and inject Davis Wire Cut Remedy. 

Bugs may gain entrance into the ear of the animal. Pieces of wood, acorns, 

Foreign Bodies etc., have also been known to gain ingress. The presence of a foreign body in the 

in the Ear. ear may be known by uneasiness, continued or frequent shaking of the ' head, 

. with occasional manifestations of great pain. Animal may rub its head or ear 

against trees or other objects in an endeavor to dislodge the offending body. 

Treatment. — Careful examination will reveal the offending cause, which may be removed with 
a pair of forceps, or scraped out with a hairpin, or a piece of wire bent at one end. If much inflammation 
exists the ear may be swollen so that the foreign substance will be hidden from sight, then a probe may 
be inserted to feel the object, but this, however, had better be done by a skilled veterinarian and we 
advise you to secure the services of such in serious cases of this nature. 

Poorly nourished young cattle, exposed to rough weather, storms and extreme 
Frost Bite — cold, frequently suffer frost bite of the ear, which may amount to an actual 

G e 1 a ti O . freezing of the part. 

Symptoms. — The trouble presents every degree of severity from the mere 
chilling of the tip of the ear to positive freezing to death of a portion. In a day or two after freezing has 
occurred the ear will become swollen and very painful ; the dead part will remain cold and shrivel ; a line 
of separation then forms between the inflamed and dead or dying portion, and finally the piece destroyed 
drops off, leaving a raw healing surface. When ear is only slightly affected an excoriation or peeling 
off of superficial skin takes place, accompanied by some pain and itching. 

Treatment. — Davis Wire Cut Remedy is excellent for this trouble and will quickly heal the 
inflamed surface. If this is not at hand, a substitute may be prepared in a mixture of turpentine, 
ammonia and chloroform, of each 1 part, added to 6 parts of sweet oil. Rub this on the ear several 
times a day. It will relieve pain and stimulate circulation. The patient should be fed on a nourishing 
ration, to which Davis Stock Food is added in the usual proportion, and it will soon be able to 
withstand frost and wintry weather much better than was formerly the case. 

Aggressive dogs are the most frequent cause of lacerated ear, generally leaving 
Lacerations a torn, ragged edge and bruised cartilage. 

of the Ear. Treatment. — If the wound is extensive a trimming of the ragged edges 

becomes necessary; then fasten the edges together with silver wire, catgut, 
or strong, thick linen thread, taking a deep hold. Apply Davis Wire Cut Remedy, or pine tar. 

• .J 



179- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

A general knowledge of the nature of infectious diseases among domestic animals is of the greatest 

importance to the farmer and stock raiser. Fresh animals are being continually introduced among his 

herd which may be carriers of disease from other herds, and when this is once introduced into a large 

herd the losses become severe, because it is difficult if not impossible to check a disease after it has once 

-obtained foothold. 

An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the introduction into the body 
of minute organisms of a vegetable or animal nature which have the power of infinite multiplication 
and of setting free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible for the morbid changes. This 
definition includes diseases due to certain animal parasites, such as trichina, which multiply in the 
digestive tract, but whose progeny is limited to a single generation. Bacteria may be defined as very 
minute, unicellular organisms of a plant like character.- The rapidity with which these multiply depends 
upon the nature of the bacterium. The bacillus of tuberculosis multiplies very slowly, while that of 
anthrax multiplies with great rapidity, both being in the most favorable condition. Nearly all the 
diseases of cattle, for which a definite cause has been traced, are due to bacteria. Among them rank 
prominently tuberculosis, anthrax, black quarter, and tetanus (or lockjaw). Only one, Texas fever, 
is traceable to protozoa, and one, actinomycosis, to a fungus. Those diseases of which the cause is 
unknown or imperfectly worked out are pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, rabies, 
cow pox, malignant catarrh, and dysentery. 

Infectious diseases have, as a general rule, a period of incubation which comprises the time elapsing 
between the infection and the actual appearance of the. malady. This period varies with the disease. 
The most common symptom of this class is fever. The severity of the fever is measured by the tempera- 
ture of the animal and this is readily and accurately ascertainable by the clinical thermometer. Other 
symptoms are variable and depend upon the particular organ or organs most implicated.- Loss of 
appetite, cessation of rumination and milk secretion, and general dullness are symptoms quite invar- 
iably present in most infectious diseases. Secondary diseases or complications may arise during the 
course of infectious diseases which are largely due to bacteria other than those produced by the original 
malady. They may be so severe as to become fatal. In general it may be stated that they are due to 
filthy surroundings, and hence cleanliness may become important as an aid to recovery. Infectious dis- 
eases, as a rule, are not amenable to treatment. When the symptoms have once appeared the disease 
is apt to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one from which animals usually recover, all 
that can be done is to put them into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious diseases lead 
sooner or later to death, and treatment is useless so" far as the sick are concerned. But it may be 
worse than useless for those not yet infected. All animals suffering from infectious diseases are a 
menace to all others more or less directly. They may infect others directly or they may scatter the 
virus about so that the surroundings become a future source of infection for healthy animals. This 
leads to the oft repeated maxim that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure— in fact, is the 
only remedy here. 

Keep disease away from your herd and farm. Avoid all sick and suspicious animals. A grave 
form of disease may be introduced by apparently mild or trivial cases brought in from without. 
Continued change and movement of animals are the most potent means by which infectious diseases 
are spread. 

With some cattle diseases, such as anthrax, black quarter, and pleuropneumonia, preventive 
inoculation is resorted to in some countries. This maybe desirable when certain diseases have become 
stationary in any locality, so that eradication is impossible. It should not be practiced in territories 

— 380 — 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 381 



where a given disease may still be extirpated by ordinary precautions. When an infectious disease has 
gained foothold in a herd the course to be pursued in getting rid of it will depend upon the nature of the 
malady. A good rule is to kill diseased animals, especially when the disease is likely to run a chronic 
course, such as tuberculosis. Next in importance is to separate the sick from the well, by placing the 
latter on fresh ground. This is rarely possible, hence the destruction and removal of the sick, with 
thorough disinfection of the infected locality is the next thing to be done. Disinfection consists in the 
use of certain substances in solution which destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. Those which are 
cheapest and most available for animal diseases are ordinary freshly slaked lime or unslaked in powder, 
Phenalin, chlorate of lime, and mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate. 

Slaked lime is perhaps the most easily procured, but its disinfecting power is limited. While 
it is capable of destroying all bacteria in their vegetative state, it is unable to destroy spores such as 
those of anthrax and black quarter. It is probable, however, that in incrusting spores it may destroy 
them sooner or later. It is regarded as safe practice to use only spore destroying substances for the 
virus of those diseases of which we have no absolute knowledge. Nevertheless, in the absence of other 
disinfectants, lime is very useful. It may be employed as a whitewash on wood or stone and sprinkled 
as a dilute wash or in powder over yards, manure heaps, and over carcasses before they are buried and 
over the ground on which they have lain. Chloride of lime is more efficient than simple slaked or unslaked 
lime, since it destroys spores. A 5 per cent solution is sufficiently strong for all spore bearing bacteria 
(3 ounces in 2 quarts of water). Davis Stable Disinfectant takes the place of the more costly car- 
bolic acid disinfectants and is absolutely safe. It should be applied freely on woodwork and on 
infected floors. In most cases where its application becomes desirable — and this rule should apply to all 
disinfectants — the disinfected stables, stalls, etc., should remain vacant as 'long as possible before 
cattle are again put in. Mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate is a powerful disinfectant, but it 
is likewise very poisonous, hence its uses are limited. A solution of one-tenth per cent is usually suffi- 
cient (1 ounce to 15 gallons of water). It is corrosive and hence metal pails and dishes are to be 
avoided. All solutions should be labeled poison, and to avoid accident none should be kept on hand. 
In addition to these artificial substances there are several natural sanitary agents of great importance 
as destroyers of virus. These are cleanliness, ventilation, drying and sunshine. All virus excepting 
such as may live in the soil are killed sooner or later by drying and sunshine, hence the importance of 
these factors in the life and well being of your animals, as well as yourself and your family, cannot be 
overestimated. That all sanitary measures which contribute to the healthfulness of animal surroundings 
are directly or indirectly inimical to disease germ is self evident, and all carelessness in the keeping of 
animals may be regarded as an ally of these destructive organisms. 

As this disease has been eradicated from the United States, and it is improbable 

Contagious that it ever will appear here again, a brief mention of it will suffice. It is a 

Pleuropneumonia, contagious disease, and, on the American continent at least, it only arises by 

contagion from a previously affected animal. Hence it is never seen here 
except as the result of importing affected animals from the old world. When thoroughly stamped out 
it does not reappear, and if imported animals continue to be properly mspected and quarantined we have 
every reason to believe that pleuropneumonia will never again be seen affecting cattle of this country. 
The specific cause of the disease is not known. 

Symptoms are similar to those that go with ordinary inflammation of the lungs and the pleura. 
If the attack is an acute one, as is frequently seen in hot weather, the symptoms appear suddenly, the 
breathing becomes rapid and difficult, the animal grunts or moans with each expiration, the shoulders 
stand out from the chest, the head is extended on the neck, the back is arched, the temperature is 104 to 
107 degrees Fahrenheit, the milk secretion is suspended, there is no appetite, rumination is stopped, 
the animal may bloat and later become affected with severe diarrhea. Such cases are generally fatal 
in from seven to twenty days. Frequently, however, the attack comes on more slowly and the symp- 
toms are less clear. In the milder cases there is a cough for a week or two, but no appreciable loss 
of appetite or elevation of temperature. The lungs are but slightly affected, and recovery soon fol- 
lows. Such animals may disseminate the disease for a long time without being suspected, and for that 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

reason arc the most dangerous of all. And there is a more severe type of the plague in which all the symp- 
toms described are enhanced. Seriously affected animals remain standing, if they have sufficient strength, 
but those which lie down always lie on the affected side. The proportion of animals which become 
affected alter being exposed varies according to the virulence of the outbreak, the susceptibility of the 
animals and the length of time during which exposure is continued. Sometimes not over 15, 20, or 30 
per' cent will contract the disease when a large herd is exposed; but, on the other hand, 80 or 90 per cent 
may be affected. In general it may be said that about 40 per cent of the exposed animals will contract 
the disease and about one-half of these cases will prove fatal. 

Post Mortem Appearance.— If you suspect that by any means your herd may have become affected 
with this virulent disease, you may act as your own veterinarian, and by killing an affected animal 
you will, if the disease is pleuropneumonia, in examining the cavity of the chest and lungs, find the 
following symptoms: 

The thorax may contain more or less serum, which may be clear or clouded. There may be firm 
adhesions of different parts of the lungs to the chest wall, the extent of which depends on the stage and 
severity of the disease. The diseased lobes are unusually large and exceedingly firm to the touch. The 
weight of a single large lobe may reach 40 pounds. Usually only one side is affected, often but a single 
lobe, and this most commonly the large or principal lobe. The pleura may be covered with one or more 
layers of a firm, elastic, grayish membrane, which varies in thickness and which sometimes may be pulled 
away entirely. Sometimes it is absent. 

Prevention and Treatment. — Keep the animals so that they will not be exposed to contagion of any 
kind. As the disease only arises by contagion, there is no possibility of an animal becoming affected 
with it unless it has been exposed. If, therefore, pleuropneumonia exists in a locality, the owner of 
healthy cattle should make every, effort to keep his animals from coming near those which are infected, 
and should also be particular not to allow any person who has been on the afiected premises to visit 
his own pastures, stables, or cattle. If pleuropneumonia breaks out in a herd every animal in that 
herd should be slaughtered, the stables should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected, and no other cattle 
should be allowed on the premises until a period of ninety days has elapsed. Medical treatment of affected 
cattle is unavailing. Therefore, destroy the animal if affected, no matter how valuable it was before 
its infection. This is the best policy as well for the individual as for the community. As the disease 
happily is now extinct in America, previously mentioned, we do not consider it necessary to further 
enlarge upon the subject. Remember, the only possible way for the disease to occur in your herd is 
by the introduction of strange animals, carrying the disease with them from abroad, or infected by cattle 
coming from abroad. 

also known as cattle plague, is an acute, infectious disease of cattle in which 
Rinderpest, the digestive organs are mainly involved. It is unknown in this country, 

but nevertheless a few definite facts concerning this disease, sh6uld it ever 
reach our shores, may not prove in vain. It must not be forgotten, on the other hand, that a super- 
ficial knowledge of diseases, such as the layman may gain through reading, not infrequently leads to 
confounding comparatively harmless, non-infectious diseases with such as are truly dangerous, causing 
temporary panic among stock owners. It is well to bear this in mind, and not be unduly alarmed. 

Rinderpest has its home in the territories around the Black Sea and the Volga River, in Russia, 
(some say in Central Asia). From there it at various times has been conveyed to the countries of 
Western Europe. The virus is conveyed from one country to another chiefly by means of infected 
cattle. In the past Rinderpest has been supposed identical with various human diseases, among them 
small pox and typhoid fever. This supposition is unfounded. 

Causes. — Micro-organisms — most likely bacteria. The exact cause has not been determined. Virus 
may be transmitted from sick to healthy animals, both direct and indirect, in the usual ways — through 
manure, saliva, urine, etc. It retains its vitality outside the body in a moist state for months, even a 
year or more. Persons may carry the virus on their clothing, shoes, and implements. Rats, cats, etc., 
may act as carriers of the virus. It is claimed that animals after passing through one attack are able to 
St successfully future attacks. Inoculation with virus is said to produce immunity, but the process 
of inoculation itself is followed with death in many cases. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CA TTLE. 383 

Symptoms are not very pronounced. The time elapsing between the exposure to infection 
and the earliest outward symptoms varies from three tg nine days. Then the first sign is high fever 
temperature, which may reach 107 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat of the skin varies in different parts of 
the body, and may be felt at the base of the ears and horns. There are repeated chills. Pulse reaches 
50 to 60 beats per minute, and may arise to 90 or 100 in very severe attacks. Animal is greatly debili- 
tated; ears droop; coat is staring; muzzle dry; secretion of milk diminishes rapidly; back is arched and 
the four limbs brought together under the body. As the disease progresses symptoms in reference to 
the digestive and respiratory organs become prominent. The membranes of the mouth, nose, rectum 
and vagina become reddened either in patches or diffusely and assume a scarlet hue. The discharges, 
at first firm, become softer and soon diarrhea sets in. Rectum may become everted and paralyzed, 
and the bowels move spontaneously. Coughing is a common symptom. It is associated with dis- 
charges from the nose and vagina, and dribbling of saliva from the mouth. The discharges from the bowels 
may be streaked with blood. Eyes also become affected ; an increased formation of a viscid secretion 
flows down the face. After death, if the animal be opened and the organs carefully examined, the chief 
changes will be found in the digestive organs. The lining membrane of the mouth and pharynx is covered 
with mucus, is reddened in spots, and shows superficial yellowish gray, cheesy patches which represent 
dead tissue and when removed expose ulcerated depressions. The same condition is found in the fourth 
stomach, the small intestines, the nasal cavity, the uterus, vagina and rectum. Neither treatment 
nor inoculation is permitted in European countries. 

is an acute, highly contagious fever of a specific nature, characterized by the 
Foot and Mouth eruption of blisters or vesicles in the mouth, around the coronets of the feet, 
Disease and between the toes. Cattle and swine are attacked with equal facility, while 

sheep and goats are less susceptible. Horses, dogs, cats and fowls are rarely 
attacked. Human beings may become infected by drinking the unboiled milk from animals suffering 
from the disease. In such cases the symptoms resemble those observed in animals. There is fever 
and difficulty in swallowing, followed by an eruption of blisters in the mouth and very rarely by 
similar ones on the fingers. Disease is seldom fatal, in the human chiefly restricted to children, and 
adults who handle sick animals or drink large quantities of unboiled milk. In European countries 
it occasions great losses to the live stock industry. It may attack the same animal repeatedly. The 
source of the malady has not been accurately determined. The infection is contained in the eruptions, 
and hence shed from the mouth and feet. A wide distribution of the virus and a rapid infection of 
the herd is the result. Animals may be infected directly by coming in contact with the diseased, 
or they may be exposed to the virus in stables, in the field and along the roads, etc. Human beings 
may carry the virus on their clothing and transmit it on their hands when milking, since the udder 
is occasionally the seat of the eruption. Milk in a raw state may also transmit the disease to 
other animals. 

Symptoms. — After a period of incubation, lasting not more than five days, and sometimes no 
longer than two, the disease begins with a fever. Temperature as a rule does not rise above 104 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Lining membrane of the mouth becomes reddened; appetite diminished; rumination 
ceases ; mouth is usually kept closed and the quantity of saliva increases ; a smacking sound is not infre- 
quently made by the animal. After two or three days the eruption appears, consisting of small, 
yellowish white vesicles or blisters, about as large as a hemp seed or a pea, on the gums and inner surface 
of the lips, the inside of the cheeks, the border and under the surface of the tongue. They may 
become *^ inch in diameter. The disease may attack the udder in cows, more particularly the teats. 
The vesicles are broken as they appear by the hands of the milker, and the teats become covered 
with reddened spots deprived of the superficial layer of skin, and are very tender. As the result of the 
general affection young calves may succumb to a secondary inflammation of the stomach and bowels, 
and older animals may abort or suffer from inflammation of the udder. 

Treatment. — Endeavor to put animal in best condition possible by allowing it a nourishing 
ration, to which add Davis Stock Food, 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls to each feed. Let the bedding be light and 
dry, frequently changed to prevent injury to the feet. Do not let animal stand upon a hard or rough 
floor. To relieve the irritation in the mouth, use borax, 1 ounce in 3 pints of water; water containing 



384 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



vinegar and salt ; alum, 1 ounce in 1 quart of water. Apply with a syringe or pour from a bottle, or 
devise an irrigator by attaching a funnel to a rubber tube. Use injections once or twice a day, about 
'•_> pint being injected each time. The blisters should not be opened. For the feet, as a rule, nothing 
but clean bedding and antiseptic washing with Phenalin and tepid water once daily is required. For 
the affection of the teats simple glycerine or glycerine containing % dram of boracic acid to the ounce 
may be applied several times a day; or zinc ointment containing preferably 30 drops of the tincture of 
opium to the ounce. Care should be taken to draw the milk at proper intervals. 

A contagious disease, not known in America but more or less prevalent on the 

Vesicular Eruption Continent. It may be defined as a highly contagious eruption situated upon the 

of the Genital genital organs of both sexes, and accompanied with little or no general disturb- 

Organs. anee of health. The contagion is transmitted mainly during copulation. In 

cows the mucous membrane of the vagina and the vulva become swollen, red- 
dened and very tender. The secretion is very abundant and consists at first largely of serum and mucus. 
Small vesicles then appear which rapidly burst and are converted into excoriations or deeper ulcerations. 
The secretion becomes more purulent, and is apt to dry in crusts about the tail. The disease lasts from 
two to four weeks, and always terminates in recovery. Treatment need not be resorted to except in severe 
cases. An antiseptic wash of Phenalin may, however, be used with advantage. Care should be taken 
not to carry the disease from the sick animals to the well ones by sponges, etc., which have 
come in contact with the affected organs. These should be destroyed. Isolate affected animals 
until recovery takes place. 

is an infectious disease, characterized by the formation in various organs of the 
Tuberculosis body of minute nodules or tubercles which contain the bacillus tuberculosis, 

the cause- of the disease. 
Causes. — The cause of the disease may be considered twofold, the tubercle bacillus first and fore- 
most, without which this disease never could develop, and certain predisposing causes which prepare 
the way for it. The ways in which the tubercle bacilli find their way into the body may be considered 
under four heads, according to their importance: (1) By inhalation into the lungs; (2) into the digestive 
tract in the milk of tuberculous cows; (3) during coition, when the sexual organs are tuberculous; (4) 
from the tuberculous mother to the fetus in the uterus. Inhalation is by far the most common mode 
of infection- The bacilli can get into the lungs only when inhaled. They must therefore be thoroughly 
dried and pulverized before currents of air can carry them. The bacilli will withstand drying for months 
before they lose their power of producing disease. They leave the bodies of diseased animals in several 
ways. There may be a little discharge occasionally coughed up from the diseased lungs, or milk may 
be spilt, or there may be a discharge from the vagina when the genital organs are tuberculous. The 
bacilli from these sources may be dried and pulverized and carried in the air of the stable and into the 
lungs of still healthy cattle, where the disease then develops. 

The disease of the stomach, intestines, etc., is very probably the result of feed infection. Tubercle 
bacilli may become scattered upon the feed by diseased animals. But the most common cause of such 
infection is the milk of tuberculous cows. Calves may become infected in this way. The disease may 
remain latent until the animal becomes older. The not infrequent occurrence of tuberculosis of the 
uterus and ovaries makes it probable that the disease may be transmitted by a diseased bull and 
carried by a healthy bull from a diseased cow to a number of healthy cows. The source of the infection 
is always some previous case, for the disease can never arise spontaneously. Hence, in those stables 
in which there is a frequent change of cattle, the introduction of tuberculosis by cattle coming from 
other infected stables is the most frequent source of infection. Since the bacilli when dried can be carried 
■ he air it is not necessary that healthy animals should come in direct contact with cases of disease to 
become infected. 

Unsanitary conditions, such as overcrowding in poorly ventilated and poorly lighted stables, 

ami feeding feed which is not nutritious are among the causes which contribute to the spread of the dis- 

Conditions which injure the lungs are favorable to the development of the disease. Among 

them are inhalation of dust and smoke, all conditions which may induce catarrhal inflammation of the 

bronchial tubes, etc. Other causes ate overproduction of milk; too many births; the improvement of 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 385 

stock by continual inbreeding, and the consequent inheritance of certain constitutional characters of 
a debilitating nature. Animals living in the lowlands are more subject to this disease than the more 
robust races living in elevated mountain regions. Animals on open pasture are less susceptible than 
stabled animals. The disease is far more common in cows than in oxen, owing to the strain to which 
bringing forth young and milking subject the females. Animals subjected to special feeding, such as 
cows in distilleries, breweries and other manufactories having waste available as feed, are the most 
susceptible to the disease. 

Symptoms. — The beginning of the disease usually passes unnoticed, inasmuch as it is very slow 
and insidious and rarely accompanied by fever. When the lungs are involved a dull, short cough is 
noticed, which may later on become prolonged, convulsive and very troublesome to the animal. Cough 
is more frequent in the morning after drinking. The breathing varies. Only when much of the lung 
tissue is involved, is it labored and accompanied by active movements of the chest and nostrils. ' Dis- 
charge from the nostrils is rare or absent. At times, however, when the tubercles have broken down 
and cavities containing cheesy matter form in the lungs, or when the air tubes have become filled with 
cheesy and mucous masses, coughing will dislodge these and cause their discharge. In" advanced stages 
the breath may have a disagreeable odor. Pressure on the chest wall may give rise to pain. The gen- 
eral effect on the body is at first slight. But as the disease progresses, loss of flesh and appetite and pale- 
ness of the mucous membranes become manifest. Gradually the milk secretion diminishes; coat is 
staring and tough ; skin dry and harsh (hide bound) ; digestive disturbances are indicated by tympa- 
nitis or distention of the rumen by gas, colic or diarrhea, alternating with constipation. The animal 
generally dies from the disease after a period of sickness which may last months or years. Tuber- 
culosis in the abdominal organs is often signalized by abortion and by abnormal sexual manifestations. 
When the brain is involved the disease may cause convulsions, unconsciousness, paralysis, as well as 
peculiar movements in a circle, oblique position of the head, etc. Here is a pretty accurate condensed 
description of the symptoms most peculiar to the disease, as formulated by a Swiss authority: 

A dry, short, interrupted, hoarse cough, especially in the morning at feeding time, or after violent 
exertion. Animals at first may be full blooded and lay on considerable fat when well fed. As disease 
progresses they grow thin, showing symptoms peculiar to malnutrition, such as staring, lusterless, 
disheveled coat; dirty, tense skin, which appears very pale in those regions free from hair. The 
temperature of the skin is below normal. The loss of fat causes sinking of the eyes in their sockets. 
They appear swimming in water, and their expression is weak. Cough is more frequent, but rarely 
accompanied with discharge. Body continues to emaciate even with plenty of feed and a good 
appetite, so that the quantity of milk is small. Often the animals express considerable tenderness 
when pressure is applied to the sides or front of the chest, by coughing, moaning, etc. 

Treatment. — Treatment of the disease is not seriously considered by any authorities at the present 
time. Preventive measures, and measures for preventing the spread of the disease in the herd once 
it has made its appearance, are all that can be recommended. How the spread of the bacilli takes place 
has already been enlarged upon, and all those conditions should be carefully guarded against. The 
difficulty of determining when cattle first become tuberculous makes it impossible to prevent the possi- 
bility of infection. Great care should be bestowed upon the breeding, the surroundings, and the feed 
of the animal, so that the latter may be put into condition to resist infection even when exposed to it. 
In connection with a nourishing, succulent ration the digestive powers, assimilation and circulation 
should be kept up to a high degree of perfection, and this can be done by including Davis Stock Food, 
2 tablespoonfuls to each feed with the ration. This, in fact, is a practical safeguard against almost 
all the diseases, infectious and otherwise, of the bovine race, and- the small cost will be made up manifold 
to the prudent and foreseeing breeder by the insurance against disease in his herd it affords and the 
fine condition he is able to keep his animals in. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals, if this were 
possible, would of course, be of great assistance, but, on account of the uncertain symptoms in the first 
stages of the disease, it is not quite possible to carry this into effect at the present time. 

Tuberculosis in cattle may also be considered as bearing upon tuberculosis of other domesticated 
animals, particularly the swine. In Europe the disease is not uncommon among swine, while in America 



Big. 38 



v INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

it is practically unknown. The reason for its existence in Europe may be looked for in the feeding of 
with whey in dairies, with the offals of the abbatoirs and the household refuse generally. 

The carcasses of animals which have died from tuberculosis should be deeply buried, so that they 
cannot be eaten by other animals. This is likewise true of all organs and tissues of slaughtered animals 
containing tubercles. These should never be fed to other animals, such as swine, dogs and cats, and 
should either be destroyed by fire or deeply buried. 

Bovine Tuberculosis; Its Dangers to Man. — The identity of human and animal tuberculosis, com- 
bined with the extraordinary mortality of human beings from the disease, often amounting to from 10 
to 14 per cent, has raised the question in all civilized countries as to how far animal, and especially bovine 
tuberculosis was to blame for this high mortality. If the disease is transmitted to man, how does the 
transmission take place? The question may be resolved into two divisions: (1) How frequently 
does the disease invade those parts of the body that are used for food ? (2) When the disease process 
is manifestly restricted to the internal organs do tubercle bacilli circulate in the blood and lymph, and 
lying near can they be detected in the muscular tissue? 

(1). — Disease of the bones is not unknown, although very rare. It appears chiefly in the spongy 
bones of the head and backbone and in the long bones of the limbs. Occasionally the ends of the bones, 
where they are covered with the synovial membrane of the joints, are dotted with tubercles. The 
muscular system itself is very rarely the seat of tuberculous deposits, although the lymphatic glands 
and among the muscles may be not infrequently diseased. 

(2). — Whether tubercle bacilli are found in muscle juice independent of any tubercular deposits 
is a question which must be approached experimentally. Experiments have shown that in rare cases 
the flesh of tuberculous cattle contains a small number of tubercle bacilli. In Germany the flesh of ani- 
mals in which the disease is just beginning, or in which it is restricted to one or more related organs, 
is not rejected. When, however, the disease has affected the muscles, or bones, or lymphatic glands 
situated on or between them, the flesh is condemned as unfit and dangerous. Animals are also rejected 
in which it is evident from the general distribution of tubercles throughout the various organs, that the 
bacilli have been distributed by the blood and may have been carried into the muscular system 
(generalized tuberculosis.) 

Infectious Nature of Milk. — In regard to the infectious nature of milk secreted by tuberculous 
cows, it is demonstrated that when the udder is in the slightest degree involved the milk possesses infec- 
tious properties, and is therefore dangerous. Tubercle bacilli have been found in large numbers in the 
milk and udder under such circumstances. Unlike other affections of the udder, tuberculosis of this 
organ does not at once change the appearance and quality of the milk secreted. Over a month after 
the disease has appeared the milk is often normal in appearance", and may be consumed and sold without 
arousing the suspicion of the owner. There is therefore great danger in this disease, and the necessity 
of careful inspection of dairy cows seems more urgent than before. Authorities are, however, not agreed 
as to whether the milk from tuberculous cows in which the udder is apparently not invaded should be 
considered dangerous or not. Some are inclined to believe that the milk from healthy udders is never 
infectious, even when the lungs and other organs are involved; that, in other words, the tubercle bacilli 
are rarely if ever separated from the lesions which they produce, and that the udder itself must be dis- 
eased before tubercle bacilli can appear in the milk. Experiments made with milk of tuberculous cows 
in which there were no indications of udder disease do not bear out this theory, since tubercle bacilli 
have been found in the milk of such cows. In spite of this, some authorities uphold the former theory. 
However this may be, we know that the milk of tuberculous cows may or may not contain tubercle bacilli 
when the udder is apparently free from disease, and we have no rapid method of determining whether 
in any given case the milk contains tubercle bacilli or not. Moreover, the bacilli may be absent at one 
time and present at another in milk from the same cow. When we then take into consideration 
the extent of tuberculosis and the hidden character of the scourge, we must admit that a certain amount 
of suspicion rests upon all milk. Fortunately, the tubercle bacilli are readily destroyed by the temper- 
ature of boiling water, and hence both milk and meat are made entirely safe, the former by the various 
processes of cooking, the latter by boiling for a few moments. Until better means for diagnosis are at 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 387 

hand it is incumbent upon all communities to have dairy cows examined or inspected at least to the 
extent of finding out whether the udder shows any signs of disease. If this is detected the animal should 
be at once killed, or else all opportunity for sale of such milk removed by appropriate measures. The 
danger from infected milk might by these means be materially lessened. 

is an infectious disease, caused by a specific bacteria, known as anthrax bacilli, 
Anthrax and which is more or less restricted by conditions of soil and moisture to 

definite localities. It is chiefly limited to cattle and sheep. It is a world wide 
disease and in America is chiefly confined to the lower Mississippi Valley. On tracts subject to inunda- 
tions in spring, followed by a very hot and dry summer, severe outbreaks are apt to occur. The particular 
kinds of soil upon which the disease is observed are black, loose, warm, humus, also such as contain lime, 
marl and clay, finally peaty, swampy soils resting upon strata which hold the water. Hence fields 
containing stagnant pools may be the source of infection. The infection may be limited to certain farms, 
or even restricted areas on such farms. Another source of the virus, and one regarded as perhaps the 
most important, are the bodies of animals which have died from anthrax. In such bodies the anthrax 
bacilli are present in enormous numbers, and animals grazing or frequenting the spots where they lie easily 
become infected. They should be deeply buried at once upon death. The spores of the anthrax bacilli 
may be taken into the body with the feed, producing disease which commences in the intestinal tract; 
or they may come in contact with scratches, bites and other wounds of the skin, the mouth and the tongue, 
producing swellings or carbuncles. From such swellings the bacilli penetrate into the blood and produce 
general disease. Insects may also transmit the disease, it has been claimed. 

Symptoms vary considerably in cattle, according as the disease begins in the skin, in the lungs 
or in the intestines. There are three forms of the disease: Anthrax peractus or apoplectiform, when 
the animal dies very suddenly as if from apoplexy, usually occurring in the first stage of the disease; 
anthrax acutus, without any external swellings, which is the one most commonly observed in cattle, 
and anthrax subacutus, including those cases which are most prolonged. The disease begins with high 
fever. The temperature may reach 106 to 107 degrees Fahrenheit. The pulse beats from 80 to 100 
per minute. Feeding and rumination are suspended. Other symptoms are chills and muscular tremors; 
ears and base of horns may be cold ; coat staring ; animals are dixll and stupid and manifest great weak- 
ness; dullness may give way to uneasiness, champing of the jaws, Spasms of the limbs, kicking and pawing 
the ground; dilating nostrils, open mouth, head raised and all the muscles of the chest strained during 
breathing; visible mucous membranes (nose, mouth, rectum and vagina), become bluish. If disease 
has started in the bowels there is much pain, as shown by the moaning of the animal; discharge at first 
becomes softer and covered with serum, mucus and blood. As the disease approaches the fatal termina- 
tion the weakness of the animal increases. It leans against supports or lies down. There may be rupture 
of blood vessels, with bloody discharges from the nose, mouth, rectum and vagina. Urine not unfre- 
quently contains blood (red water). Death ensues within one or two days. The bodies of cattle which 
have died from anthrax soon lose their rigidity and become bloated, because decomposition sets in 
very rapidly. 

Treatment as a rule is ineffectual and useless, excepting perhaps in cases which originate from 
external wounds. The swellings should be freely opened by long incisions with a sharp knife and washed 
daily several times with Phenalin. When suppuration has set in, the treatment contained in the chapter 
on wounds should be resorted to v In order to prevent the disease the state or nation ought to do its 
share in preventing frequent inundation by appropriate engineering on low, marshy soils. Fence off 
pools of stagnant water ; have low, swampy lands properly drained ; dispose of carcasses of animals which 
have died of anthrax immediately, burying them deeply where they cannot be exposed by dogs or wild 
animals. Remove them if possible to unfrequented places. The ground and all objects with which they 
have come in contact should be disinfected with Davis Stable Disinfectant or chloride of lime. For 
washing utensils, etc., a 5 per cent solution may be prepared by adding 3 ounces to 2 quarts of water. 
Prepare fresh from the powder and have a small tin measure of known capacity to dip out the powder 
to be added to the water whenever necessary. The carcass and ground should be sprinkled with powdered 
chloride, or slaked or unslaked lime if the first is not at hand. When stables have become infected they 






INFECTIOUS DIS EASES OF CATTI.lv 



should be thoroughly cleaned out, and chloride of lime freelv m,,lk.,l ,„ th. o 

feed should be carefully protected from contamma.ion w I 1^ !„!' n ' i ?• ", W °° dw ° rk - Tl * 

Protective moculation, according to the Paateur ^ ^^Z^Z^^^T "? SiCk 

S th-;;;;;: ml*: rs± sr of — - II ,s fraVt SSVS&sn: 

Ant^ , Man. » m ^=^ fe- ±^^£^^^5 
-™*d ] bv au elated dLSored ^ ^"T^^ ToT ^ SHS ^ 

f uecumes accelerated, the animal moves around with difficultv frpnnpntw t«. j 

when water is near at hand, drinks at short intervals and but a Httle 7« a t7m The ^ .^' and ' 
membranes are at first dark reH anr, n™™** a u * it , e - The vlslble mucous 

dirty, leaden or pirrphsh color g ' bUt ** ^"^ ta the c ° OTSe ° f twelve hours to a 

swollen parts, as observed after the animal has been skmn'ed the^ I T d ' ScoloratIon o( the 

blackleg, or black Quarter T,™„, ™„„ i skinned, the disease has been popularly named 

first the y are s^Hnd ve J pTm Thl aPPear ^ ^J** the "*"*■ the " ank ' OT the ™ m P' A » 
large portion of the body^ One or *£T«mE» t™" 7 " ^ ™ d ™ 7 " ' '" hom C0V " * 
close proximity to one another may become cSSae^ TnT Z 'T^T'f'i "* W ' Mn ™ 
considerably swollen. confluent. The neighboring lymph glands become 

body. Wdtg Th" Hes, e wh7has ^ "3" ? •* * "j*"* **" i » f " the ** ^ rf ** 
appeared in 20!) case, on th riJr^ W„„ * 6bs T. afa< *f alo "« «* &» in 1,547 cases, the tumors 

right front leg LdTn og on thctfr X ' ^ ? ° n ' y " 3 CaS6S ° n the lrft ' in 108 c ^es on the 

sii. Xo explanation is offered fc « f T* ""r *!* ""• ° £ *"" ™ < * a " d » 4 «* ° n the ,rft 
have been made t th s cornit' !! P referenc<! £ot «>e right side, and as no observations 

not venture to LJuess an opimcl' "" qUCSt '° n * ° f SmaU - da - fc ^^ ^ «*« wiH 

-sonant Jo£C^£££ of g IsT ^cStST fe ^ P ~7SV'~ * ^ 

dTk'sv^n^r^tr ;t ?^£^^:£*£^ 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 389 



As the swelling increases in size the general symptoms become more intense. The temperature may- 
reach 107 degrees Fahrenheit,' while the respirations may reach 140 per minute. The animal is unable 
to rise ; the extremities become cold, and some time before death the temperature falls and may become 
subnormal. There is trembling of the muscles, which, as death approaches, may develop into violent 
convulsions. With very few exceptions the disease terminates fatally, death generally occurring from 
twelve to thirty-six hours after the first appearance of the symptoms. A few cases linger from three 
to four days, and, as will be discussed later, the disease may sometimes terminate in recovery. 

Appearance After Death. — The carcass of an animal which has died from blackleg soon becomes 
very distended with gas, partially through fermentation in the intestines and partially through the for- 
mation of gas in the subcutaneous tissue, due to the presence of the blackleg bacillus. This distention, 
which is especially pronounced in the region of the blackleg tumors, extends for a considerable distance 
from the tumors and in the directions where it meets the least resistance, thatis, where there is plenty 
of loose areolar tissue. This is especially the case on the back and sides of the chest, on the shoulder 
and between the shoulder and chest, and on the external surface of the hind quarter. This tympanitic 
condition frequently causes the two legs on the upper side of the carcass to stand out straight without 
touching the ground. 

A dark, blood colored, frothy discharge flows from the nostrils and the anus. Decomposition 
takes place soon after death, except in the affected muscles, which retain their sweetish sour odor without 
developing any putrid odor, even when the rest of the carcass has decomposed. 

On the surface of the body may be seen one or more of the characteristic emphysematous blackleg 
tumors. The skin covering these swellings is affected with dry gangrene. The connective tissue beneath 
the skin is infiltrated with blood and bloody serum and is distended with gas. The distended muscles 
are dark brown or blacky are easily torn, and the space surrounding them is filled with bloody liquid 
and gas. The muscle tissue is distended with numerous smaller or larger gas filled cavities, often to 
such an extent as to produce a resemblance to lung tissue. Upon incision it does not collapse percep- 
tibly, as the gas cavities are not connected with each other. The discoloration is deepest at the center, 
shading off toward the edges, and becomes brighter by contact with air. On compression thick blood 
escapes, which is charged with gas and has a disagreeable, sour odor. The blood in the remaining parts 
of the carcass is normal and coagulates easily after death, forming a solid clot. The gas of the tumor 
is combustible and burns with a blue flame, being, according to Bollinger, carbureted hydrogen. The 
abdominal cavity sometimes contains a considerable quantity of bloody effusion. The mucous membrane 
of the intestine may be congested or inflamed, and the contents of the bowels may be covered with blood. 
The liver is congested, but the spleen is always normal. 

It is often desirable to determine whether an animal is affected with blackleg or with anthrax 
tumor or with a swelling caused by the bacillus or malignant edema. The anthrax tumor may be dis- 
tinguished by its hardness and solidity and by the fact that it contains no gas. The spleen is enlarged 
in anthrax and is unaffected in blackleg. The blood in anthrax is very dark and of a tar like consistency, 
while it is normal in blackleg. It is difficult to distinguish between the swellings of blackleg and malig- 
nant edema, since they resemble each other very closely and both are distended with gas. Malignant 
edema, however, generally starts from a wound of considerable size; it often follows surgical operations, 
and does not usually result from the small abrasions and pricks to which animals are subjected in pastures. 

Manner of Infection. — As already mentioned, the blackleg bacillus gains entrance to the body 
through abrasions of the skin, and perhaps in rare cases through the mucous membrane. In order to 
meet the requirements for the development of the spores, that is, an absolute absence of hydrogen, it is 
necessary that the abrasion be minute in size and sufficiently deep to penetrate through the skin into 
the subcutaneous tissue; consequently incised or open wounds are not favorable to the development 
of blackleg, even if the infection is present in abundance. Punctured wounds, such as those received 
from barbed wire fences or from stubbles and briers in the pasture, seem to be the most likely method, 
of infection and correspond most closely to the only manner in which the disease may be produced 
artificially, that is, through hypodermic injection of the virus. It is doubtful whether the infection ever 
takes place through ingestion. In any case, it has proved exceedingly difficult, to produce the disease, 
even by feeding enormous doses of highly virulent material to susceptible animals. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES (>!■ CATTLE. 



The fact that in 99 per cent of all rases the tumors develop on the surface of the body seems also 

to indicate that the infection takes place through the skin, and the few cases recorded where the deeper 

ed muscles have been affected, for instance, the muscles of the diaphragm, or those popularly known 

tie tenderloin, without the presence of tumors on the surface, may be due to the germs gaining direct 

entrance into the lymph stream, which carries them directly to muscle groups located in the interior 

of the body. 

Termination and Treatment. — As already stated, it is exceedingly rare that an animal affected 
with blackleg recovers. In Europe very few of the veterinarians and scientists who have made 
investigations along this line have ever been fortunate enough to observe a case of recovery. 

In this country recoveries from blackleg do not seem to be extremely rare, if one may judge from 
the observations made and reported by the stock owners. Question 6 on the inquiry blank sent out by 
the Bureau of Animal Industry reads: "Have you ever seen an animal recover from a recognized case 
of blackleg? If so, please describe it as fully as possible." In reply thereto 120 stock owners state 
that they have seen animals recover from blackleg. There is, however, the same objection here as in the 
old country, namely, that the stockmen may be mistaken in their diagnosis; but as anthrax does not 
prevail to any extent in most of the districts from which these recoveries have been reported, it is highly 
probable that a large percentage of the cases referred to were really blackleg, and many of the stock 
owners describe the cases which came under their observation in such a manner as to leave very little doubt. 

In reporting these cases of recovery, a number of the cattlemen described the various therapeutic 
and surgical efforts to which they attribute the recoveries. An examination of the reports shows that 
the treatment generally adopted when the cattle are on the range consists in profuse bleeding and violent 
exercise in connection with deep incisions into the affected parts. In many cases an attempt is made 
to destroy the virus at the point of infection by pouring turpentine, various acids, concentrated lye, 
petroleum, vinegar, etc., into the incisions. The bleeding is done by opening the jugular vein, cutting 
off the tail, or "nerving" between the hoofs, which generally means to make an incision between the hoofs, 
severing the artery which is located there. The violent exercise consists in tying the affected animal 
to the saddle horn and dragging it for one or more miles. 

The condition in which this treatment leaves the unfortunate sufferer is, however, in most cases, 
deplorable. When the disease has developed to a point where it is safe to conclude that an experienced 
stockman cannot well mistake it, that is, when a crackling tumor has appeared and the animal is lame, 
the only way to recovery is either through resolution of the serosanguinolent exudation, before the 
affected muscles have been destroyed and the covering skin become gangrenous, or else the affected 
tissues must slough away and be replaced by cicatricial tissue. In all cases where the recovery is reported. 
to have taken place in the course of a few days or a week, the first way is the only possible one in which 
it could occur. But here we must accept the owners' diagnoses with reservation, as no authentic cases 
are recorded in this country. If the animal survives the first five to seven days, it seems that the disease 
has exhausted itself, and if the dejjleted system has strength enough left it enters upon a long convales- 
cence, constantly retarded by the local tissue destruction, which must heal through granulation under 
a constant drain upon the system from suppuration, and which in most cases leaves the animal a cripple 
and a runt for life. And when it is remembered that the majority of stock owners who have recorded 
one or more cases of recovery as a result of certain treatment have applied the same treatment and 
remedies in dozens of other cases without success, it seems to be in every respect wiser and more humane 
either to leave the affected animal alone or dispatch it as quickly as possible ; for there can be no doubt 
that chasing an animal affected with blackleg over miles of ground, with virulent blood oozing at every 
step from a number of incisions in the swollen parts, is sure to scatter the infection in a manner which 
could never occur under natural circumstances, and is bound to bring to grief many a succeeding genera- 
tion of calves. For this reason it is strongly advocated never to use the knife on an animal suffering from 
blackleg unless it is kept confined in a place which can afterward be disinfected thoroughly or from 
which healthy animals are constantly excluded; and it should be borne in mind that the spores of the 
kleg bacillus retain their disease producing properties for years after they have left the bod)*' of the 
affected animals, and that, although they do not multiply outside of the animal economy, they -are merely 
awaiting an opportunity to regain an entrance thereto and continue their destructive work. 



INFECTIOUS' DISEASES OF CATTLE . 391 

Preventive Measures*— Frotn the preceding discussion it will be seen that remedial treatment 
is of little avail, and consequently our .principal resource against the disease is prevention. The various 
measures/employed for this purpose may be classified in two groups : (1) Those which aim atdestroying 
or preventing the spread of infection in all places where cattle are kept, and which may be termed'hygienic 
measures; and (2) those which operate to fortify the systems of susceptible animals against an effective 
invasion of the blackleg germ, and which may be called prophylactic measures. 

Hygienic Measures. How Infection is Spread. — When it is known that blackleg occurs with more 
or less regularity in a pasture, feed lot or stable, it is due to the presence of the blackleg germ, either 
in the ground of these places or in materials (coarse feed, etc.) brought there regularly. Whenever an 
animalbecomes affected, the germs multiply by the million in its system, and their liberation through 
natural or artificial means, tends to preserve, increase or spread the infection. In the large pastures 
of the West and Southwest an affected animal is rarely noticed until after death, when the swarms of 
buzzards or other birds of prey indicate that there is something dead, and an investigation is made. 
It is then frequently too late to prevent the spread of the infection, for wolves usually attack the 
carcass in short order, without even waiting for the animal to die, and only the bones and pieces of 
the hide are found scattered over an acre or more of ground. 

In more densely populated districts, where a sick animal is rarely discovered, there is, as mentioned 
earlier in this article, often an inclination to doctor an animal, usually by means of a jack knife, and 
the result is the same as in the other case, the infection is scattered broadcast from incisions made in 
the affected parts. 

In some districts the cattle that die from blackleg are skinned in order at least to save the hide, 
and the remaining parts of the carcass are left to take care of themselves. This process naturally 
assists in scattering the infection. 

It is therefore of the utmost importance that cattle owners in the infected districts be made to 
realize that an animal infected with blackleg may be the cause of large subsequent losses from the same 
disease, maybe not immediately, but within a period of years to follow, and it cannot be too urgently 
recommended that they make every effort to reduce the danger by taking adequate measures to destroy 
as completely as possible this source of renewed infection. 

Destruction of Infection. — For this purpose the French scientists recommend various methods, 
some of which, however, are impracticable under the conditions which obtain in the infected districts 
of this country. They propose, for instance, to place the dead animals in a tank of sulphuric acid until 
completely dissolved. Where wood is plentiful the best method is to cremate the carcass. In order 
to insure its complete destruction the dead animal should be placed on a couple of logs and plenty of 
dry wood heaped around it. A couple of quarts of kerosene oil should then be poured on and fire set 
to it. It is necessary that the carcass be entirely destroyed; if any part of it remains, another fire should 
be built over it. 

In a pasture where wood is scarce the carcass may be buried. This method is always more or 
less unsatisfactory, as the infection is not destroyed but merely removed to a few feet below the sur- 
face, whence it may return through various means of egress, for instance, as demonstrated by Pasteur, 
through the agency of earth worms. It is therefore of importance that the hole in the ground be made 
at least 6 feet deep and the carcass well covered with lime before the earth is filled in. The lime has no 
special germicidal effect on the blackleg bacillus, but may prevent the infection from being carried to 
the surface. The place where the animal was lying before being buried, as well as the top of the grave, 
should be freely sprinkled with a 2 per cent solution of creolin, or any of the carbolic sheep dips or disin- 
fectants which are guaranteed to contain thymol or eucalyptol. The two latter substances are especially 
recommended by the French scientists because of their destructive action on the blackleg germs. Owing 
to the difficulty in destroying the infection, it may be well to repeat here that all attempts at treating 
an animal affected with blackleg through scarifications or incisions into the affected part should be aban- 
doned as dangerous and unprofitable. It is far better to destroy the animal as soon as all doubt as to 
the diagnosis has been dispelled, and to burn the carcass immediately, without removing it from the place 
where found. As stated before, the fresh virus is much more easily destroyed than the dried, and by 
quick action a better result is always assured. If the animal dies from blackleg in a stable it becomes 



I INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

necessary to remove the carcass to a proper place for its cremation or burial. Care should be taken to 
ter straw or huy wherever there is a possibility of infecting the stable floor or the ground with the 
discharges or exudations from the carcass while it is being removed. All litter should be removed from 
the stable and burned, together with that used in removing the carcass. The woodwork and floors of the 
stable should be thoroughly and repeatedly soaked with one of the previously mentioned disinfectants 
or with corrosive sublimate (1-2,000). 

Freeing Pastures of Infection. — The question of how completely to eradicate the disease from a 
pasture has been much discussed, but no sure means have been found. The usual method of preventing 
the infection from renewing itself by keeping cattle away from the pasture until it had died out cannot 
be employed in this case, as outbreaks have been recorded in this country in pastures where no case of 
blackleg had occurred for eleven years, and few people can afford to keep a pasture unstocked for that 
length of time. It has been claimed that complete drainage and cultivation of the soil for several 
vears will prevent further outbreaks, but where the question concerns large pastures which are unfit 
for anything but cattle raising this measure is, of course, out of consideration. 

Several ranch owners, especially in Texas, have reported that blackleg never caused losses of 
anv consequence until after it became impossible to burn the pastures off regularly every winter, and 
this statement, which in some cases is based upon actual observation, is no doubt correct. Whether 
this condition is due to overstocking or to an actual decrease in the annual rainfall need not be discussed 
here, but the fact remains that in many of the southwestern cattle raising districts the winter grass, 
as a rule, is barely sufficient to keep the stock alive until spring, and not a straw remains to be burned 
off at the end of winter. As stated before, no agent has a more 'destructive effect on the blackleg germs 
than heat, and no doubt it might be profitable for owners of badly infected pastures to allow the grass 
in them to grow rank and burn it off during the winter. It is held by the French scientists that when the 
infection on the surface becomes attenuated through exposure to varying climatic conditions it may 
have its virulence reinforced through lactic acid formed during the natural fermentation in the soil. 
Such an acidity of the soil would, however, immediately be neutralized by burning off the pastures, 
thereby depositing on the surface a layer of alkalies in the form of ashes, and the attenuation of the germs 
which escaped destruction through the heat might continue without interruption. 

Removal of Cattle to New Pastures. — When blackleg appears in a herd, a common remedy is 
immediately to move the animals to another pasture. From a number of reports received, this seems 
in certain regions to be considered the only sure means of stopping the disease, but in most cases the 
effect is but temporary. If the new pasture to which the animals are taken is free from infection, it 
is natural that no more cases should occur, if none of the animals were infected previous to leaving the 
old pasture. Such cases would develop in the course of a few days, and, if no precautions are taken, 
infect the new pastures to a greater or less extent. But, as a rule, conditions are very much alike in all 
pastures on the same ranch or farm, and after a while, when the animals have become familiar with their 
new surroundings and begun to thrive again, the disease reappears. The results, however, seem better 
when the pasture to which the afflicted cattle are taken is of decidedly poorer quality t^an the one 
where the disease first broke out. This, in connection with the fact that the change which generally 
gives the cattle more or less exercise in rounding up and driving, produces a temporary lull in the out- 
break, seems to indicate that the animals under certain conditions are less susceptible to the disease, 
and that the temporary increase in power of resistance must be due to certain chemical or meta- 
bolic processes in the animal economy which are dependent upon the relative proportion between the 
amount of exercise and the amount of nutrition of which the animal partakes. All cattle owners in 
the infected districts agree that a reduction in flesh, no matter in what condition the animals may be, 
tends to allay or stop an outbreak of blackleg. But, as it is contrary to the interests of stock raisers 
to interfere in any way with the growth and development of young cattle, it is obvious that preventive 
measures along this line should be avoided or resorted to only as a temporary relief, while less injurious 
and more certain remedies are provided in the meantime. 

Prophylactic Measures. Setoning, or Roweling. — Setoning, or roweling, which consists in pro- 
ducing a large running sore in the dewlap or on the shoulder, and which, through profuse suppuration, 
drains the vitality of the animal, should only be resorted to as a temporary measure. When practiced 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 393 



regularly it simply prevents growth and stunts young animals, besides affording an opportunity for the 
introduction of other disease germs. In England, where public opinion is against vaccination, this 
method has been employed extensively, and much has been written for and against it. The two prin- 
cipal authors on this question, Stewart Stockman and J. McFadyean, are both of the opinion that roweling 
is of no value as a preventive measure, the former even holding that it has the opposite effect. In support 
of this statement, he quotes .the following case: - 

"At the request of a client whose losses from black quarter are annually very high, a friend of 
mine setoned fifteen yearlings. For some reason a sixteenth animal was not setoned. The sixteen 
animals were all pastured on the same meadows. All the setoned animals died of black quarter and 
were survived by the one that had not been setoned." Such evidence speaks for itself. The fatal result 
in this case is no doubt due to a too prolonged action of the seton. The same author has proved experi- 
mentally that animals which have been setoned for one month succumb more readily to an inoculation 
of blackleg virus than animals which have not been setoned at all, and a number of stockmen in this 
country who have been in the habit of roweling their cattle declare that the protective effect of the seton 
soon wears off, although it seems effective for awhile. In the writer's opinion, the seton, if used at all, 
should not be left in the sore for more than a week or ten days, or sufficiently long to allow the owner 
to obtain blackleg vaccine and use it on his cattle. 

To Arloing, Corvenin, and Thomas belong the honor of first discovering that 
Preventive V&Cci- animals may be protected against blackleg by inoculation with more or less 
nation With Davis virulent material obtained from animals which have died from blackleg. They 
Blackleg Outfit, found that the hypodermic injection of minimal doses of fluid from a blackleg 

tumor did not necessarily result in death, but frequently produced a mild attack 
of the disease, unaccompanied by any swelling, and that animals treated in that way were afterward 
possessed of a very high degree of resistance to the disease. There are, however, few diseases where 
the individual susceptibility varies to a greater extent than is the case in blackleg, and, as it was 
impossible to ascertain beforehand the degree of susceptibility or power of resistance possessed by 
each animal, the exact dose to employ in each case could not be determined, and the method was 
abandoned as being too dangerous. Even when the inoculation was made at the extremity of the tail, it 
frequently resulted in the development of a swelling which spread to the rump and killed the animal, 
or else the tail became gangrenous and dropped off. 

When the virus, either fresh from a tumor or dried, is introduced into the blood stream or into 
the trachea, the animal shows great resistance to its effect and subsequently becomes immunized. It 
is, however, rather difficult to inject the virus either into the jugular vein or into the trachea without 
infecting the surrounding connective tissue, and the technique of the operation is too complicated to 
be of practical value when large numbers of cattle are to be vaccinated. Nevertheless the French 
scientists practiced it on 500 animals with only one death resulting from the operation. 

Attenuated Virus. — Prolonged exposure to a high temperature serves to attenuate the virulence 
of either fresh or dried virus. This fact was employed by the above mentioned authors for the prepara- 
tion of a vaccine which may be used in every day practice with little danger of injuring the cattle. The 
material used for the vaccine is obtained from a fresh blackleg tumor, by pounding the muscle tissue in a 
mortar with the addition of a little water and squeezing the pulp through a piece of linen cloth. The 
juice is spread in layers on plates and dried quickly at a temperature of about 35 degrees Centigrade. 
This temperature does not in the least affect the germs, and the dried virus obtained in this way retains 
a high degree of virulence for a couple of years or more. 

When vaccine is to be prepared the dry material is pulverized and mixed in a mortar with two 
parts of water until it forms a semifluid homogeneous mass. This is spread in a thin layer on a saucer 
or glass dish, and placed in an oven, the temperature of which can be regulated with exactness. The 
reason for mixing the virus with water is to insure a quicker and more uniform attenuation. The tem- 
perature of the oven is usually brought up to 100 degrees to 104 degrees Centigrade, and the virus is allowed 
to remain in it for seven hours. When removed, it appears as a brownish scale, which is easily detached 
from the dish. The scale is pulverized and mixed with water, and when inoculated under the skin of 
calves in doses of 1 centigram per head it produces partial immunity. Subsequent inoculation with 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. ___ 

virus which has boon heated for the same length of time, but at a temperature of 90 degrees to 94 degrees 
Centigrade, serves to reinforce the immunity. The inoculation is followed by insignificant symptoms. 
In a lew .here is a slight rise in temperature, and by close observation a minute swelling may some- 

times be noted at the point of inoculation. Eight to ten days are allowed to pass between the first and 
the second inoculation. For reasons already explained, the vaccine is injected at a place where the 
subcutaneous connective tissue is dense and unelastic, generally at the extremity' of the tail or the external 
surface of the ear, as far from the base of either organ as possible. The immunity conferred in this way 
lasts for at least eighteen months, but animals which are vaccinated before they are one year old should 
be revaccinated the following year. The Davis Blackleg Outfit should be used in administering the virus. 

or Infectious Catarrhal Fever, may be defined as an acute, infectious disease 
Malignant of cattle in which the respiratory and digestive organs are involved in the 

Catarrh, affection. It is believed to be due to micro-organisms, perhaps belonging to 

the bacteria, but- the cause is not yet determined. Strictly speaking, it can 
hardly be called a contagious disease, and appears chiefly in isolated or consecutive cases. The 
predisposing causes are but little known, some claiming it to be due to lack of sanitation and hygiene 
in stables and barns. The disease may recur year after year^on the same farm or in the same locality. 
It is not known whether the conditions of the soil have any bearing on the disease. It is not a disease 
which spreads to a great extent, or which causes severe losses. 

Symptoms. — Young and well nourished animals are especially liable to be attacked. The incu- 
batory period is said to be three to four weeks, varying from case to case. It usually begins with a 
chill, followed by a high fever, 104 to 107 degrees Fahrenheit. The head droops, the skin is hot and 
dry, the coat staring. Other symptoms are quivering of the muscles, marked dullness, passing by degrees 
into an almost stupefied condition. Secretion of milk stops in the beginning of the disease. Affections 
of the eye are characteristic of the malady. There is an abundant formation of tears, which run down 
over the face; lids are swollen and inflamed, the animal shuns the light by keeping them closed. The 
simple inflammation may be followed by an inflammation of the cornea, which may lead to permanent 
clouding. Inflammation of the iris is occasionally seen. Inflammation from the membranes of the 
mouth, nose, and the sinuses of the head leads to discharges from the mouth and nose. Membrane of 
the nose is reddened, and may be covered later with inflammatory deposits. Bowels are at first con- 
stipated; later diarrhea sets in and the discharges become soft, offensive and streaked with blood. Great 
uneasiness, amounting in some cases to madness and furious delirium, in others to spasms and convulsions 
or paralysis, are features of the general symptoms. Like other infectious diseases, malignant catarrh 
pursues a longer or shorter course in accordance with the severity of the attack. In acute cases death 
is said to take place from three to seven days after the appearance of the symptoms. When recovery 
ensues it may take three or four weeks. From 50 to 90 per cent of the affected animals die. 

Treatment. — No specific treatment exists for this affection. Preventive treatment, which insists 
on the removal of the infected animals and a thorough cleaning and disinfection of the infected stables, 
may prevent the subsequent appearance of the disease. If the floors are low and damp, they should 
be raised and made dry. Keep the digestion and general health of your herd up to the standard always, 
constantly allowing 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Stock Food to each feed of the daily ration, and improved 
vitality and strength, with attendant immunity from disease, will be the reward. 

or Texas Fever, so called, is a specific fever, communicated by cattle which 

Southern Cattle have recently been moved northward from the infected district, or which is 

Fever, contracted by cattle taken into the infected districts from other parts of the 

world. It is characterized by the peculiarity among animal diseases that the 
animals which disseminate the infection are apparently in good health, while those which sicken and die 
from it do not as a rule infect others. 

Causes. — Texas fever is caused by an organism which lives within the red blood corpuscles and 
breaks them up. It is therefore simply a blood disease. It belongs to the protozoa family, as distin- 
guished from bacteria; in other words, it is not a microscopic plant, but belongs to the lowest form of 
the animal kingdom. It multiplies rapidly in the body of the infected animal, and in acute cases causes 
an enormous destruction of red corpuscles in a few days. It is not possible to state how it gets into the 



" INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 395 

red corpuscles, but all the various processes which go on in Texas fever and which we may observe by 
examining the organs after death, result from the destruction of these minute bodies. The destruction may 
be rapid or slow; when rapid we have an acute, usually fatal type of Texas fever which is always wit- 
nessed in the height of the Texas fever season, that is, during the latter weeks of August and the early 
September days. When the destruction of corpuscles is slower, a mild, usually non-fatal type of the 
disease is called forth, which is only witnessed late in autumn or more rarely in July and the early part 
of August. Cases of the mild type usually become acute later on and terminate fatally. 

Various names are given to the disease in different localities. It is called Spanish fever, accli- 
mation fever, red water, -black water, murrain, dry murrain, yellow murrain, and bloody murrain. 
In regard to the means by which the disease is communicated, experience shows that this does not occur, 
by animals coming near or in contact with each other. It is an indirect infection. The cattle from 
the infected districts first infect the pastures, roads, pens, cars, etc., and the susceptible cattle obtain 
the virus second hand from these. Usually animals do not contract the disease when separated from 
infected pastures by a fence. If, however, there is any drainage or washing by rains across the line of 
fence, this rule does not hold good. 

The cattle tick, Ixodes bovis, is mainly responsible for the carrying of Texas fever from the South 
to the North. It is essentially a parasite attaching itself to the skin and drawing the blood of its host. 
It is unable to come to maturity and reproduce its kind unless it becomes attached to the skin of cattle, 
whence it may obtain its food. Its life is spent largely on cattle. Southern cattle sent north during 
the spring and summer months carry on their bodies large numbers of the cattle tick. These when 
matured drop off and lay their eggs on northern pastures. These hatch and the young tick soon gets 
upon any northern cattle which happen to be on the pastures. As soon as they have attached them- 
selves to the skin they inoculate the cattle and Texas fever breaks out a week or more thereafter. The 
larva after emerging from the egg is very minute, six-legged, and just visible to the naked eye. On 
pastures these little creatures soon find their way upon the cattle. They attach themselves by prefer- 
ence to the tender skin on the escutcheon, the inside of the thighs, and on the base of the udder. The 
fever in cattle attacked appears before the ticks have matured. 

Symptoms of Texas Fever. — After exposure to infected soil, the disease first shows itself in dullness, 
loss of appetite and a tendency to leave the herd and lie down. A few days before the symptoms appear 
the presence of high fever may be detected. The temperature arises from a normal of 101 to 103 degrees 
Fahrenheit to 106 or 107 degrees Fahrenheit. There seems to be little or no change in temperature until 
recovery or death ensues. Bowels are mostly constipated during the fever; toward the end, feces may 
become softer and rather deeply tinged with bile. Urine is normal until near the fatal termination, 
when it at times is deeply stained with the coloring matter of the blood. The pulse and respiration 
are usually much more rapid than during health. As the end approaches emaciation becomes very 
marked, the blood is thin and watery, and the closing of any wound of the skin by clots is retarded. 
There is increasing stupor, tendency to lie down most of the time, sometimes signs of delirium. Death 
occurs as a rule in the night. In the mild type of the disease, which occurs in October and November, 
symptoms of disease are well nigh absent. 

Treatment. — As soon as the disease has made its appearance, all animals, sick and healthy, 
should at once be removed to a non -infected pasture. This, although not putting an end to the 
disease, may save the lives of some members of the herd by removing them from the possibility of being 
attacked by any more ticks. Removal from infected pastures likewise prevents a second attack 
in October or early in November, which is caused by another generation of ticks. It is true that sick 
natives infect with a new generation of ticks the pasture to which they are removed, but these usually 
appear s5 late that they have but little opportunity to do damage. No systematic experiments have 
as yet been made in the medicinal treatment of the sick. Sulphate of quinia, in doses of 15 to 30 grains, 
according to the size of the animal, has given good results in the hands of some practitioners, and 
tincture of aconite root and Epsom salts have been combined with it according to indications of the 
individual disease. 

There is at present no known method of ridding pastures of ticks without destroying the vege- 
tation. Every pasture once infected is dangerous throughout the season. Fortunately winter destroys 



396 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



the tick and a fresh importation from the South is necessary to reproduce the disease. In sheltered places 
near the Texas fever line, they may, however, live through very mild winters and produce disease the 
following summer. The previous remarks have reference only to northern pastures. 

Regarding sanitary regulations, the disease, outside of the infected district, may be prevented 
by proper steps being taken to that end. Regulations covering this subject are now yearly made by the 
Secretary of Agriculture. They define the boundary of the infected district, and provide that no cattle 
shall go out of it except for immediate slaughter between the dates of February 15th and December 1st. 
Cattle from the district going to slaughter cannot be driven, but must be shipped by rail or boat. Way- 
bills and cars are marked "Southern Cattle" when they cross the boundary line, and when unloaded 
for feeding, watering or sale they are placed in pens set apart for such animals and into which native 
stock is not allowed to go. The cars and boats which have transported such cattle must be 
disinfected and cleansed thoroughly before native stock can be carried. 

Thus does Uncle Sam aid his people in preventing the spread of this probably most dangerous of 
all diseases to which American cattle are subject. And we ought, all of us, each in his own way, give 
the government a helping hand in the effort to stay the spread of disease in every form in the herds of 
cattle of this broad land, conducive alike to the prosperity of their respective owners and to the American 
nation. It is our hope that this book, largely compiled as it is from the wealth of statistics and 
scientifically demonstrated results of experiments with which the government has provided us, will 
contribute in no small degree to this end. One thing we would like to impress upon the reader in 
conclusion of this chapter, as we have done in all the previous chapters, namely, that Davis Stock Food 
and other preparations have been selected and compounded with this view alone in mind. They are 
scientific combinations of twentieth century remedies and methods, for the prevention and cure of all the 
diseases to which our domestic animals are subject, and for improving their various breeds through 
careful feeding to the highest possible degree of efficiency and value. In this spirit we recommend our 
preparations to the cattle breeders of the United States. 




DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



It is true that the human being is endowed with the finest and most sensitive nervous system 
in all the animal kingdom, but this does not by any means imply that animals, and more especially our 
domesticated animals, are incapable of feelings and emotions- akin to those experienced by the human. 
The fact is that the nervous system in all species throughout the animal world is built in accordance 
with the same universal law, and that the differentiations from the lowest to the highest forms is merely 
a matter of degree and intensity as regards the phenomenon which we call feeling or sensation. Thus 
we know that the finer bred the animal is, the more high strung and sensitive does the nervous 
system become. 

The sheep ranks among the most highly organized, finely nerved specimens of our domesticated 
animals, and for this reason it is well that we, as an introduction to the following pages, the contents 
of which concerns the sheep and its diseases, should devote a few paragraphs to a description of the nervous 
system, its functions and vagaries in health and disease. 

You may be interested in knowing that each of the divisions of this wonderfully constructed, 
intricate system of nerves, whose subtle ramifications extend to every part of the body, have phenomena 
peculiar to themselves, enabling the studious man who has paid enough attention to this branch of animal 
anatomy, to ascertain which are involved in any one specific disease. We divide the different classes 
of disease in accordance with the parts involved, calling diseases of the brain, cerebral; of the spinal 
cord, the spinal, and of the nerves, the peripheral. If the brain is diseased a loss of perception, volition 
and special sensation is the result. Should one side or part of the body become paralyzed, either motor 
or sensory, the brain is affected and suffers, but in case of transverse paralysis, which affects the hind 
limbs or a posterior portion of the body, this indicates disease of the spinal cord. The same holds true 
of incontinence of urine or retention, which again indicates that the cord is affected. If only a local 
part, as for instance a portion of the leg, a muscle or set of muscles are paralyzed, it indicates a diseased 
condition of the nerves which supply that part, and is called peripheral. If you should fracture or other- 
wise injure the outer portion of any part of the brain, it will immediately affect the voluntary motions 
of the animal sustaining the injury, but if the inner, deeper lying portions of the brain are injured it will 
affect the involuntary or automatic motion, the actions of the heart, the respiration, digestion, etc., 
classified under the name of the vital functions. Any severe injury to the vital parts of the brain, 
from which ramify the nerves that sustain these functions, will cause instant death by their suspension. 
In the same way do all injuries covering the entire system cause a higher or lesser degree of excitation, 
increased nervous excitability or paralysis. An unexplainable peculiarity of this, the electric battery of 
the body, is that great derangement in its regular, normal functions may take place without it being 
possible to discover any structural alteration or impairment in its substance. 

—397— 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



also known as Frenzy, and in scientific language called Encephalitis, may be 

Cerebritis, defined as inflammation of the brain substance, and is' 'often met with after the 

operation for gid; or it may follow an injury to the cranium of the animal or 

an attack of apoplexy. Exposure and exhaustion, which cause the blood to become impoverished and 

d, may also develop it. Other causes are feed of too stimulating properties or an excess of coarse, 
innutritious feedstuffs. Overripe rye grass tops may be to blame, and among other predisposing 
influences a plethoric condition of the body and exposure to the burning rays of the sun during the hot 
jon. Grown sheep are rarely affected with this disease, except by direct injury, while lambs are 
more frequently attacked by incorrect feed and consequent disturbances of the bodily functions, 
reacting upon the growing and delicate nervous structure. 

Symptoms. — Early in the case a stupor takes possession of the victim. Dullness and indisposi- 
tion, the animal being unwilling to move, gives way to a state of delirium in which the animal becomes 
more or less frantic, restless and excitable, throwing itself about violently. The eyes are staring and 
look as though they would bulge from their sockets ; linings of the eyelids appear swollen and red ; pupils 
of the eyes contract ; bowels are constipated and respirations irregular. These violent symptoms are 
most evident in lambs, who of a sudden, after being affected with the disease, commence to dance and 
skip about like little windmills, in a way that to the observer, who does not divine the cause, seems 
shriekingly funny. It is recorded that our worthy ancestors, the men and women who- in the light of 
our greater experience and intelligence must forever appear as big, foolish, ignorant and superstitious 
children, were in the habit of burning the little devils at the stake as they did their regular old woman 
witches, under the belief that they were possessed by the evil one. In being struck with the disease grown 
sheep may of a sudden jump high in the air and fall down dead. If the attack is prolonged there are 
periods of nervous excitation interposed with exhaustion. . While the acute period lasts sheep runs about 
with the tail carried upward, breathing hard. In its madness it butts at men and other sheep or 
animals, running up against anything it encounters. 

Treatment must be prompt if it is to be effective. Bleeding from the jugular vein is advised, 
taking about 8 ounces of blood, from a grown animal. Follow with a cathartic. Then give Epsom 
salts, 4 ounces in J/£ pint of water, to which add 1 dram of Jamaica ginger. If a valuable sheep confine 
the patient in a place where it cannot do injury to itself under the spasms ; 1 dram doses of bromide of 
potassium being given every two or three hours to quiet the nervousness. Follow this with Davis Stock 
Food as directed for sheep and the recovery will be complete. 

popularly called Tremblings, Thorter 111, Mad Staggers, is a disorder 
Louping 111, apparently caused by a derangement of the nerves of the. hind parts, due to an 

inflammation of the spinal cord in the region of the loins. This inflammation is 
followed by a serious effusion, which in less severe cases coagulates, changing into a sort of fibrous tissue. 
Permanent pressure on the cord is produced, not enough to produce complete paralysis, but sufficient to 
cause derangement of sensibility. This is a remarkable disease, peculiar to the sheep family, and large 
losses have been caused by it. Governmental and other investigations as to its nature and origin have, 
however, so far shed little light on the subject. Its history shows that it has existed in epidemic form 
from time to time in different parts of the world, notably in Scotland. Some authorities have laid its 
cause to liming the soil, arguing that their experiments demonstrated that it disappeared when the 
lime was exhausted ; others contend that the disease is due to inflammation of the brain and spinal cord ; 
others again that smut on grasses is responsible. Coarse, withered grass feed, ticks, overstocking, 
poverty, dry easterly winds in April and May, etc., have also been claimed as the cause, and between it 
all we remain to a large extent in obscurity, without any direct scientific basis whereupon to base any 
of these popular observations. 

Symptoms. — Head and neck are attacked with periodical spasms, contracting or drawing them 
backward with a violent jerk, which tends to constrict the esophagus, threatening strangulation if 
the swallowing of liquids is attempted. A frothy saliva is emitted from the mouth, especially during 
the convulsive fits, which may occur every five minutes, accompanied with a very laborious and quick 
iration, subsiding on termination of the attack. Other symptoms are trembling of the hind parts; 
twitching of the muscles; accelerated pulse; dry and hard skin; catarrh, emaciation; sheep grinds its 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 399 



teeth, pines slowly away, and at length death ensues. It has been claimed by some authorities 
that it is only since the introduction^ of Merinos and other high bred, fine wooled sheep that the 
disease has developed. - In the early stages of the disease the sheep are in poor condition and 
gradually falling off, the fleece is dry and deaxl to the touch, the nervous symptoms soon following, 
generally evidenced by a loss of power in one or more of the limbs, the whole side at times being involved. 
A sheep may exist for days in this condition, and should it not recuperate and rally, death will sooner or 
later ensue. Even in recovery the use of a hind leg will to many of those patients be lost for a long time, 
it being drawn behind them in moving and dead and cold to the touch. Tumors filled with pus may 
appear around the joint or on the fore leg or brisket. 

Treatment. — There is no cure for the disease proper and the treatment must be altogether pre- 
ventive. Remove the flock to new and fresher pastures; feed oil cake and other good commercial feeds; 
give lambs a sufficient dose of Epsom salts to act as a purge, the adult sheep about 4 ounces. A stimula- 
ting, nutritious diet, with Davis Stock Food always added to the ration in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful 
to each feed for the grown sheep and J^ teaspoonful to each feed for a lamb, is the best safeguard 
for this destructive disease. It should be remembered that Davis Stock Food, acting as it does at the 
same time as a tonic and digestive, stimulating the salivary glands of the mouth, liberating the juices 
of the stomach, and by thus directly influencing the digestion, causing all feed taken into the body to 
be assimilated, produces such a healthy, unobstructed circulation that the risk of your flock of sheep 
being attacked with disease is lessened 75 per cent; that is, if you are careful to always have 
it on hand and feed it regularly. Good hygienic surroundings are also here as elsewhere of the 
greatest importance, and the folds and houses in which the sheep are kept should at all times be 
clean and sweet in every particular. 

in the popular language of the people known as Palsy, may be described as a 
Simple Paralysis, loss of power," sensory or motor, or both. Lambs are most frequently attacked 

by this disease, the cause being the exposure of the ewe at weaning time, rough 
weather, and lack of sufficient or proper nutriment. Ewes also at times are affected, with the disease, 
as the result of abortion, prolonged and difficult labor, etc. When the new born lambs are affected they 
often die in one night. Other causes are chronic or habitual constipation, indigestion caused by 
partaking freely of roots, or poisons entering the system with grasses. 

Symptoms. — In milder cases the lamb is discovered standing still, apparently unable to move, 
and upon examination it is found that its hind parts are powerless. The patient rarely recovers if the 
motor functions are generally affected, and the period before death is usually marked by a persistent 
and violent diarrhea. 

Treatment. — Tonics and digestives, such as Davis Stock Food, combined with purgatives and 
stimulating liniments, are the remedies recommended for combating the disease. Give adult sheep 
the usual dose of 1 teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food to each feed. If the loins are badly affected on 
a valuable lamb or sheep which the owner desires to go to some trouble in saving, clip off the fleece for a 
space of 3 inches each way and paint the back with a solution of lunar caustic, 1 dram to 1 ounce of 
distilled water. Apply some of this with a brush to the affected parts, continuing with its use daily 
for two or three days. Then stop, but repeat treatment again in the course of eight days, if considered 
necessary. It is perhaps the best plan in all cases where the sheep or lambs are in good condition, and 
able to command a price on the market that will compensate the owner for their loss, to sell them to 
the butcher, if they do not happen to be of such value that the owner is willing to go to some trouble 
in order to save them. In the case of newly born lambs, rub the little animal well all over the body, 
gradually warmi»g it ; then give 1 teaspoonful of sweet spirits of niter in a little warm water, returning 
the lamb to the ewe. Carefully house both the mother and her offspring with clean bedding ; feed the 
mother on wholesome, nourishing feed, protect them from drafts and cold winds, and make it as 
comfortable for them as though they were of the human family. 






THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

or Snuffles, often affects sheep which have been exposed to inclemency of the 
Nasal Catarrh, weather. It is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the nose, and may 

be either acute, subacute or chronic. It is very much like an attack of cold 
in the human. Sheep which have been shipped a long way often are severely affected with snuffles when 
arriving at their destination. The early winter season is the time where the largest number of such cases 
occur in a herd. 

Symptoms. — Acute: Feverishness ; rapid breathing; high color of the visible mucous membranes 
of the nose and mouth, due to accumulation of mucus from the inflamed surfaces. At the beginning 
the patient sneezes, shakes its head, evinces pain, and in a little while a mucous discharge from the nostrils 
sets in. In the course of a couple of days pus forms and is emitted with the discharge ; discharge becoming 
thick, but without smell. Without treatment disease often lasts for several weeks in this state, nature 
in the end either affecting a cure or the inflammation of the lung tissue gaining the upper hand, resulting 
in pneumonia or bronchitis, which is often of fatal consequence. 

Treatment. — Cause affected sheep to be removed from places of exposure; feed them on a light 
nourishing ration, and tone and stimulate their digestive organs by adding Davis Stock Food to each 
feed in the usual proportion (1 teaspoonful to each feed for the grown sheep and % teaspoonful to each 
feed for the lamb). This with proper care in the way of protection from cold air and drafts will generally 
produce a cure. The disease, popular belief notwithstanding, is not contagious, and if a large number 
of cases occur at the same time in your flock you may safely attribute it to the same cause — errors in 
hygiene or feeding. Catarrh produces a weakening and exhaustion of the affected sheep, hard to over- 
come, and which makes them unprofitable feeders. You should therefore carefully guard against it, 
by always protecting your flock in all possible ways against inclement weather, especially the storms 
of fall and winter. Next in importance is to so harden and strengthen the sheep that it is able to with- 
stand such exposure as is unavoidable; and here we would again call your attention to Davis Stock Food, 
which, by perfecting the digestion and assimilation, and through them the blood circulation, speedily 
builds up the entire system of the animal, making it to a large extent immune from disease. Feed it 
regularly 1 teaspoonful to each feed, and it will save you much loss and worry as time passes on. 

or Laryngitis, is an inflammation of the membrane of the larynx. In acute 
Sore Throat, cases the swelling is spongy, the blood vessels of the throat are engorged with 

blood, and gangrenous patches form at times on the mucous membrane, often 
extending over the entire throat, producing diphtheritic sore throat, a common affliction. 

Symptoms. — Fever; rapid respiration; the head is projected in a straight line, the mouth held 
open; there is a frequent, painful cough; swallowing is difficult, this especially holding good of liquids, 
which are apt to return through the nose; eyes protrude more or less; saliva forms in the mouth, dribbling 
from the animal in its efforts to swallow. The whole system is more or less upset. 

Treatment. — Twice or thrice daily apply Davis Veterinary Liniment to the throat and rub it in 
thoroughly with the hand. If the herdsman doesn't happen to have this, try the following: Oil of tur- 
pentine, 1 ounce; strong aqua ammonia, 1 ounce; linseed oil, 6 ounces; mixed and shaken well together 
before applied. As an internal treatment give Davis Stock Food in double doses, or in its absence give 
the following: Tincture of iron, 6 drams; chlorate of potash, 4 drams; water, 8 ounces. Give three 
times daily, 1 tablespoonful each time. Lambs should only be given one-quarter of the dose. With 
and treatment this disease usually yields in the sheep. Feed it on a light nourishing ration while 
affected, adding Davis Stock Food in the usual quantity. Carefully protect it against cold winds and 
draft; keep its quarters clean and comfortable. Commence treatment as soon as the first symptoms 
show themselves. Davis Stock Food may with advantage be given both in health and disease. 

—400— 



THE RESPIRATORY ORGAN S. 401 

is a catarrhal disease, affecting the mucous lining of the bronchial tubes, often 
Bronchitis found as a complication with laryngitis and catarrh of the nose. Exposure to 

wind and weather, the breathing of vitiated air, etc., are fertile causes for its 
appearance in both grown sheep and lambs. 

Symptoms are similar to those of catarrh of the nose, with a few exceptions; moist cough; 
a wheezing sound from the air pipes; fever; throat and belly are tender to the touch; respirations quick, 
increasing in rapidity as disease progresses; loss of appetite; thirst, which is most pronounced toward 
the last stage of the disease. Peculiar murmurs, called rales, may be heard by placing the ear to the 
chest, caused by a liquid mucus being present in the bronchial tubes, through which the air must pass 
during the act of respiration. In the progression of the affection the patient is weakened, urine becomes 
highly colored and scanty, droppings are coated with slime, dry and hard on the inside, fever continues 
to manifest itself at intervals. 

Treatment. — Put sheep in a large shed where the air is fresh and pure, but protect it from 
drafts. Tone and stimulate the patient by adding Davis Stock Food to the ration. In severe cases 
in addition to this give fluid extract of belladonna leaves, 1 dram; fluid extract of licorice root, 2 ounces; 
muriate of ammonia, J^ ounce; alcohol, 2 ounces; water, 4 ounces. Mix this thoroughly and give the 
patient 1 tablespoonful twice daily for an adult sheep, lambs in proportion to their age. With this treat- 
ment administer 2 drams of sweet spirits of niter twice a day in % pint of oatmeal gruel. Do not use 
purgatives for this affection. 

. or Pneumonia, is caused by sudden changes in temperature, especially occurring 
Inflammation where the climate is damp and wet. Inhalation of vitiating gases also induce 
of the Lungs, an attack, or it may be secondary to milder diseases of the air passages, such 
as catarrh or laryngitis. 

Symptoms. — A persistent, more or less violent cough, is one of the first indications of an 
attack of pneumonia; then there may be a shivering fit, labored breathing, increased motion of 
the ribs; flanks heave rapidly; pulse grows quick and strong (at the beginning; toward the end of the 
disease it weakens) ; there is loss of appetite ; sheep ceases to chew the cud ; thirst is considerable ; there 
is discharge from the nose, animal grinds its teeth as though in pain. Weakness and exhaustion increases ; 
the eye has a glazed, staring appearance; there are fits or spasms, and delirium, and finally death ensues. 

Treatment. — First of all regulate the animal's digestive and circulatory functions, making the 
ration light and giving Davis Stock Food in the usual proportion to each feed. Then counter irritation, 
such as the application of Davis Veterinary Liniment to the sides and chest. Try the following in the 
way of internal treatment : Sulphate of quinine, 40 grains ; whisky, 7^ ounces ; tincture of iron, 3^ ounce. 
Mix well, and give 2 tablespoonfuls every four hours in y% pint of oatmeal gruel. This is the dose 
for a mature sheep, and lambs should be treated proportionately. If the animal suffers from chronic 
pneumonia, it is rarely worth while attempting to treat it, as it is practically useless for breeding purposes, 
and unfit for fattening. 

a disease frequently met with 3.fter dipping in the late fall or sheep washing in the 

Pleurisy, spring, is an inflammation of the serous coverings of the lungs and chest cavity. 

Sudden changes in the temperature, chills and inclement weather are the usual 
causes. It also may be a complication attendant on other diseases of the parts involved. 

Symptoms are similar to those manifesting in inflammation of the lungs. Spasmodic pains 
also may be observed, causing the sheep to grunt, grind its teeth and appear uneasy and anxious. At 
the beginning of the trouble the pulse is hard and strong, ears and legs become cold, flanks heave, the 
ribs appear fixed. If recovery from this condition should not occur in two or three days, indicated by 
cessation of the inflammation and return of the affected parts to a healthy condition, it is apt to termi- 
nate fatally, although death may be delayed for a week or two. Before this second and fatal stage com- 
mences there is usually a more or less complete loss of appetite, but as the effusion from the inflamed 
pleural surfaces takes place, as a result of the inflammation, the sheep may commence to feed, the extremi- 
ties get warm and an apparent change for the better becomes evident. But this is only a forerunner 
for the third stage, preceding the fatal termination. As this approaches the effusion increases until the 



402 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



chest cavity becomes filled with a watery, serous liquid, the respirations once more , become labored, 
the eyes glass}', the sheep soon dying, more from suffocation than anything else. ; In cases that recover 
the lungs are frequently found to adhere to the chest walls, due to the adhesive action of inflammation. 
When sheep are in this condition they become practically valueless, being unsatisfactory feeders, as a 
rule losing flesh instead of fattening, and unfit for breeding purposes. 

Treatment. — Good hygienic treatment, a light ration, to which add Davis Stock Food in the regular 
proportion. Bleeding, when the disease is discovered in the first stages, is beneficial. The extraction 
of blood should be not less than 8 ounces from an adult sheep. Do not bleed more than once. When 
shivering and chills are observed at the commencement of the affection a dose of good whisky, 1 ounce 
in four ounces of gruel, may be administered with good effect. In the second or more painful and com- 
plicated stage of the affection, try the following internal treatment : Fluid extract of belladonna, 2 drams ; 
sweet spirits of niter, 2 ounces; muriate of ammonia, % ounce; water, 6 ounces. Mix this preparation 
well and administer it in doses of 1 tablespoonful every two hours in J^ pint of gruel. Davis Veterinary 
Liniment may be used in this case also, as an adjunct to the other treatment. The elbows and lower 
part of the chest should be thoroughly rubbed in with .this once a day until recovery. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 

as a rule, occurs among lambs in the first part of the spring, especially in such 
Sore Mouth, as are still sucking the ewes. Adult sheep, however, are by no means exempt, 
although when the animal gets to be two years* old the danger of its being attacked 
is remote. In the lamb and younger animal it is a very troublesome and occasionally 'fatal affection. 
It seems that feeding of turnips sometimes produces this condition, while a faulty diet, improper sani- 
tation and hygiene, the spores of certain fungi, physical exhaustion, and in older sheep carious teeth 
and low vitality are mentioned among the prominent causes which are liable to produce the disease. 
One veterinarian who has made a careful study of Sore Mouth asserts that it is caused by a minute 
organism, contained not only in the milk but also in the watery fluids of the stomach and abdominal 
organs on a postmortem examination. It seems that the lambs are first affected and the ewes are thus 
inoculated by their offspring, while the original cause through which the young animal contracts the 
disease is obscure and uncertain. 

Symptoms. — There seems to be a progressive physical exhaustion coming on the lamb. It drags 
"behind, seems unable to keep up with its mother; mouth when lamb tries to grasp or suck the teat is 
filled with saliva and foam, which coats the udder of the ewe ; there is apparently an inability or reluctance 
in grasping and sucking the teat, probably caused by physical weakness; lamb exhibits a desire to lay 
down, opposite to its usual tendency to frisk and roam about; the weakness becomes more pronounced, 
ears hang down, head droops forward; small pimples burst out about the mouth. Subsequently these 
enlarge, ulcerate, become confluent and form sores which cover with scab; these pimples break out 
inside the mouth, too, affecting the tongue, lips and gums; in aggravated cases the gums ulcerate, teeth 
loosen and sometimes fall out, the lower jaw bone becoming inflamed. Should the udder of the ewe 
be attacked the eruption is similar to that occurring in the mouth of the lamb ; teats are full of sores, 
which dry and become crusted over with heavy black scabs, and when the lamb is unable to extract the 
milk, both on account of the condition of the udder and that of its own mouth, the gland soon becomes 
inflamed by retaining the milk, frequently terminating in a gangrenous condition, during which the whole 
or a large portion of the udder sloughs off. In the worst cases there seems to be a gradual poisoning 
of the blood, occasioning inflammation of the lungs, abscesses on the lymphatic glands, which in their turn 
cause prostration, rapid breathing, coughing and inability to move. Death frequently occurs, due to 
the affected animal being unable to get feed into its stomach. 

Treatment. — First separate the flock; take the healthy animals to an entirely new locality, leaving 
the sick ones where they are until cured. Put the ewes on a light but still nourishing and substantial 



TOE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. - '403 



ration, Ji being of the greatest importance to keep their digestive and assimilative functions in healthy 
active condition by always adding Davis Stock Pood to the ration. This in itself will do much to' ward 
off the disease both in the mother and young one. As long as the udder is not affected the lamb should 
be permitted to remain with the ewe, and the purer and healthier condition of the milk resulting from 
the change in diet will naturally react for the better upon the suckler. If the udder is attacked the Jamb 
must be fed and raised by hand. The following ointment should be used for the affected udder: Tannic 
acid, 1 dram; acetic acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 pint. In administering this the gland should be handled 
with the greatest care. Do not milk it out more than twice daily, and be very careful that you do 
not bruise it. Considerable trouble is attendant upon this treatment, but if it is desired to save the 
ewe it must be applied.' A dose of Epsom salts as internal medication is beneficial in the beginning, 
before the disease has gained foothold. Four ounces in 3^2 phit of warm gruel is about the quantity 
required for the adult, the lamb in proportion thereto. Mix in the trough with the feed and administer 
the following preparation: Powdered licorice root, 4 ounces; wood charcoal, 2 ounces; linseed, ground, 
5 ounces; sulphate of iron, 5 drams. Mix this well, and give it with the feed twice daily. A small 
quantity of common table salt may be added to the preparation. The use of the above preparation is 
unnecessary, however, if Davis Stock Food is used. Wash out the mouth of the lamb several times 
daily with a solution of chlorate of potash, apply over the sores externally and internally. Or you 
may make up the wash of- the following constituents: Borax, }4 ounce; aqua, 1 pint; swab out the 
mouth with one of these mixtures (the chlorate of potash mixture should be about Y% ounce to 1 pint 
of water) and in administering it be careful that very little of it is swallowed by the patient ; at the 
same time you may apply the ointment externally to all affected parts. If the inflammation of the mouth 
has become gangrenous, try the following: Potassium permanganate, 10 grains; water, 1 pint. Mixed 
and applied as directed with the other. Should the teeth become loose or carious, remove them, and 
if the flesh of the mouth or gums shows tendency to inflame and decay in spots, touch the affected places 
with caustic potash, or, better, nitrate of silver. 

popularly known as Choking, is a disease peculiar to the larynx, esophagus 
Obstruction Of or gullet. Mislodgment of feed is the ordinary cause. It is more often met 
the Gullet, with in the ox than the sheep, but is occasionally encountered in the latter 
animal when roots are part of the ration. 
Symptoms. — Loss of appetite; the feeding ceases; breathing is heavy and difficult; animal com- 
mences to bloat ; swelling appears larger in the region of the left flank than in the right. Derangement 
of the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves from the irritation helps along the cessation of the vital 
functions ; suffocation from pressure of the distended stomachs on the diaphragm or midriff diminishes 
the capacity of the chest cavity, preventing free expansion of the lungs, and death often follows 
these symptoms. 

Treatment. — There is no treatment other than the operative, and for quick relief of the suffocating 
and dying animal a probang is required. This consists of a thin, flexible tube, containing a small knob 
or protuberance on the end, and this is thrust into the mouth. In order to work it the sheep must be 
set on its haunches or rump, with the shoulders resting between the knees of the operator's assistant, 
also letting him take hold of the fore feet to aid in keeping the patient quiet. Insert a gag, or keep the 
sheep's mouth open with the hand, smear the probang with lard or vaseline, then gently pass it over 
the back of the tongue, down into the gullet, upon reaching the obstruction you must only make use of 
the very gentlest of pressure, as violent efforts may cause lacerations of the parts, which are liable to 
fatally injure the animal. After the obstruction has been moved by the probang and passes, into the 
rumen there will be immediate and complete relief. If considerable bloating is present, it is well to 
puncture the rumen prior to passing the probang, and this should be done with an instrument called a 
trocar. Select the part to be operated on and insert the trocar, withdrawing the stillet and leaving the 
tube in position, so that the gases may have sufficient time to escape through it. In bloat from choking 
in both oxen and sheep operate on the left flank, being careful to select the right place, taking the soft 
and most bulging points for a guide, so as to avoid striking the last ribs, of the transverse processes of 
the lumbar vertebra. If the operation is unsuccessful, the operator being unable to remove the 
obstruction with the probang, better slaughter the animal. 



404 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



known also as Blasting, is a condition arising from malassimilation of feed 
Bloat or Hoven, rather than a disease. The cause is a collection and formation of gases in the 

rumen and first stomach, due to fermentation. Frosted roots, or top roots, 
and a diet containing a surplus of moisture, eating of grasses still wet with dew, are among the causes. 
It is also known to arise as a complication to choking, etc. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; hard breathing; abdominal pain; body back of the ribs commences 
to enlarge, especially in the region of the left flank where the rumen is situated. On this side the swelling 
is more prominent and conspicuous than on the other. 

Treatment should be guided by the cause and symptoms. Before resorting to the trocar, take 
incture of colchicum seeds and place twenty to thirty of them on the sheep's tongue, repeating it every 
twenty minutes, if required. If the colchicum is not at hand at the moment, bicarbonate of soda may 
be substituted ; this, which is identical with our common baking soda, is found in all households and there- 
fore often the remedy most easily accessible. Dissolve 1 tablespoonful in 3^ pint of water (warm) and 
administer as a drench. Should the bloating be severe you must resort to the operation with the trocar 
at once. Plunge it into the most prominent and bulging part of the left flank, so that the gas may escape, 
then give the colchicum or soda treatment to prevent fermentation of the viscera. Should the disease 
be due to partaking of wet grasses or too succulent a diet, correct this, substituting with a more dry 
ration, to which is added Davis Stock Food in the usual proportions. The early morning dew on the 
grass should be allowed to evaporate before the sheep are turned out. 

is caused by functional derangement of some part of the system. If any serious 
LOSS of the Cud disease is present the animal's craving for feed naturally more or less decreases, 

or ceases entirely, while as soon as recovery takes place the cud chewing will 
again commence as a natural consequence with the restored appetite and partaking of feed. No other 
treatment than a cathartic, as for instance, 4 ounces of Epsom salts, and 1 ounce of hyposulphite of soda, 
dissolved in 1 pint of warm water, is required. Such cases as are due to indigestion, which is shown by 
the sheep pulling and eating its wool, should be relieved by a mixture of prepared chalk and common 
salt sprinkled over the fodder. If Davis Stock Food is given with the feed this, as a rule, is all that 
is required in the way of treatment for cessation of cud chewing, known as Loss of the Cud. 

is a distention of the rumen with feed; in other words, the organ becomes 
Impaction of filled to its utmost capacity with solid feedstuffs, especially grain; or it may 
the Rumen be encountered where sheep are grazed on new grass in stubble fields; sudden 

changing from poor to rich pastures; or in some instances new wheat has been 
productive of fatal effects. There is paralyzation of the walls of the rumen, their natural motion ceases, 
the feed remains in the viscus as an indigestible, inert mass, and death ensues if the proper treatment 
is not applied. 

Symptoms. — Sheep is dull and stupid ; the cud chewing ceases ; there are frequent grunts attendant 
upon the pain ; there is an anxious look in the face, and pressure on the left flank reveals a doughy, 
pitting feeling. 

Treatment. — Give a cathartic, together with stimulants, as follows: Fluid extract nux vomica, 
5 minims; Barbadoes aloes, J^ ounce; aromatic spirits ammonia, 2 drams; warm water, 1 pint. Mix 
this thoroughly and give in one dose. If for any reason this treatment should fail in producing the 
desired effect, and the sheep is a valuable one, the owner desiring to save the animal for breeding pur- 
poses, call a veterinarian and have him perform the following operation: First clip the fleece in 
the region of the flank, next take a sharp knife, make an incision downward and m inward 
through the skin from a point about 2 inches from the protuberance of the hip bone, making it 
about 3 inches in length to permit the hand to enter; break through the tissues underlying the 
skin with the fingers, laying bare the outside coats of the first stomach; now make an incision 
through this, reach in with the hand (first securing a napkin or clean cloth and placing it so that 
it covers the dependent part of the wound in the skin and stomach, in order to prevent the contents 
from falling down between the walls of the stomach and the abdominal cavity, which would in most 
cases be followed with peritonitis), and remove at least one-third of its contents. Thereafter a purgative 
should be poured into the stomach, a simple compound made up of 2 ounces of common salt, Yi ounce 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 405 



of solution of ammonium acetate, and 1 pint of water. This being done the walls of the rumen (stomach) 
should be carefully sewed up, a fine surgeon's needle, sterilized catgut or silk being employed, the stitches 
placed about J^ inch apart, silk being used thereupon to sew up the skin. In the last part of the process 
be careful that the stitches do not include the tissues interspacing between the skin and the rumen. 
Pine tar should be used in dressing the external surface. Properly done, this is usually a very successful 
operation, and is not liable to result in serious consequences of any kind. Of course, if you do not know 
the animal anatomy well, you had better call in a veterinarian to perform it. 

Little circular bodies of wool found in the first stomach of the sheep after death, 
Wool Balls. and caused by the felting of wool and feed materials. Only when occurring 

in young lambs, immediately after the ewe has been shorn, are these apt to be 
of serious consequence, and ordinarily they cause but little inconvenience to the sheep. After the mother 
has been shorn, however, the ticks which formerly resided on her body remove to the lambs, causing 
them to bite and tear out the wool, considerable quantities of which are swallowed, followed by condi- 
tions which at times terminate fatally. The same holds good of mineral or other small bodies which 
become lodged in the bowels, such as, for instance, a nail head or a piece of gravel; although they may 
form pouches or depressions, little injury to the organs is done except when, in some way or other, 
they become dislodged and ejected from their pouches, when colicky symptoms of fatal consequence 
may ensue. 

•A very common and but slightly dangerous or inconveniencing disease of 

Umbilical Hernia, the sheep. 

Treatment. — In rare instances where the animal is found with rupture 
threatening its life through strangulation, it is better to dispose of it to the butcher. Operations for 
Umbilical Hernia are useless, and as the disease, although it does not improve the appearance of the sheep, 
is rarely serious, it is better to leave it alone altogether. 

Changes in the tissues of the bowel attendant upon acute inflammation of 
Stricture. its walls occur at times in the sheep. As it is always fatal, no treatment being 

devised to stay it, and as it is of comparatively rare occurrence, it deserves but 
passing notice in a work like this. 

is a common and generally fatal disease, caused by milk curdling. It is usually 

Impaction of the brought about in the owner's attempt to force the lamb for the early spring 

Fourth - Stomach market, cow's milk being fed it together with that of its mother. The symp- 

of Lambs toms of the disease manifest hf the lamb appearing dull, stupid and unwilling 

to move. The breathing is quick and heavy, the belly is tender and swollen, 

and the bowels are more or less constipated. 

Treatment. — A thin gruel to which is added bicarbonate of soda should be administered; 10 
grains of the soda in every dose of gruel being given, and the gruel administered every two hours 
in portions of about 3 ounces. You may follow this treatment with linseed oil in the following way: 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia, % teaspoonful ; linseed oil, 4 ounces. The dose should be well shaken 
before administered. 

is not a very common disease among sheep. If, however, colicky pains are 
Colic present, evidenced by grinding of the teeth, striking the belly with the hind 

feet at intervals, etc., it indicates that colic is the cause, the condition being 
more frequently encountered in lambs than in sheep; a faulty diet, as, for instance, overfeeding from 
the bottle, using cow's milk, or surfeit milk of any kind, even though it comes from its own dam, being 
generally, the fault. As treatment, antispasmodic and carminative agents should be resorted to, pep- 
permint, ginger and sulphuric ether being very beneficial. Then resort to counter irritation, applying 
a stimulating liniment to the belly. There is nothing better than Davis Veterinary Liniment. Also 
give a good cathartic and give Davis Colic Cure, two tablespoonfuls dissolved in water at a dose being 
the proportion suitable for a lamb about three months old; other animals should be given the treatment 
in proportion to their age. Generally this will bring instant relief, and if in severe cases a rectal 
injection of soap and warm water is added all colicky pains will disappear. 



406 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



or Enteritis, is rarely met with in sheep, and it is doubtful if it really exists 
Inflammation Of as a special disease or is merely the consequence of other systemic troubles, 
the Bowels, some authorities even affirming that it is an open question if the disease in its 

true nature ever occurs in the sheep. The indications denoting the presence 
of enteritis, in the form in which it may show, are essentially the same as those encountered in colic, 
with the addition that here the patient is inclined to lie down most of the time, the pain is continuous, 
while in colic it only appears at intervals and the temperature remains elevated until the end of 
the attack. Around the mouth a frothy saliva may collect, and the belly is tender to the touch, at 
times painful. 

Treatment should consist of stimulating applications to the belly, such as Davis Veterinary 
Liniment. A mustard plaster applied after the fleece has been removed is also good. In more severe 
cases quinine and opium combined, or camphor and belladonna will prove beneficial and relieve the 
pain. Never administer purgatives for this ailment. Instead of water, mucilaginous fluids should be 
given to drink, and during the convalescence Davis Stock Food, 1 heaping teaspoonful to each feed, should 
be given as a tonic and strengthener. The following is a preparation which in the majority of cases of 
this nature will do the work : Laudanum, 1 y 2 ounces ; spirits of camphor, 6 drams ; fluid extract belladonna 
leaves, 2 drams; alcohol, 63^ ounces; thoroughly mixed and given in doses of 1 tablespoonful in J4 pint 
of warm gruel every three hours. Also give the usual counter irritation in the way of an external 
application to the belly; mustard and the like is good. 

also called Superpurgation, is a well known disease, a fluid condition of the 
Diarrhea, contents of the stomach and bowels, indicating either faulty diet, water, or some 

kind of functional disturbance of the system. There is an increase in the peri- 
staltic action of the organs, due to some kind of irritation. Great thirst is evinced, and if this is not con- 
trolled it will further enhance the trouble. An abrupt change from one kind of feed to another, wet, 
unripe grasses, marshy meadow grasses, forming a watery diet, as well as all kinds of exposure to storms 
and rains favor the condition. It may also be present as a secondary symptom of some other disease, 
such as tuberculosis, diseases of the liver, local tissue changes, etc. One of the most common 
complications is dysentery, and it often results in an attack of this trouble. 

Symptoms. — A fluid condition of the feces; frequent evacuations. As disease progresses the 
bowels become injected, causing colicky pains; quick pulse, which generally weakens; the temperature 
lowers rapidly; there is great thirst; emaciation; anxious expression; furred tongue; cold extremities 
as the end approaches ; the mucous membrane turns pale instead of its healthy pink. These are symp- 
toms of the worst form of the disease; they indicate neglect on the part of the owner, and often 
terminate fatally. To counteract this condition the animal should be put on a dry, yet nourishing 
ration, and Davis Stock Food given in the usual proportion. 

In lambs the disease is also called the White Skit, the name coming from the 
Diarrhea in Lambs, profuse, white colored feces. The trouble is caused by increased peristaltic 

action, the milk being either too rich in quality or partaken of too freely, 
causing it to coagulate too quickly on ' account of the increased powers of the gastric juices. The 
period when the lamb commences to take other nourishment together with the mother's milk is 
especially favorable for the development of this disease. 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; heaving of the flanks ; tense enlarged condition of the abdomen ; sometimes 
costiveness; a peculiar white color of the feces. Besides this diarrhetic disease in lambs they are subject 
to another form of the affection called the Green Skit, in which the fluid evacuations of the bowels are 
of a greenish color. This is a very dangerous condition and may terminate fatally in the course of a 
day or two. 

Treatment of Adult Sheep. — The first thing to do is to keep the animal away from the water ; do 
not allow anything but bland fluids, such as linseed or rice tea, flour, gruel, etc. Warm, comfortable quar- 
ters should be provided; look after the cause of the trouble and remedy it. In case of excessive thirst, 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM . 407 



give the following: Baking soda, 1 ounce; water, 1 gallon; permit the sheep to quench its thirst with 
this. In order to correct any sourness or acidity that may be present in the stomach administer the fol- 
lowing compound: Give Davis Stock Food as directed or in its absence try this: Tincture of ginger, 
1 ounce ; laudanum, 4 ounces ; peppermint water, 8 ounces ; prepared chalk, 1 ounce ; mix this thoroughly 
and give the patient 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls night and morning. Lambs recently weaned should be given 
about half the dose. A very important part of the treatme^'; for diarrhea is correction of the diet ; 
remove the animal to drier pastures if possible, feed it on dry feedstuffs, such as bran and hay. A 
teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food in each feed will do no harm. It is well to try to stop the diarrhetic 
condition at the outset, with a treatment consisting of linseed oil and Davis Scour Cure, the latter 
remedy being a panacea for this condition. 

Treatment for White Skit. — The thing is to endeavor to dissolve the solids in the fourth stomach, 
for which alkalies are recommended. Prepare the following: Baking _soda, 3^ ounce; tincture of 
ginger, 1 dram; warm, thin gruel, 4 ounces; sulphate of magnesia, 1 ounce; mix this thoroughly and 
administer in one dose. You may then give a cordial mixture, the following having been tried with good 
results: Tincture of catechu, 2 ounces; magnesia, 1 ounce; tincture of rhubarb, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of 
soda, 2 ounces; glycerine, 2 drams; water, 12 ounces; mix this thoroughly and give the patient from y% 
to 2 tablespoonfuls. three times daily, in conformity to its age. When the lamb is still sucking the 
ewe it is well to look after the diet of the mother in connection with the treatment of the offspring. Keep 
her milk in a healthy (not too rich) condition by feeding on dry rations, and at the same time you may 
administer the preceding mixture to her twice a day, giving her 3 to 4 tablespoonfuls. When this 
is done, however, the direct treatment of the lamb should be reduced materially. In the treatment of 
Green Skit, present in lambs who have just left off sucking, the cordial preparation which we have 
given above should be administered, 1 tablespoonful every three hours being the correct dose. Small 
doses of whisky as a stimulant in emergency is of great assistance. 

also called Bloody Flux, is generally caused by the feeding of coarse, unwhole- 
Dysenteiy, Cling, some feed, or from grazing on low and marshy lands, especially such as have 

been submerged in water, when the sand grit and decaying compositions of 
plants set up inflammation and irritation of the bowels. Dysentery is an inflammatory disease, affecting 
the membranes of the large intestines. It often terminates fatally. Some form of typhoid fever like 
symptoms, with fluid evacuations from the bowels, mixed with large quantities of mucus and blood, 
characterizes the disease. 

Symptoms. — Physical exhaustion; profuse diarrhea; feverishness ; low temperature; feces are 
thin but adhesive, painful and laden with mucus, and often accompanied with blood; belly is swollen 
and tender to the touch ; watery feces adhere to the wool and tail, also to thighs ; flies pester the sore spots 
and maggots develop in their trail ; there is excessive thirst ; appetite is often ravenous in spite of the 
emaciation and weakness. Attack may last for weeks, or death may result in a few days. Sometimes the 
wool becomes matted over the rump so that evacuation of the feces becomes difficult or impossible. 
If this condition, called binding, is not remedied it will gradually cause death, as the fecal matters cannot 
be expelled. Remove the wool on the rump and thigh, wash with warm water and soap, and keep the 
parts clean, in order to avoid this condition. To prevent the attack of flies, spray the animal with Davis 
Fly Chaser two or three times daily, or in its absence prepare the following powder: Calomel, 1 dram; 
subnitrate of bismuth, 2 ounces; iodoform, 3^ dram; mix it thoroughly and dust on the affected parts. 
You may substitute it with a solution of oil of tar and turpentine, being less expensive and just as good. 
Prepare it as follows: Oil of tar, 1 ounce; spirits of turpentine, 1 ounce; spirits of camphor, 2 ounces; 
neatsfoot oil, 4 ounces. Dry feeds, such as a ration of bran and oats, mixed in with a little linseed meal, 
are good. At the onset of the affection it is well to give the patient 4 ounces of linseed oil. Follow this 
up with small doses of the same oil during the treatment. It is very important that the animal should 
be well housed and kept in comfort and quiet during the progress of the disease. Rhubarb, ipecacuanha 
and laudanum should be given with the linseed oil as follows: Tincture of rhubarb, 1 ounce; linseed 
oil, 9 ounces; wine of ipecac, 1 ounce; laudanum, 2 ounces; mix this thoroughly and give 2 tablespoon- 
fuls twice daily. Pure beechwood creosote in drop doses is recommended where the discharges are 



408 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 



offensive. When the animal has been brought around to the convalescing stage the feeding should be 
very careful, and the digestive and assimilative functions should be kept in proper working order by the 
use of Davis Stock Food, 1 teaspoonful to each feed, this acting also as a tonic and stimulant. If 
this is not at hand, use the following tonic: Powdered gentian root, 4 ounces; powdered saltpeter, 1 
ounce; linseed meal, 8 ounces; powdered sulphate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 3 drams; 
mix this thoroughly and give the sheep 1 tablespoonful to each feed twice a day. In the spring of the 
year you will do well in tagging the sheep, which means to remove the tags of wool hanging around the 
breech, in order that they may be safe from the pestiferous flies if scouring should set in. 

In the grown sheep this is a condition due to too much dry feed taken into 
Constipation. the stomach. In lambs, gastric troubles may be the cause. Impaired peri- 
staltic action may also produce it, this again being a reaction from defective 

or weakened nerve force, causing the mucus in the bowels to dry up, this again making it impossible for 

the feces to glide through the passages. 

Treatment. — In the case of the grown sheep, first give an injection of warm water and soap, 
or warm linseed oil, glycerine also being excellent for this purpose. As internal treatment, prepare 
the following: Tincture of ginger, 1 dram; Barbadoes aloes, 3^ ounce; linseed oil, 6 ounces; mix this 
thoroughly and give it in one dose. Animal fat, such as pure, warm hog's lard, is the best remedy 
to administer to the lamb. If this works too slow a rectal injection of warm milk may be administered, 
adding a quantity of molasses, enough to give the compound the color of chocolate. In order to effectually 
administer it you may suspend the lamb by the hind legs, insert the syringe, the animal held in this posi- 
tion for a little while (not too long), and then given its liberty. The result as a rule will be immediate. 
In cases where a new born lamb is affected, it is best to treat it through the medium of its dam, giving 
the ewe the cathartic drench above mentioned. Remove all fecal matter from the rectum of the 
patient, both in the case of the adult sheep and the lamb. Use a small injection of oil for this purpose, 
then oil the fingers also and remove all obstructions found in the passage. 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

Such diseases are especially indicated by the characteristic yellow appearance they impart to the 
membranes, more prominently shown on the lining of the eyelids (conjunctiva). It may be of interest 
for you to know that the liver of the sheep constitutes no less than one twenty-fifth part of the entire 
weight of the animal, being much heavier than the organ of the human being. 

also called Hepatitis, is most often met with in sheep grazing on low lying lands, 
Acute Inflamma- where the ground is marshy and wet, the grasses high and rank, and the soil 
tion of the Liver, sandy or clayish. Overnutrition is said to be the cause of the affection. The 

disease generally originates as an attendant upon inflammation of some of 
the surrounding organs. 

Symptoms. — Signs of fever are present; the visible membranes are of a yellowish, sickly appear- 
ance, which is caused by the amount of bile present in the blood vessels. 

Treatment. — Bleeding is recommended. Open the jugular vein and extract a few ounces. Reduce 
the diet of the patient, and prepare a cathartic as follows: Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dram; Glauber 
salts, 4 ounces ; common salt, 1 ounce. Mix this up with a sufficient quantity of warm gruel and give 
it slowly as a drench. After the action of this purgative you may prepare and use the following com- 
pound with good effects: Alcohol, 2 ounces; sulphuric acid, Y^ dram; fluid extract of gentian, 3^ ounce; 
water, 8 ounces. Mix thoroughly arid give 1 tablespoonful twice daily half an hour before the feeding 
of grain. This mixture is unnecessary, however, if Davis Stock Food is used. Grain should be fed 
sparingly to sheep suffering from this affection, the best ration being a small feed twice daily of oats 
and bran, y z pound of each, to which is added Davis Stock Food, 1 teaspoonful to each feed. 



URINARY DISEASES. 



consists in stony or gravelly deposits in the urinary organs, the kidneys and 
Renal Calculi pelvis. Analyzing them we find that they, as a rule, are composed of phosphate 
of lime. If these calculi are confined to the kidneys they seldom cause any 
noticeable harm or disturbance of organic function, but if they find their way into and become lodged 
in the ureters, a retention of urine in the bladder is often produced, and serious results follow. However, 
cases of this nature are rare in sheep. Located in the bladder proper they seem harmless, and it is 
only when they descend into the urethra and obstruct the passage that retention of urine with attendant 
inflammation results, and a fatal termination may be looked for. 

As indicated, urethral calculi are stony deposits which lodge in and obstruct 
Urethral Calculi, the passage of the urine, causing it to accumulate in the bladder, which is 

generally followed by distention and subsequent rupture of the organ, with a 
filtering through its walls into the surrounding tissues, resulting in inflammation and death. 

Symptoms. — Inability to void the urine; hurried respirations; sheep grunts frequently; rest- 
lessness; uneasiness; patient prefers to remain in a recumbent position; if forced to rise, back is suddenly 
curved and a few drops of urine are passed; when the water accumulates in the bladder patient becomes 
stupid, there is : abdominal pain; temperature is elevated; membranes become red and congested; 
uremic poisoning results, which is quickly followed by death if a passage of the urine through the 
penis has not been forced in some manner. 

Treatment. — An operation is necessary. Set the patient on its rump, then carefully examine 
the skin over the end of the penis, called the prepuce, which, if the disease is urethral calculi, will be found 
enlarged and inflamed, while the tissues of the belly also will be found protruding, hot, and inflamed, in cases 
which have been allowed to go on for some time. You should, if you find this condition present, push 
back the prepuce and draw out the penis, and upon examining its worm like extremity you will generally 
find indications of a sediment which obstructs the passage. It may be in the form of fine sand or gravel, 
and should be removed at once; where it is of a gravelly nature, it is, as a rule, necessary to remove the 
entire appendage, while, if the deposit is of a finer character, careful manipulation, as a rule,will remove 
it. Before anything else is done you should apply warm water, in order to soften and relax the tissues. 
If the obstruction consists of a sabulous material, deposited on the lining membrane of the urethra and 
extending some distance from the appendage, it is sometimes necessary to cut down and remove this 
deposit, which is done by making a longitudinal cut in the penis through the urethra, opening it from 
above downward to the vermiform process. On wethers this operation is very successful, but it often 
unfits rams for breeding purposes, at least this is claimed by some authorities, while others hold that 
it causes no serious injury to the animal in any way. If the operation on the penis is unavailing it indi- 
cates that the obstruction is located not only in the urethra, but in the kidneys, bladder and ureters 
as well, and if this be so, no treatment will be of any use, and you had better kill the animal, the meat 
in this case being unfit for human consumption, as the urine which has impregnated the belly and sur- 
rounding tissues taints the whole body. You should carefully inspect the diet of your sheep if you find 
that a number of animals show symptoms of calculi. Change the ration and administer carbonate of 
potash, keeping the digestive and circulatory functions working smoothly by the use of Davis Stock 
Food in the prescribed quantity in each feed. Mangolds and beets, fed in excessive quantities, often 
cause urethral calculi in sheep, and if you find this to be the cause in your flock, by all means change the 
ration immediately. As an internal treatment, where the disease has been contracted, prepare and 
administer the following compound: Potassium carbonate, 3 ounces; fluid extract of belladonna, 
1 ounce; water, 1 pint. Mix this thoroughly and give the patient 1 tablespoonful three times daily, 
this being the quantity for the grown sheep, younger animals being given a proportionate dose. Small 
doses of Sanmetto, 1 teaspoonful three times a day, is also a good remedy for all urinary diseases in 

—409— 



410 DISEASES DUE TO INTERNAL PARASITES. 

. * 

sheep. After you have performed the operation on the penis, removing the gravel, use the following 
as a dressing for the wound: Distilled extract of witch hazel, 1 ounce; fluid hydrastis, 2 drams; water, 
3 ounces. This will prove very soothing and beneficial and may also, if necessary, be injected into the 
passage (urethra). 



DISEASES DUE TO INTERNAL PARASITES. 

A larval tapeworm in the brain substance is responsible for this affection, the 
Sturdy, Gid, parasite being imbedded in the organ and denominated coenurus cerebralis 

Turn sick. in technical language. Ingestion by the animal of the eggs of a certain species 

of the tapeworm family called taenia coenurusa — a parasite which has been dis- 
tributed on the ground, or in the water of which the patient drinks, by other animals, on the plains the 
fox, wolf or coyote, and on the farm the dog — produces the germ from wbich the disease arises. The use 
of sheep dogs is especially responsible for the trouble. After the minute eggs of the tapeworm have been 
swallowed they hatch within the stomach of the sheep, -and then pierce its walls, gaining access to the 
circulation of the system. In turn they are carried on to the various parts of the body, and those which 
on the trip reach the brain and spinal cord, imbed themselves there, growing into cystic bodies, continuing 
to thrive and develop, feeding upon the vital tissues of these organs. Others of these germs may reach 
the lungs, heart and diaphragm, where they locate temporarily, disappearing, however, after a little 
while without causing any noticeable disturbance. The parasites locating in the brain substance often 
m the course of from two to four months' time grow to the size of a hazel nut, seriously obstructing the 
functions of the organs, which again reacts up'on the general health of the animal. If a dog partakes 
of the head of a sheep infested with these parasites, the organism lodged in the brain tissue develops 
into adult tapeworms, and the dog in turn deposits the eggs on grasses, etc., which are eaten by the 
sheep, these once more developing hyatids, thus keeping up what may be termed an endless chain of 
the disease. 

Symptoms. — The earliest symptoms are dullness; stupidity; erratic movements; staggering gait; 
giddiness; patient often tumbles over; rumination is imperfect; animal may be grazing quietly and 
suddenly jumps into the air as if in fright ; congestion and inflammation of the brain which houses the 
young parasites is undoubtedly responsible for these symptoms. The first stage may be followed "with 
a few weeks of seeming health, the cyst or cysts, however, continuing to grow and expand in the brain 
tissues, interfering with the circulation of the blood in those parts, and at this stage the cyst on its surface 
is covered with protruding heads, causing irritation. The advent of the next stage is preceded by the 
animal growing weak and emaciated; this condition aggravates; the appetite vanishes; sheep stops 
feeding; there is an anxious, haggard look in the face, due to blindness; blindness may occur in one or 
both eyes, depending upon where the parasites are imbedded ; rumination is suspended ; sheep continually 
moves in a circle ; if the spinal cord is infested, sheep staggers and walks without control of posterior 
limbs; intense itchiness may be present along the backbone, and complete paralysis of the posterior 
part of the body, including the rectum and bladder, often results. 

The disease should not be confounded with grubs, an affection in some ways resembling it, 
being caused by the gadfly's larva and located in the nasal and frontal cavities. You may distinguish 
between the two by the catarrh and sneezing produced by grubs, and the absence of the more violent 
symptoms present in sturdy. 

Treatment must be in the form of prevention mainly. Give vermicides to your dogs, especially 
those frequenting the same places as the sheep; keep the sheep as much as possible away from places 
frequented by dogs, and where they are likely to pick up the eggs. Also be careful to protect your flock 
from coming in contact with the voidings of strange dogs. Never feed the heads of diseased sheep 
to dogs, but burn or bury them deeply at once. It is also shown that with an improved general health 



, ... DISEASES .'DUE TO INTERNAL ^PARASITES. 411 

©fthe i: sheepi Siieh as attends upon the feeding of Davis Stock Food regularly with the ration, the attacks 
of this disease are of less frequent occurrence, the reason being that the purer bloodand freer and healthier 
circulation, with corresponding increase in vitality and strength enables the system to expel parasites 
and withstand their attacks much better. It is therefore well for you always to have Davis Stock Food 
at hand, feeding it in health and disease. In hundreds of connections it will be worth its price over and 
over to you, insuring against disease, keeping the stock healthy and robust, and saving the lives of valu- 
able animals among the sheep as elsewhere. Animals which have been exposed to inclement weather 
are especially liable to be attacked with the disease, the nervous system being weakened by the exposure. 
If a number of sheep become affected at the same time, it is reasonable for you to suppose that the pasture 
in which they graze is infested, and the flock should henceforth be carefully watched in order to get rid 
of the trouble. Any animal which is fat and shows the least indication of being affected should be disposed 
of for meat. Treatment by trephining the skull and puncturing the sack has been successfully 
performed in a number of instances, but should be done by a skilled veterinarian. 

Caused by a fly known as the gadfly, which invades the nasal cavities, depositing 
Parasitic Catarrh its larvae inside the nostrils. The gadfly- looks very much like a large house 
of the Nose . fly, and in flight it is so quick as to be almost invisible. Its color is dull lead. 

In depositing its larvae in the cavities of the nose, the embryos soon after pro- 
ceed to crawl up the membranes, infesting the frontal and maxillary sinuses. The female gadfly is 
supposed to deposit not her eggs, but live larvae within the nose of the sheep. This minute larva as 
it matures changes in appearance, attaining a considerable size (something like three-quarters of an 
inch), the body being dark and striped with black bands, the spines also turning black. At this point 
the grub loosens from the nostrils of the sheep and falls to the ground, immediately digging down into 
it. Here it remains for one or two months' time, depending upon the weather, after which, when 
the fly is matured within its shell, it pushes open the upper end of the case and emerges from the 
ground by the same hole the larva made in digging into it. Then as soon as the fly arouses from 
its comatose condition and gets used to the light it is off immediately in search of a convenient flock 
of sheep. 

Symptoms. — One sheep may be seen of a sudden darting into the middle of the flock; its nose is 
kept close to the ground; it shakes its head violently; it tries in vain to evade its pursuer; the whole 
flock becomes nervous although only a single fly be about. Every member places its nose close to the 
ground, huddling together as much as possible to prevent the fly from gaining ingress. After the 
larvae are deposited great irritation becomes evident, due to their inserting their hooks and spines in 
drawing themselves up and along the nasal room. Minute hemorrhages, looking like small black pin- 
head points, are left all along their wake. As the}' grow in size in the sheep's head, it becomes affected 
with catarrhal discharge, first clear, then thick and muddy with mucus. Other symptoms are sneezing, 
with expelling of quantities-of mucus and sometimes matured larvae. Sheep is inclined to lie down, 
nose pointed into the air, turning its head around and backward; eyes become red and watery; patient 
moves about with nose close to the ground, lifting the hind legs high, raising head to the wind and bending 
it sharply backward; giddiness may seize it with attendant staggers, and there is a loss of rest and feed. 
The attack may last all the way from one to ten months, depending on the quickness with which the larvae 
mature in the nostrils. A single sheep may be infected over and over again, the result being a whole 
little colony of larvae of different ages and size existing in its nose. The months of June and July are 
the most favorable for infection, the gadfly being a warm weather insect. 

Treatment. — Smear the nose of the patient with Davis Fly Chaser, or in its absence, a compound 
of grease and tar, equal parts, using a brush for its application. It is well to apply this treatment to the 
whole flock throughout the warm weather season, and the application should be renewed once a week. 
It is at best not easy to protect a large flock of sheep from the little pests. A good plan is to herd them 
throughout the hot part of the day on ground where dust is easily raised, as the flies do not relish this 
and are likely to keep away if dust fills the air about the sheep. . In case of a valuable animal which 
you desire to preserve for breeding purposes, and its life being in danger from the number of larvae in 
the nose, a surgical operation is advised, by which it is possible rto remove the pest, but as this requires 
the attendanceof a veterinarian, we shall not go into a description . of it here. 



412 DISEASES DUE TO INTERNAL PARASITES. 

is produced by irritation of the mucous membranes of the alimentary canal, 
Parasitic Diarrhea due to the presence of tapeworm, technically called taenia expansa. It is one 

of the worst affections in the sheep family, often fatal, and to be found in the 
sheep flock anywhere. Serious loss is sustained by the owner as a consequence. Very often in cases 
of diarrhea in sheep and lambs segment of tapeworms may be found in the fecal discharges on examina- 
tion, and in one severe outbreak of the disease in New York it is recorded that the intestines of the lambs 
succumbing were found full of tapeworms, reaching as long as fifteen feet. If you have cause 
to suspect that your flock is infested in this way you may confirm your suspicion by examining the 
soil on which they are folded after a heavy rain, when you will come across segments of the worms, 
washed free from the fecal matter by the rainfall. The disease occurs in a large part of the United 
States. The parasite is from 5 to 6 yards long and from 1-25 inch in breadth at the head to Y^ inch at 
the tail, this being its largest known measure. Head as a rule is small and pointed, neck short, almost 
merging into the body, first segments are very short, then going backward to the tail they broaden and 
lengthen by degrees. Four suckers project from the head, which at the end is very small, body of the 
parasite is composed of segments of varying length and very wide and flat. Color of the worm is dull 
white, which becomes transparent if submerged in water for a while. The segments are each provided 
with their own set of genital organs, containing eggs or young embryos, making it possible for them to 
reproduce independently of each other. As the embryo develops within the segment it matures, and 
finally separates from the mother worm to be expelled on the ground with the excrement. The segments 
located nearest the tail mature first and are the first to be shed, the others following in turn until 
nothing but the head remains, making it possible for the lamb to recover from the trouble after all 
the segments are expelled. 

Symptoms. — Feces are yellowish in color and slimy, often containing segments of the tapeworm, 
which may be found if looked for ; digestive functions become deranged ; rumination is imperfect ; breath 
becomes fetid; colicky symptoms manifest at intervals; constipation may be present between whiles; 
fleece is dry and brittle; belly becomes distended owing to gas or accumulation of fecal matters; skin 
is pale, and visible membranes, such as lining of eyelids, appear bloodless; the animal becomes emaciated; 
convulsions set in, followed by malignant diarrhea, refusing to yield to treatment; the animal in" 
fatal cases finally dropping down upon the ground, unable to regain its feet, dying from weakness 
and debility. 

Treatment should be preventive rather than curative. Dose the whole flock if you suspect 
that tapeworm is present, since the well sheep are sure to pick up the eggs of the parasite expelled by 
the ones affected, thus contracting the disease. Treat your sheep in the following way: Do not admin- 
ister the vermifuge until you have kept the entire flock without feed and water for twelve to twenty 
hours. Then dose all of them with Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders as directed, and keep them locked 
up for the next twenty-four hours, so that the segments and eggs voided may not be distributed 
over the pastures where they are wont to graze. After you feel sure that the treatment has had 
the desired effect, liberate the sheep, and cover the inclosure in which they were confined with quicklime 
in order to destroy all living matter in the feces voided. One of the simplest and surest of remedies 
for this kind of tapeworm is Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders, obtained in either 1 or 3-pound boxes. 
The dose for the adult sheep is 3 drams, which, before it is administered, should be thoroughly mixed 
in ten times the amount of feed. Lambs should be treated to a dose according to their age, from 1 to 2 
drams being the average. Give the dose with the feed both to the grown sheep and the lamb. In the 
absence of Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders try castor oil, 4 ounces; ethereal extract, male shield fern, 1 
dram. Mix it thoroughly and give it as one dose to each adult sheep ; lambs you may with safety give 
from one to three-fourths of the above, according to their age and size. After this treatment be sure 
to include Davis Stock Food with the feed ration, 1 teaspoonful to the adult sheep, and % teaspoonful to 
the lamb, as a tonic and digestive is very much needed to restore the health of the sheep and overcome the 
weakness and debility attendant upon the disease. The stock food treatment should be kept up -for 
some time; in fact, you may with advantage use it right along; it will make your entire flock of sheep 
healthier and stronger, better to look at, of greater value, and almost impervious to any form of disease. 
If, for any reason, you should not have Davis Stock Food at hand you may substitute by preparing and 






DISEASES DUE TO INTERNAL PARASITES. 413 

administering the following tonic: Sulphate of iron, l / 2 pound; powdered gentian, x / 2 pound; Epsom 
skits, 1 pound; nitrate of potash, 4 ounces; common table salt, 2 pounds. Mix this thoroughly and 
administer it with the feed, mixed into this. The proportion given is enough for fifty sheep. Repeat 
the treatment three times a week until the animals show signs of recovering from their weakened condi- 
tion. In trying to prevent the disease, the first thing is to remember not to overstock the pastures where 
the sheep are grazing. Lambs should always, when possible, be confined to fields which have not been 
used as grazing lands for several months past. You should also be careful about the water supply, 
as this often is a fruitful source of infection. As this is largely a summer disease, you should be especially 
careful to take preventive measures during this season. Also bear in mind that the majority of fatalities 
resulting from this disease occur in lambs under six months of age. Remember that after the lamb 
has been treated for the trouble and gotten rid of the worms it is weak and debilitated and should receive 
especial care and attention, 3^ teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food being given it in each feed to stimulate 
its appetite and build up the general system. The same, as already mentioned, is the case with the 
grown sheep. 

is due to round worms, strongylus contortus, in the fourth stomach. It is 

Parasitic Gastric an affection common in the sheep family of all countries, and is often fatal, 

Catarrh especially in the lamb. It may be complicated with verminous bronchitis, 

and is most often met with during the spring and summer months. It is a 

common affection all over the United States. 

The male worm is from }/% to 1 inch long, the female from 1 to \y 2 inches, the body terminating in 
a pointed tail. The vulva is situated a short distance from the tail in a depression covered by a powerful 
tongue like appendage; the eggs are ovoid and very small in size, invisible to the naked eye. Body 
of the worm is red or white, depending upon whether its intestine is filled with blood, sucked from the 
membrane of the stomach, or empty. Sheep probably are infected with this parasite through the water 
they drink. Muddy water is a favorite developing place for the parasite, and from there it enters the 
stomach of the animal, being taken in with the water it drinks, and quickly matures in its stomach. 
You should therefore be very careful not to allow your sheep's drinking water to be contaminated with 
the voidings of animals suffering from these parasites. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; depraved appetite; great thirst; emaciation; enlarged and tense belly; 
attacks of colic at intervals. Death usually follows a black diarrhea which attends the worst form of 
the disease. Upon examination after death, the fourth stomach of the patient will be found to contain 
hundreds or thousands of twisted round worms, packed solidly together, heads embedded in the 
membrane of the organ, which is very pale, bloodless and thick, indicating the ravages of the pests. 

Treatment. — Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders are practically a panacea for this disease, both in the 
adult sheep and the lamb, as experiments conducted both hy ourselves and others have demonstrated this 
remedy to be one of the safest and surest means of relieving the patient from the parasite, if used 
in careful accordance with directions. They are easy to administer, economical, and a positive cure. 
A very simple remedy in cases where large numbers of- sheep are to be treated, and none of the vermifuges 
mentioned are at hand*, is pumpkin seed. They can be given in unlimited quantities, and often produce 
very satisfactory results. You may mix them with the dry feed, as, for instance, shorts, the drawback 
in using this simple remedy being that it is very hard to get the sheep to eat a sufficient quantity of the 
mixture. If it fails, resort to one of the other preparations, Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders preferably. 
After the treatment put the sheep upon fresh grazing grounds, and do not use the pastures where they 
used to graze for at least two seasons, a salt or lime dressing being administered to the infected fields 
if practicable. A new and apparently very successful treatment for this disease is the use of gasoline, 
administered as follows: Give lambs, weighing from 60 to 75 pounds, 1 tablespoonful of gasoline in 3^ 
pound of linseed tea or oatmeal gruel, repeating daily for two or three days. The dose for adult sheep 
is from 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls, administered in the same way. It may be tried without danger of injury. 
After treatment, when the animals have been put on new feed, allow all skinny and emaciated members 
the regular dose of Davis Stock Food with a nourishing feed ration of bran and hay, etc. 



414 DISEASES DUE TO INTERNAL PARASITES. 



This is possibly the most dreaded disease of the sheep family. It is feared by 
The Rot. the experienced breeder, and is more common and fatal in its tendencies than all 

others combined, scabies probably excepted. Undoubtedly wet, swampy and 
marshy soil is to a large extent responsible for the appearance of the disease, and it has been recorded 
since hundreds of years as following the annual inundations of the Nile in old Egypt. The 
parasite causing the affection is called the distoma hepaticum or liver fluke, and assumes its most 
serious character after heavy rains and extensive floods. It may affect animals of various ages and 
during all seasons. 



'to 



Symptoms. — The early symptoms are uncertain; animal seems to gain in weight and appetite rather 
than fall off, the assimilative powers being sharpened, due to the increased flow of bile liberated by the 
operations of the young liver flukes in the liver and bile ducts. It is claimed that this phenomenon has 
been taken advantage of by noted sheep breeders, and that in order to fatten their sheep for the early 
market they have voluntarily exposed their animals to the disease. Dullness and a pale appearance of 
the membranes of the eyelids, mouth and nose, are among the early symptoms indicating the affection. 
Then, as it progresses, sheep becomes flabby about the loins and commences to shrink, color of the skin 
changes from the healthy pink of the normal sheep to a pale red; wool parts easily from the skin; the 
face is pale; in passing the hand over the hips a crackling sound is produced; the skin, as the disease 
further progresses, is covered with yellow and black spots; dullness is more pronounced; emaciation sets 
in; paleness of the membranes is more and more conspicuoi#, they at length becoming almost white, 
then turning yellow from the bile in the blood; skin also gradually turns yellow; it becomes 
loose and flabby; a watery fluid substance collects under it; there are pronounced swellings, 
especially under the belly, between the fore legs and under the jaw. When this stage, in 
which a large watery swelling under the jaw, giving the sheep the appearance called chockered, 
is arrived at, little or nothing can be done and death swiftly relieves it. The time for the development 
of the disease may be nine months or even fifteen months, during all of which the flukes reside in the 
affected animal. They then enter the intestinal canal and pass out of the body with the feces. It is 
even claimed that instances have occurred in which the disease lasted six years, the probability being 
that the parasites generated and through several generations succeeded in keeping their residence in 
the sheep. The usual time, however, is three to six months. Affected animals also have been known to 
succumb from an attack in a few days, due to inflammation of the liver. Thus it is impossible to 
g^ve any exact time limit for the run of the disease. The patient always becomes greatly weakened by 
degrees, as the trouble gains headway, and other affections are likely to gain inroad upon them as a 
consequence of this. • 

If an examination after death is made, the disease being well advanced at the time the animal 
is killed or succumbs, it is found that the flesh is of a pale color, here and there infiltrated with a yellowish 
serous fluid ; few parts of the body are exempt from, evidence of the disease in advanced cases ; the lungs 
are often full of tubercles , heart pale and soft ; liver always extensively affected, pale in color, with a 
fluid, jelly like deposit on various parts of its surface, especially about the bile ducts; channels will be 
found in the substance of the organ, hidden under its membranes, and visible to the eye. The appear- 
ance of the liver fluke is about as follows: Body flattened leaf like, of a pale brown, irregular color, the 
adult being from 18 to 31 mm. long and from 4 to 13 mm. wide, oblong, oval or lanceolate, larger and rounder 
in front, where it is abruptly contracted in such a way as to present a conical neck, attenuate and obtuse 
behind, skin bristling with numerous little points directed backward. Oval sucker terminal rounded; 
ventral sucker large, projecting with a triangular opening, situated about 3 mm. behind the first. 
Intestine with two ramified branches visible through the skin, and of a deep shade. Eggs brown or 
greenish ovoid. This description in essence is made by Neumann, a noted authority upon the subject. 
The parasite has been found in the livers of sheep, goats, cattle, camels, and wild ruminants; also 
in the horse, the ass, the pig, the elephant, the rabbit, and man. It usually makes its residence in 
the bile ducts of the liver, feeding on the blood from the membranes of those passages. Here it 
deposits its eggs, from which they pass into the intestines and subsequently are voided, being expelled 
from the body with the feces. 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 415 

Treatment must be preventive, as a perfect cure when the disease once has gained foothold 
is almost out of the question, although Davis Stock Food will at times effect a cure. The following rules, 
formulated by a specialist in this disease, are good and should be observed: 

All eggs of the liver fluke must be vigorously destroyed. Manure from rotten sheep or infected 
animals must not be put on wet ground. As the liver and the intestines contain the eggs, those, too, 
must be destroyed. The manure of affected animals should not be stored where there is drainage from 
it to the neighboring grass. It should be mixed with lime and salt before being spread on meadows or 
cultivated lands. 

If sheep are infected let them be sent to the butcher at once, unless they are specially valuable 
and are not badly affected. If kept they must not be put on wet ground. 

Care must be takeh to avoid introducing eggs of the fluke, either with manure of fluked sheep 
or in any other way. Rabbits and hares must not be allowed to introduce the eggs. 

All heavy and wet ground must be thoroughly drained. 

Dressing of lime and salt (or both) should be spread over the ground at the proper season to destroy 
the embryos, the cysts of the fluke and also the snail, which act as hosts. 

Sheep must not be allowed to graze closely, for the more closely they graze the more fluke germs 
they will pick up. 

When sheep are allowed to graze on dangerous ground they should have a daily allowance of salt 
and a little dry feed. 

Medical treatment is of but little avail. The old breeders of Scotland and England have found their 
only relief in a good stock food and unless the disease is too far advanced Davis Stock Food will usually 
effect a cure if the feed of it is doubled or trebled. Salt evidently is destructive to the fluke, and should 
therefore constitute part of the sheep's ration. Always have a quantity of rock salt on hand. Together 
with this it is of the greatest importance to put the patient on a notirishing, strengthening diet. Barley, 
corn, oats, peas, dry grains and oil meal cake are all good, and if you feed any of these, or a combination of 
these, always including 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food in each feed, you will increase the health 
and vigor of the patients 50 per cent, and 'enable them in many cases to successfully pull through the 
attack. Properly proportion the ration and avoid feed of a watery nature. The great advantage in the 
feeding of Davis Stock Food is that it largely increases the appetite of the animal and gives it a relish for 
the feed. It also acts upon the entire digestive system, perfecting the assimilation and allowing of 
an abundant supply of rich, pure blood always circulating freely and unobstructedly through the veins. 
This, in a great majority of cases, will keep an animal entirely immune from the inroads of disease, and 
when disease does occur it will find the body so strong and vigorous that, as a rule, it will be forced to beat 
a quick retreat because of the body's increased powers of resistance. Davis Stock Food ought to be fed 
at all times to every animal on the stock farm. It costs but little and it is impossible to measure the 
great good it accomplishes in preventing disease and improving the health and value of the stock. Its 
value in dollars and cents to the owner of the farm is indeed great. 

Nature and Treatment. — The disease, as is well known to sheep raisers, 
Sheep Scab. is a contagious affection of the skin caused by a parasitic mite. It dates back 

in time about as far as recorded history, and even in the Old Testament allusions 
are found to the malady, the use of scabbed sheep being forbidden in sacrifices. It is commonly called 
the mange, or scabies of the sheep. As a result of diligent research certain investigators reached the 
conclusion that the malady was due directly to the mites which are found inhabiting the diseased parts 
of the skin. Their opinion was not at once adopted, however, but on the other hand strong opposition 
was brought to bear upon their theory by those who held that scab was due to a diseased condition of 
the blood, as well as from others who held a modified view to the effect that the mites carried poisonous 
or diseased material from one animal to another and in this manner communicated the disease. The 
errors and uncertainties which came down to us through centuries of controversy were finally and 
for all time dispelled by conclusive experiments upon animals during the first part of the century. It 
was shown that scab does not develop and cannot be produced without the parasites. It was shown that 
mites are always the offspring of ancestors, the same as are the larger animals, and it has in later years 
come to be admitted that there is no such thing known as spontaneous generation of any living thing 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 

> 

under any circumstances. The demonstration was repeatedly made that the disease always developed 
it mites wore taken from the diseased sheep and placed upon healthy ones, and that diseases of the skin 
resembling scab are not contagious unless the mite is present. 

Even now, questions are still being asked by persons not conversant with the investigations on 
the subject, as to whether the scab is the cause of the mite or the mite the cause of the scab, and also 
whether the disease can develop without the presence of the scab mite. The investigations just referred 
to answer these questions and also show that the treatment must consist in external applications for 
the destruction of the parasites and not internal remedies to purify the blood. Among some sheep owners 
the impression also has gained foothold that scab is hereditary. But this is not the case. Scab is no 
more hereditary than are sheep ticks or sheep lice, for the parasites which cause it live on the external 
surface of the body and do not reach the womb. It is possible, however, for "a lamb to become infected 
from a scabby mother at the moment of birth or immediately afterward. Lambs are occasionally born 
with white spots on their skin, and this possibly has given rise to the idea that scab is hereditary. 

Losses Caused by Scab. — Losses from sheep scab have been and still are very severe in most sheep 
raising countries. They are due to the shedding of wool, the loss of condition and the death of the 
sheep. Although laws were made for the control of the disease as early as the beginning of the eleventh 
century, general ignorance in regard to its nature and proper treatment has prevailed down to the present 
day. The disease exists in most of the countries of Europe, and also in Asia and Africa, and until recently 
in Australia. Most civilized countries now control the disease to a certain extent, and limit the losses 
by the enforcement of stringent sanitary regulations; but the extent of its prevalence is nevertheless 
surprising. It is a disease not difficult to cure and eradicate, and an accurate knowledge of its 
characteristics with attention to details are all that is needed to secure this result. 

In the United States some sections have been overrun with sheep scab, and many persons engaged 
in the sheep industry have been forced to forsake it because of losses from this disease. The large 
flocks of the plains and the Rocky Mountain region and the feeding stations farther east have suffered 
severely and are constantly sending diseased animals to the great stock yards of the country. As a 
consequence of this marketing of affected sheep, the stock yards are continually infected, and any sheep 
purchased in these markets are, unless properly dipped, likely to develop the disease after they are taken 
to the country for feeding and breeding. . In this way a constant distribution of the contagion takes 
place, and thousands of persons who know little or nothing of its nature or the proper methods of curing 
it find it introduced upon their premises. 

In addition to the direct losses in wool, in flesh, and in the lives of our sheep, we have suffered 
immensely in our foreign trade because of the prevalence of this disease. 

Cause. — Sheep scab is a strictly contagious disease, and is caused by that species of mites tech- 
nically known as Psoroptes communis. These parasites cause scab in horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and 
rabbits; but for each of these species of animals there seems to be a distinct variety of the parasite. 
Although it is more or less difficult to distinguish between these varieties, they differ somewhat in size, 
and it is found that the mite of the sheep does not cause scab of the horse, ox, or rabbit, or vice versa. 

The parasite of sheep scab is one of the larger mites, and is quite easily seen with the naked eye. 
The adult female is about 1-40 inch long and 1-60 inch broad, while the male is 1-50 inch long and 1-80 
inch broad. These mites are discovered more readily on a dark than on a light background, and for this 
reason the crusts of the affected skin are often placed upon blank paper and kept in the sunshine for a 
few minutes in order to reveal the parasites crawling about. The mite resides on the part of the body 
most thickly covered with wool, the back, the sides, the rump and the shoulders. There are four different 
kinds of sheep mites, and the one here indicated is the psoropt, the one which is the most serious in its 
effects upon sheep, and the cause of the true body scab. « Of the others the sarcoptic scab (head scab, 
or black muzzle), limited almost entirely to the head, the symbiotic scab (foot scab), which affects the 
limbs, scrotum and udder, and the extremely rare affection, the so called follicular, or demodedic scab, 
affecting the eyelids, are each caused by its own peculiar parasite. It is, however, with the body scab 
that we are mainly concerned, the three other varieties being comparatively mild and rare affections. 

Symptoms. — The mite of the common or body scab pricks the skin of the animal to obtain its 
food, and probably inserts a poisonous saliva in the wound. The bite is followed with intense itching 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 417 

irritation,, formation of papules, inflammation, exudation of serum, formation of crusts, or scabs, under 
and near the edge of which the parasites live. As the mite multiplies it seeks the more healthy spots, 
spreading from the edges of the scab already formed, thus extending the disease. Sheep becomes restless ; 
scratches and bites itself; rubs against posts, fences, etc.; irritation is especially noticeable after animal 
has been driven, for the itching increases in intensity when the animal is heated; wool falls off; fleece 
assumes the condition known as flowering; it looks tufty and matted; sheep pulls out portions with its 
mouth, or leaves tags on the objects against which it rubs; scabs fall and are replaced by thicker and 
more adherent crusts; skin gradually becomes bare, parchment like, greatly thickened, furrowed, and 
bleeding in the cracks. With shorn sheep, especially, a thick, dry, parchment like crust covers the greatly 
tumified skin. Ewes may abort or bear weak lambs. 

When sheep are kept in large numbers chances for infection are naturally greater, and disease may 
extend to almost any part of the body. Generally, however, it affects parts covered with wool. When 
the sheep are fat and the wool has a large amount of yolk the progress of the disease may be slow, usually 
beginning on the upper part of the body, withers and back, extending slowly, but none the less surely, and 
in ever increasing area to the neck, sides, flanks, rump, etc. In two or three months' time the entire body 
may be affected. 

Contagion, — Common scab is exceedingly contagious, readily spreading from one sheep to another, 
and may in some cases show itself within a week after a healthy sheep has been infected. The contagion 
may be direct, from one sheep to another, or indirect, from tags of wool, or from fences, posts, etc., against 
which scabby sheep have rubbed, or from the places where the sheep have been bedded down. One attack 
of scab does not protect sheep from a subsequent attack or a number of subsequent attacks. Transmitted 
to man, sheep scab may produce a slight spot on the skin, a point which is sometimes taken advantage 
of for the purpose of diagnosis. In case of suspected scab, one of the crusts is bound lightly on the arm. 
After a short time an itching sensation is felt and the mites are found on the skin. Transmitted to horses, 
cattle, or goats, common sheep scab fails to develop. 

Chances for Recovery. — Recovery without treatment is rare, anemia, exhaustion and death 
usually following the wake of the disease ; the result may be from 10 to 80 per cent of the entire flock. 
Seasons when wool is the longest are most favorable for the development of scab ; overcrowding of the 
animals, also race, energy, temperament, age, state of health, length, fineness and abundance of wool, 
and hygienic conditions of the surroundings are factors in the termination of the disease. Young, weak, 
closely inbred animals, and those with long, coarse wool, succumb most quickly. Unhealthy localities, 
damp climate and poorly ventilated sheds favor the disease. Pure or mixed Merino sheep succumb 
quicker than certain other breeds. Mortality is highest in autumn and winter; if untreated the sheep 
may die in the course of two or three months. Hygienic conditions, good feed, and cool, dry atmosphere 
tend to check the disease. Take care that your sheep sheds are well ventilated and open to light and 
sunshine. With proper attention and the dipping treatment hereinafter described, a positive cure can 
be guaranteed. 

Conditions Which May Be Mistaken for Scab. — Any parasite or condition which causes an itching, 
leading the sheep to scratch themselves, or any abnormal condition of the skin, may be temporarily 
mistaken for scab ; but if the rule is held in mind that no scab is possible without the presetice of its 
specific parasite, it can be readily determined whether scab is present or not. Itching due to other para- 
sites, such as the common sheep tick, true tick and lice, may be distinguished from scab by finding the 
parasites. The dipping used for treating scab will also kill the sheep tick and lice. Inflammation of 
the sebaceous glands may also be mistaken for common scab. It occurs most frequently in the autumn. 
There is a severe itching, the skin is red and sensitive, and is covered with a strong smelling, yellowish, 
viscid yolk; tufts of wool may be shed. It may be cured, after shearing, with any starchy lotion. Rain 
Rot may be mistaken for scab. It appears as an eruption on the skin in rainy weather. There is, however, 
no parasite present; itching is absent, and the trouble disappears when dry weather comes. 

Treatment. — First of all, proper hygienic conditions should be observed in the care of the sheep. 
This will not cure scab, but with proper feeding, keeping the digestive and circulatory functions of the 
system in a perfect state, by using Davis Stock Food regularly with the ration, it will be so strengthened 
that its resistance against inroad of disease in any form will be increased 50 per cent. Some external. 



Sig. 37 



4 IS NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



iication that will kill the mite is the only rational treatrnent when the disease is present. Of the various 
applications now resorted to — hand dressing, hand curing, spotting, pouring, smearing, and dipping — 
dipping is by far the most satisfactory. 

Hand Applications. — For head scab, or light cases of foot scab, hand applications frequently 
suffice. You can make a nonpoisonous ointment by taking 4 ounces of oil of turpentine, 6 ounces of 
flowers of sulphur, and 1 pound of lard. Mix at a gentle heat, and rub in well with the hands or with 
a brush, at the same time breaking the crusts. A simple sulphur ointment may be made of one part 
of sulphur and four parts of lard; one-fourth part of mercurial ointment may be added.' Sulphuric 
iodide also, as a rule, produces satisfactory results. It is prepared as follows: Mix in a nonmetallic 
vessel, as a porcelain mortar, 4 ounces of iodine with 1 ounce of sublimated sulphur, gently beating the 
mixture until it liquefies; the red brown liquid upon cooling becomes a gray black crystalline mass, 
insoluble in water, but soluble in glycerine and fats, with 8 to 10 parts of which it is mixed for oint- 
ments or liniments. An ointment of flowers of sulphur and carbolated vaseline would also probably 
give good results. Foot scab and head scab may also be treated with the dip used for common scab, 
Hand dressing never cures common scab, and should not be resorted to for this. The only case in which 
hand dressing can be advised for this trouble is when it is discovered in one or two sheep during winter 
when the weather is severe and dipping is impracticable. In this case isolate without delay the infected 
sheep from the flock, and use one of the remedies described above. Remember that pouring, spotting, 
etc., are only expensive and temporizing methods of dealing with scab. 

Pouring. — Part the wool on the back by making a furrow with the finger from the head to the tail ; 
furrows are also made along the shoulders and thighs to the legs, and on the sides; pour the ointment 
or dip in these furrows. A still better plan is to pour the warm dip from a coffee pot directly on the 
affected parts, rubbing it well in with the hand, a brush or a corn cob. As the treatment is not to be 
relied upon it should only be resorted to when dipping is impracticable. 

Dipping is by far the most rational and satisfactory, as well as the cheapest method of curing 
scab. It consists in dipping the sheep in some liquid which will kill the parasites, and is done as follows: 

1. Select a dip containing sulphur. If a prepared dip is used which does not contain sulphur 
it is always safer to add about 16^ pounds of sifted flowers of sulphur to every 100 gallons of water, 
especially if, after dipping, the sheep have to be returned to the old pastures.- 

2. Shear all the sheep at one time, and immediately after shearing confine them to one-half 
the farm for two to four weeks. 

3. At the end of this time dip the entire flock of sheep (goats also, if there are any of them). 

4. Ten days later dip them all a second time. 

5. After the second dipping, place the flock on the portion of the farm from which they have 
been excluded during the previous four or five weeks. 

6. Use the dip at a temperature of 100 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. 

7. Keep each sheep in the dip for two minutes by the watch — do not guess at the time — and 
duck its head at least once. 

8. Be careful in dipping rams, as they are more likely to be overcome in the dip than are 
the ewes. 

9. Injury may, however, result to pregnant ewes, which must for this reason be carefully 
handled. Some farmers arrange a stage with sides to hold the pregnant ewes, which is lowered 
carefully into the vat and raised after the proper time. 

10. In case a patent or proprietary dip, especially an arsenical dip, is used, the directions 
given on the package should be carried out to the letter. 

Proprietary Dips. — There are numerous proprietary dips on the market, each claiming to be 
superior to the other, and in selecting one you should remember that it is in the interest of the manu- 
facturer under all circumstances to claim superiority for his article, irrespective of its real merits. 
Undoubtedly many of the dips advertised answer their purpose, but in using them you should use your 
own judgment and do not be deceived by the wording of the advertisement. Never use a dip composed 
of a secret formula if you can avoid it. You should know the composition of the remedy before you apply 
it to your valuable herd. If the manufacturer of any one specific dip refuses to divulge its ingredients, 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 419 



these not being found on the package, pass him by. You cannot afford to experiment with cheap, worth- 
less preparations whose whole strength lies in the alluring advertisement. Shun them. On the other hand 
it must be admitted that there are some excellent proprietary compounds. 

.Whatever dip is selected it is well for the farmer to remember that there are two ways of using 
it. One is to prepare and use it according to directions given; the other to attempt to economize time, 
labor or money by using it in weaker proportion than advised, by hurrying the sheep through the swim, 
or by later placing the dipped sheep under unfavorable conditions. If the former method is adopted 
with any of the established dips of known value the treatment ought to be followed with favorable results ; 
if the latter methods are adopted the farmer himself must assume the responsibility of failure, no 
matter what remedy he uses. To use the dip properly is just as important as to use the right dip. 

Choosing a Dip. — Tobacco or sulphur constitute the basis of most of the successful home made 
dips, while the prepared dips contain tobacco, sulphur, arsenic, carbolic acid, etc. In selecting a dip 
the question of expense will naturally arise among the first considerations, next in importance being the 
question as to whether or riot scab actually exists in the flock to be dipped, or whether or not the dip- 
ping is more of a precautionary measure, or for the sake of cleansing the animal's skin. In estimating 
the expense one should consider not only the actual outlay for the ingredients, but the cost of fuel and 
labor, the injury, if any, to the sheep, and the liability of not curing the disease. It is far cheaper to use 
an expensive dip and cure the scab than it is to use a cheap dip and fail to cure it. Again, every farmer 
should ask himself if scab actually exists in his flock before he selects a dip. If scab does not actually 
exist and the wool is long, the dipping in this case simply being a matter of precaution, it is best not to 
select a dip containing lime. The use of the lime and sulphur dips is therefore not advised simply as a pre- 
cautionary dressing for healthy, long wooled sheep. On the contrary the use of any dip containing lime, 
as a precautionary measure, should be avoided. If facilities for preparing the dip are not good ; if, for 
instance, fuel is very scarce in your neighborhood, so that it is impracticable to boil the mixture for at 
least two hours, do not select the lime and sulphur mixture. 

A tobacco and sulphur dip, as well as many of the better class of proprietary dips, can be made 
without the necessity of lengthy boiling, and should be given preference if facilities for boiling are not 
at hand. If it be necessary to place the dipped sheep on the same pastures they occupied before being 
dipped, it is always best to use a dip containing sulphur. If it be possible to utilize fresh pastures after 
dipping, the use of sulphur is not so necessary, but is always advisable. The object in using sulphur 
is to. place in the wool a material that will not evaporate too quickly, remaining there for a longer 
period than the scab parasites ordinarily can live away from their hosts, thus insuring the sheep 
against reinfection. 

Tobacco and Sulphur Dip. — Sulphur is one of the oldest known remedies for scab, dating back 
to the early part of the Christian era. It is one of the best scab eradicators in existence. It is contained 
in some of the proprietary dips, but is best known in the home made tobacco and sulphur dip and the lime 
and sulphur dip. These two have played the most important roles in the eradication of scab from cer- 
tain English colonies, and their use, especially the use as well as the abuse of the sulphur and lime dip, 
is quite extensive in this country. 

The home made tobacco and sulphur dip, one of the simplest and most efficient remedies for scab 
in sheep, is prepared as follows: Tobacco leaves, 1 pound; flowers of sulphur, 1 pound; water, 6 gallons. 

These are the proportions adopted by Rutherford, an authority upon the subject, and after- 
ward made official by the scab sanitary authorities. Its advantage lies in the fact that two of the best 
scab remedies, namely, tobacco (nicotine) and sulphur are combined, both of them killing the parasites, 
while the sulphur remains in the wool protecting it for some time against reinfection. As no caustic is 
used to soften the scab, heat must be relied upon to penetrate the crusts. 

In preparing the dip, place 1 pound of good leaf or manufactured tobacco, to every 6 gallons of 
dip desired, in a covered boiler of cold or luke warm water and allow it to stand for about twenty-four 
hours. On the evening before dipping bring the water to near the boiling point (212 degrees Fahrenheit) 
for an instant, then remove the fire and allow the infusion to stand over night. 

Next in the process, thoroughly mix, with the hand, the sulphur (1 pound to every 6 gallons of 
dip desired) in a bucket of water to the consistency of gruel. When ready to dip, thoroughly strain the 



i . NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 

ftcco infusion from the leaves by pressure, mix the liquid with the sulphur gruel, add enough water 

.lake the required amount of dip and thoroughly stir the entire mixture. Then it is ready for use. 

Lime and Sulphur Dip. — There are a number of lime and sulphur dips in use, prepared from 

different formulas ; of these we shall here only give two which are used by the United States Bureau of 

Animal Industry, and Fort Collins, and which are among the best proportioned lime and sulphur dips 

for use in America : 

1 . U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry : 

Flowers of sulphur 24 pounds. 

Unslaked lime 8 pounds. 

Water 100 gallons. 

2. Fort Collins : 

Flowers of sulphur 33 pounds. 

L'nslaked lime ••-... 11 pounds. 

Water 100 gallons. 

In cases of fresh scab, Formula No. 1 will act as efficacious as the dips with a greater amount of 
lime, but in cases of very hard scab, a stronger dip, as the Fort Collins dip, should be preferred. You 
will do well to hold yourself to the dips here mentioned, and not experiment with any of the numerous 
other dips in use, the formula of some of which is injurious alike to the wool and health of the sheep. 
Do not pay any attention to the assertions of the agents of patent or proprietary dips, to the effect that 
lime and sulphur dips do not cure scab. These objections" are naturally made by them in order to boom 
their employers' articles. Experience in Australia, South Africa, as well as in this country, has 
proved beyond a doubt that a lime and sulphur dip, properly prepared and rightly used, is one of the 
best scab eradicators known. Cases of its failure have been due to careless or improper methods of its 
preparation and use. That the great objection raised against the lime and sulphur dip, namely, that it 
injures the wool, is largely without foundation, is strongly and steadfastly asserted by the Agricultural 
Department of Cape Colony. It is, however, believed that a certain amount of justice is attached to 
this objection to the lime and sulphur dip as generally prepared and used; unless, therefore, it can be 
used in a way which will not injure the wool, we should advise against its use in certain cases; in other 
cases the good it does far outweighs the injur}* done. Let us briefly look into whatever damage it 
possibly may be guilty of doing. 

The usual time for dipping sheep is shortly after the shearing, when the wool is very short; what- 
ever damage is done at this time can be but very slight, and the small amount of lime left in the wool 
will surely do but little harm. 

In full fleece, lime and sulphur may cause more injury. In Australia the deterioration was esti- 
mated by wool buyers at 17 per cent, in spite of the assertion of the Department of Agriculture in Cape 
Colony that if properly prepared, and if only clear liquid be used, the sediment being thrown away, the 
lime and sulphur formula, as officially proportioned by the department (flowers of sulphur, 20<- pounds; 
unslaked lime, 16% pounds; water, 100 gallons), will not in any way injure the long wool. Other condi- 
tions, such as variations of feeding, pasturing on alkaline lands, ill health, from any cause, etc., may have 
something to do with this, causing brittleness of the wool, which is laid at the door of the dip. If you use 
the lime and sulphur dip take care to give the solution ample time to settle, and only use the clear liquid, 
discarding the sediment. The sediment if left in may cause serious injury. Do not use the lime and 
sulphur dip at all if you are unable to properly prepare it in accordance with one of the formulas we have 
given (the Cape Colony formula is also good). Be careful always to allow the preparation to boil and 
settle properly. If your sheep do not suffer from scab proper, or from one of the milder varieties of the 
disease, tobacco, or sulphur and tobacco, is safer to use and will prove equally as satisfactory. For 
ordinary cases of scab use the Bureau of Animal Industry or Fort Collins formula, which contains a com- 
paratively small amount of lime. In answer to other objections raised against the lime and sulphur dip, 
namely, that it occasions a shrinkage in the sheep greater than is the case after the use of other dips, 
the Bureau of Animal Industry states that such has not been the case in its experiments, and suggests 
at the same time that the claim is 'raised chiefly by patent dip manufacturers. 



NATURE AND TREATM ENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 421 

Taking everything into consideration, where it is a choice between sacrificing the weight of sheep, 
and to some extent the color of the wool, by using tobacco and sulphur, and sacrificing the staple of the 
wool, by using lime and sulphur, the farmer should not hesitate an instant in selecting tobacco in 
preference to lime. 

Preparation of the Lime and Sulphur Dip. — The following is the method of preparation adopted 
by the Bureau of Animal Industry: 

A. Take 8 to 11 pounds of unslaked lime, place it in a mortar box or a kettle or pail, and add 
enough water to slaken the lime and form a lime paste or lime putty. 

B. Sift into this lime paste three times as many pounds of flowers of sulphur as used of lime, 
and stir the mixture well. Be sure to weigh both the sulphur and lime. Do not trust to measuring 
them in a bucket or to guessing at their weight. 

C. Place the sulphur lime paste in a kettle or boiler with about 25 to 30 gallons of boiling water, 
and boil the mixture for at least two hours, stirring the liquid and sediment. The boiling should be 
continued until the sulphur disappears, or almost disappears, from the surface; the solution is then of a 
chocolate or liver color. The longer the solution boils the more the sulphur is dissolved, and the less 
caustic the ooze becomes. If possible, continue boiling-two or three hours, never less than forty minutes. 

D. Pour the mixture and sediment into a tub or barrel placed near the dipping vat and provided 
with a bung hole about 4 inches from the bottom and allow ample time (two to three hours, or more, if 
necessary) to settle. The use of some sort of settling tank provided with a bung hole is an absolute neces- 
sity, unless the boiler is so arranged that it may be used for both boiling and settling. An ordinary 
kerosene oil barrel will do very well for a small settling tank. To insert a spigot about 4 inches from 
the bottom is an easy matter. Draining out the liquid in preference to dipping it out has the great 
advantage that less commotion occurs in the liquid, which therefore remains freer from sediment. 

E. When fully settled, draw off the clear liquid into the dipping vat and add enough warm water 
to make 100 gallons. The sediment in the barrel may then be mixed with water and used as a disin- 
fectant, but under no circumstances should it be used for dipping purposes. A still better precaution 
against allowing the sediment to enter the vat is to strain the liquid through ordinary bagging as it is 
drawn from the barrel. 

Tobacco Dip. — For every 100 gallons of dip desired take 21 pounds of good prepared tobacco 
leaves ; soak the leaves in cold or lukewarm water for twenty-four hours in a covered pot or kettle ; then 
bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment, and, if in the morning, allow the infusion to draw 
for an hour ; if in the evening, allow it to draw over night ; the liquid is next strained (pressure being used 
to extract as much nicotine as possible from the wet leaves) and diluted to 100 gallons per 21 pounds 
of tobacco. This dip should be used as fresh as possible, as it contains a large amount of organic material 
which will soon decompose. The proportions here given, 21 pounds of prepared tobacco leaves to 100 
gallons of water, have given very satisfactory results, especially in Cape Colony. The advantages 
of the tobacco dip are that it is comparatively cheap, since the farmer can grow his own tobacco; that 
it is effectual and at the same time not injurious to the wool. Its disadvantages are that it sometimes 
sickens the sheep; that it also occasionally sickens the persons who use it, especially if they are not 
addicted to the use of the weed; also, it spoils very rapidly; it causes a greater setback than lime and 
sulphur, but less of a setback than carbolic dips. 

Potassium sulphide dips, and arsenical dips, are also advertised in the market; they are mostly 
proprietary preparations, and are not of sufficient importance to be included here, except in so far as 
that we warn our readers about being extremely careful in their use, as a large percentage of them are 
dangerous, although they should not all be condemned, arsenic properly compounded having excellent 
scab curing qualities in many instances. In winding up our treatise on the various compounds and their 
respective merits and demerits, we have here but room to mention one more, namely: 

The Carbolic Dip. — This may either be made at home or purchased as a proprietary article, and 
kills the mite very quickly. Unfortunately, however, the wash soon leaves the sheep, which is therefore 
not protected against reinfection in the pastures. Therefore, if you select a carbolic dip, you will do 
well to add flowers of sulphur (1 pound to every 6 gallons) to protect against reinfection. The advantages 
of the carbolic dip are that it acts more rapidly than the tobacco or sulphur dips, and if bought in prepared 



rjj 



NATURE A\ T D TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAR, 



form it is very easily mixed in the bath. It also seems to be more destructive to the eggs of the parasites. 
Disadvantages are that in many of the proprietary dips, the farmer is left in the dark regarding the strength 
rial he is using; second, the sheep receive a greater shock than they do with either lime and sul- 
phur or tobacco. The Bureau of Animal Industry is now conducting tests with this dip, but seems 
on the whole not very enthusiastic in its reports, although it admits' that the dip has its merits, and 
should not be wholly condemned. But be sure when you buy it to ascertain the exact ingredients of 
the article, as put up by its proprietors. If they refuse to give this, better leave it alone, and resort to 
the other dips. When you do use it, follow the directions which go with it implicitly. Then carefully 
watch the results. 

Setback to the Sheep from Dipping. — Immediately after the dipping there may be slight gain in 
weight, but usually a loss varying from }/% to 33^ pounds is recorded. A longer time, however, is necessary 
to estimate the ultimate loss or gain. The Bureau of Animal Industry conducted experiments to ascer- 
tain this a little while ago, and found that at the end of about two months, after three dippings, all of 
the sheep showed gain, with the exception of one of the sheep from the carbolic dipping, which lost slightly. 
The lowest gain among the sheep treated with tobacco dip was 3% pounds, the highest, 113l2 pounds; 
among the sheep treated with sulphur and lime the lowest gain was 7 pounds, the highest, 83^ pounds; 
among the sheep treated with the carbolic dip the lowest gain was 1% pounds, the highest, 33^ pounds, 
while one animal lost Yi pound. After a fourth dipping the following gains and losses over their original 
weight were recorded: Sheep treated with tobacco, 9 to 15 pounds gain; sheep treated with lime and 
sulphur, 11 Yi to 14 pounds gain; sheep treated with carbolic dip, 1 to 6Y pounds gain, with one sheep 
losing 13j^ pounds. 

In repeating the experiment, the lime and sulphur 
were used on sheep previously dipped in carbolic or 
tobacco dips, and vice versa. After ten days the sheep 
treated with lime and sulphur had gained from 2 to 3 

pounds; the sheep 

treated with 

tobacco had re- 
mained stationary 

or had lost from 1 

to 13^ pounds; the 

sheep treated with 

carbolic dip had 

gained as high as 

1 p u n d, or re- 
mained stationary, 

or lost as much as 

2)4 pounds. 

Remembering that sheep may apparently gain or lose about 3 pounds per day when not dipped, 
it is seen from- the experiments by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry that the oft repeated 
claim that lime and sulphur dips give a greater setback than other dips is erroneous. In the experiments 
by the Bureau, which are amply corroborated by other authorities both in the East and West, the sheep 
treated with lime and sulphur averaged the greatest gain, the sheep treated with tobacco the second 
highest gain, the carbolic sheep the lowest gain. We may properly conclude these remarks by saying 
that a distinct gain instead of a setback may be claimed for the dip in all instances. 

Dipping Plants. — Among the numerous dipping plants in use, varying in sige and style according 

to the conditions which they are to meet, we shall here mention a few of the most convenient and practical. 

The farmer who has but a small flock can use a small portable vat for dipping, turning a part of 

his barn or some shed into a catching pen; by holding the sheep for a moment at the top of the incline, 

he animals emerge from the vat, and allowing them to drain, he can do away with the necessit}' of 

a draining yard. When a large flock is to be dipped at stated periods it will be economy to build a 




Figure 5. 



Caldron that may be Used for 
Boiling Dip. 




*m 



Figure 6. Caldron with Stove. 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



423 




Figure 7. 
Floating Dairy 
Thermometer. 



more permanent plant. Such a plant should consist of (1) collecting and forcing yards, provided with 
a (2) drive, and (3) chute, or slide into the (4) dipping vat, from which an (5) incline with cross cleats 
leads to the (6) draining yards. 

Heating tanks and boilers also must be provided. For a small vat any portable 
caldron (Figures 5 and 6) with a capacity of 30 to 100 gallons will answer, and the proper 
temperature may be maintained by pouring fresh, hot ooze into the vat as the supply is 
exhausted by the dipping. In the large permanent plants the temperature can best be 
regulated by means of a steam pipe or hot water coil close to the 
floor of the tub. 

Thermometers are an absolute necessity. The floating dairy 
thermometer (Figure 7) is the best. Always keep several ther- 
mometers at hand to replace broken instruments. Drop the 
thermometer into the vat and allow it to float for a short time, 
then quickly remove it, and determine temperature. Make plain 
point marks at the side of the 100 and 110 degree points. 

Building Material. — You may build the yards and vats of 
wood, concrete, cemented stone, or brick, as is most conven- 
ient to you. 

Dimensions. — The dimensions of the various parts, given 
in the following descriptions, may be varied according to the 
breed and the number of sheep to be dipped. You may save 
dipping liquid by making the tub much narrower at the bottom 
than at the top. On top, simple, oblong dipping tanks vary from 
1 foot 9 inches to 3 feet in breadth, 2 feet or 2 feet 6 inches forming 
a convenient medium. Floors vary from 6 inches to 3 feet in 
width, 9 inches forming a good working medium. Depth varies from 3 feet to 5 feet 6 inches, 4 feet 
to 5 feet forming a convenient medium. If calves are to be dipped in the same vat it will be best to 
make the tub 5 feet or 5 feet 6 inches deep. 

In sinking the tub in the ground leave its top 9 inches above the ground line. Also sink one end 
(the one where the sheep are thrown in) slightly lower than the other. This makes it easier to empty 

and clean the vat. 

Crutches or Forks. — In using large vats crutches 
or dipping forks are necessary, and even with a 
small vat thev are useful. Crutches should be 5 or 



Figures 8 and 9. 
Dipping Crutches or Forks. 





Figure 10. Dipping toy Hand. 



Figure 11. Trough for Dipping Lambs. 



6 feet long. The handle should be strong (rake handles are a little too light). One end is provided 
with an iron ferrule, into which the bent iron is inserted. The iron should be y% inch round or % 
inch. half round. The form of the crutches is shown in Figures 8 and 9. v 



424 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 




Figure 12. Portable Vat for Small Flocks. 




Figure 13. Portable Vat with Drip Board. 



Gauges. — The capacity of tubs should be plainly marked on the side every 3 to 6 inches, in order 
to correctly measure the amount of liquid. 

Small Portable Vats. — If you have no regular dipping vat, you can utilize a good sized tub, as 

shown in Figure 10. Dipping in 
this manner is slow and tedious, 
but may be resorted to in case 
of necessity, as, for instance, 
when a few sheep are brought 
from another flock which is not 
known to be absolutely free from 
scab. If c-are is taken to dip 
thoroughly the dipping may be 
as effective as it could be done 
in a large vat. It is, however, 
better to have regular vats for the purpose. Lambs may, in case of necessity, be dipped in troughs, as 
shown in Figure 11. 

A small portable vat, suitable for use in dipping small flocks, is shown t in Figure 12. Store it 
away w T hen you do not use it. This you may draw from place to place as desired. The dimensions 
we give may be varied, according to your own needs, by making the vat longer, broader or deeper. A 
convenient size will be 9 feet long by 2}/ 2 feet broad at the top, 9 inches broad at the bottom, and 3 Yi 
to 5 feet deep; the floor measure, 9 inches broad by 4 feet long; from 1 foot above one end of the floor 
a slant with cro^s cleats rises to the top and end of the vat. Drop the sheep in by hand, one by one, 
at the deep end, hold them in the dip for two minutes and then allow them to leave the vat at the slanting 
end. Hold them a moment on the slant to allow them to drain off, saving the dip. You can place a 
gate at the deeper end of the slant if you wish, thus saving the labor of holding the sheep. This gate 
should swing to the exit of the vat. You can make such a tank of l^-inch pine boards, with tongue 
and groove. It should be well pitched and painted. 

You can easily modify this plan of vat, so as to have a small dripping pen attached, as shown 
in Figures 13 and 14. In this modified plan an inclined platform is added to the vat shown in Figure 
12 and a removable skeleton box is made to fit over it. While one sheep is being dipped another sheep 
is allowed to ascend the incline into the small dripping pen. When the sheep is sufficiently drained 
the gate is opened, it leaves the pen, the gate is closed, the sheep in the vat enters the pen, and another 
sheep is placed in the vat. A small portable vat, used in some places, is shown in Figures 15 and 16. 
Dipping in a vat of this kind may be thorough, but is tedious. Another style of small vat suitable for 

holding three sheep at a time is shown in Figure 17. 
It is estimated that 1,500 sheep may be dipped in 
this tub in a single day. The dimensions of the 
plant are given in the diagram, and need no further 
explanation. 





Figure 14. Detachable Skeleton Box with Gate to Fit 
Over Drip Platform Shown in Figure 13. 



Figure 15. A Patented Portable Vat. 



Permanent Plants for Larger Flocks. — Where large numbers of sheep are to be dipped, it is necessary 
to build receiving pens close to the dipping vat. The number and size of the pens vary with the number 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



425 




Figure 18. Patented Portable Vat Unfolded and in Use. 



of sheep to be handled. The yards may be either square or oblong, as shown in Figures 17 and 18, or 
they may be circular, as shown in Figure 19. 

The square or oblong yards are the more simple in construction and need no further description 
than the diagrams furnish. The circular yard, however, needs a few words of explanation. 

In using the circular yard (Figure 19) two natural habits of the sheep are turned into practical 
account so as to lessen the work of driving, namely, the habit sheep have of ringing when disturbed in 
a yard, and the tendency they show to escape at the point where they enter an enclosure. 

The flock is yarded 
at A B and find its way 
into yards 1 and 2 through 
the openings C D and C E. 
When the yards are full 
the gates C D and A B are 
closed to form " yard 6. 
The sheep then circle 
through yards 3, 4, 5 and 
6, coming to the point at 
which they entered and 
expecting to escape. 
When yards 3, 4, 5 and 6 are filled the other gates are closed, so that the sheep cannot turn to 

yards 1 and 2. If the animals hesitate to enter yards 3, 4, 5 and 6, another natural tendency of the 

sheep may here be turned into account. 

A man jumps over the fence and runs through the flock in the opposite direction (6, 5, 4, 3) to 
that in which the animals are 
wanted to move. This will gener- 
ally result in starting the sheep in 
the desired direction. 

From the exit of yard 6 (B 
C) there should be built a narrow 
run extending to the dipping vat. 
The run should be about 20 feet 
long by 23^ feet wide, and should 
be provided with sides high enough, 
especially near the vat, to prevent the sheep from jurnping over and thus escaping. These sides should 
be continued a short distance along both sides of the vat. The last 5 feet of this run should slant down- 
ward toward the vat at an incline of 25 to 30 degrees, and should be smooth. By pouring upon it some 
of the dip it may be made slippery so that the sheep will slide into the vat. If there is no natural incline 

toward the vat, an incline may easily be made by 




Figure 17. Small Dipping Plant: (A) Collecting Yard, (B) Vat, (Ci Place for 
Man witn Fork, (33) Incline to Draining Pens E and F. 



Receiving Yard 



1. Chain : 



Decoy Pan 



raising the floor of the run to a point 5 feet from 
the vat. The sheep will then pass up the incline, 
X, to the highest point, Y, then down the incline 
chute, Z. 

Much time will be saved in dipping if the 
yards and run are arranged in such a way that the 
sheep in the race cannot see the dipping vat. 
This can be accomplished by either of two simple 
methods: First, the run, instead of being straight, 
may be built with a sudden angle at the point, Y (see Figure 19) ; the vat will then not be visible to 
the sheep ascending the incline, X; or, second, if a straight run is built, as shown in Figure 19, a loose 
curtain of bagging may be hung at the point where the run joins with the vat. This curtain will fall 
back into place as the sheep drops into the vat. 




Figure 18. Another Dipping Plant. 






NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



Chutes or Slides. 

as shown in Figure 19. 



A modification of the circular pen is shown in Figure 20, taken from Gibson's (1893) History and 
- ate of the Sheep Breeding Industry in the Argentine Republic. 

-The simplest kind of chute is made by using an incline at the end of the run, 
A second kind of chute in use is the endless chain or treadmill chute, shown 

in Figure 21. Its construction can 
be seen from the diagram and 
need not be described in detail. 
This chute may be improved by 
building it on a slant toward the 
vat in which case a bolt or other 
arrangement must be attached to 
stop the chute when desired; the 
weight of the sheep on the mov- 
able chute will help to carry the 

animals toward the vat. 
Figure 19. An Australian Dipping Plant. 

A third chute in use is a 

pivoted platform, shown in Figure 22. The sheep walk out on the platform until they overbalance its 
free end, and then, when a sliding bolt is removed, fall into the -tank. The structure of the chute 
may be seen from the figure. Accidents are more likely to result from using this chute than from using 
the slant or the chain chute. For dipping pregnant ewes some persons build a movable platform which 
can be lowered into the vat and raised at will. 

The dipping vat may be made on several different plans : The single oblong straight vat ; the 
double or triple, with turns at the ends; the square; or the circular. In case of single oblong vats, 




RESTING YARD 
£Sm.-Jt 45m. 



Pf. 



DTatningJ^ 





Figure 20. Argentine Semicir- 
cular Receiving and Forcing 
Yards, v.-: i-^'ht vat, draln- 

•<■. The dimension* an; 

in lh'; rri(Ttri<" system; 1 in. 
; ■■', inches. 



, if desired. One 
h a steep slant, as shown 
/uld have a gradual slant 



JU-ZJi-L-C) 
Figure 21. Dipping Plant Provided with an Endless Chain or, Treadmill Chute. 

time will be saved in dipping if a long vat is used, so that the animals 
may swim directly through without stopping, and then leave the tank. 
Very naturally the longer the vat the more building material and ooze 
will be required. Vats in use vary from 10 to 120 feet long. 

Single oblong dipping vats are shown in Figures 18, 19, 20, 21 and 

23. These tanks should be made about 2)'> feet broad at the top, 9 

inches broad at the bottom, and 4 to 5 feet deep; the length may be 20 

end (the entrance) should be straight,, as shown in Figures 24 and 26, or 

in Figures 21, 23 and 25, while the last 5 to 14 feet at the other end (exit) 

with cross cleats. 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



427 




... 6,0... 



A square vat is shown in Figure 22. This vat should be 5 feet deep and large enough to hold 
10 or 12 sheep at a time. The square vat does not present any particular advantages over narrow 
oblong vats, except that it gives the sheep an opportunity to swim around. This kind of a vat is not 

in very general use among large herders. 

In the triple vat (Figure 28) the sheep come 
through the run, or drive, and slide into the first vat 
at A; swimming in the direction of the arrows they 
round the turns, B and C, £Mo se ctio/y 

ascend the incline, D, and enter *F- S-9 —45 

the draining pens. The theory 
upon which this triple vat is 
based is that upon rounding 
the point, B, the sheep bend 
toward the left, thus crumbling 
the scabs on the left side and 
opening the wool on the right ; 
upon rounding the point, C, they 
bend toward the right, crumbling 
the scabs on that side and 
opening the wool on the left. 
That is evidently a more 
theoretical than practical 
consideration. 

Each run should be 
about 15 to 30 feet long and 
2}/2 feet broad; the tank should 



Figure 22. 
Dipping Plant Illustrating; A, collecting and forcing yards; 
B, straight drive; C, decoy pen in which several sheep are kept; 
D dipping pen with pivoted floor, E, secured by a bolt; by with- 
drawing the bolt the sheep are precipitated into the square vat 
F; G, sliding gate through which the sheep pass from the vat to 
the draining pens, J and K ; L, channel for drip, conducting the 
ooze back to the vat. The lower diagram gives a surface view 
of the upper figure. 




CRCUND PLAN 



£ 



*> 



/ 



N 



TT 



j 



Figure 23. 
A, Collecting Yard for the Sheep which are to be Dipped; 

B, B, B, small pens leading to C, an inner pen with an inclined chute, 
or in which a man may stand to pass the sheep one at a time into 
the vat; D, D, the vat, which should measure from 20 to 120 feet 
long, 21 to 30 inches broad at the top, 6 to 9 inches wide at 
the bottom; M, board two feet high on each side of the entrance 
of the vat to catch the splash and to prevent the sheep from 
escaping; E, E, draining, or dripping pens; F, swinging gate; G, 
cross section of the vat ; J , crutch for keeping the backs of the sheep 
under the surface, and for catching or holding sheep in the dip. 




1-10" 

TOP SECTION 



GROUND PLAN 



~5~1 ^ 



> 



/' 






5IDE SECTION 

Figure 24. 
be 4K to 5 feet deep and 4 to as A th s * r lu g s h traTitn^h°e^ 
7Y 2 feet wide at the bottom, wppms Tank. 

At the point, A, where the sheep fall into the vat, it is best to have the floor of the first run 2^ f ee t 
wide for a distance of 6 feet in order to prevent accidents, but beyond that distance the floor may 
be narrowed to save the dipping fluid. If the partitions, E and F, are not made solid the ooze will 
circulate more easily and thus remain at a more even temperature ; the boards should be close enough 
together, however, to prevent the sheep from catching their feet in the cracks. A gate should be 
arranged at D; so that the animals may be delayed in the ooze if desired. 

Some parties prefer a circular vat (Figure 29). 
The advantages set forth in favor of this are, first, 
a fewer number of men are required to attend to the 
animals in the vat ; second, where it is desired to give 
any particular sheep an extra long swim, this may 
be done by quickly closing the gate, D, at the exit, 
thus compelling the animal to swim around again, 
without delaying the other sheep; third, by building 
a circular vat with a circumference of 30 feet the 
animals may be made to swim around two, three or 
four times, thus gaining the advantage of a tank 60, 
90, or 120 feet long, yet with a much smaller amount 
of dipping material. 

The vat should be 2^ feet broad at the top, 
9 inches broad at the bottom and 5 feet deep. To 

determine the circumference multiply the diameter by 3.1416. Despite the advantages of the circular 
tank in saving material and obtaining the advantages of a long swim, there are two rather serious objec- 
tions to it: First, in the vat shown in Figure 29, it is necessary to throw the animal in by hand, since 




J 



Z^ ~T{ 



Figure 25. 
A Somewhat Similar Plant: A, collecting pens ;B, B, smaller 
pens; C, small pen at the side of the vat; K, decoy pen in which 
several sheep are placed to induce the sheep in pen B to enter pen 
C; D, D, a vat 50 to 60 feet long, 5 feet deep, 21 inches broad 
until 3 feet from the top, then narrowing to 6 or 8 inches at the 
bottom, as shown in the cross section, G; M, a board 2 feet high 
to catch the splash; the last 18 feet of the vat slants gradually, 
with cross cleats, to the draining pens, as seen in H; E, E, drain- 
ing pens, worked alternately with the swinging gate, F; each 
pen measures 24 by 15 feet and should slant toward the vat; J, 
crutch 5 or 6 feet long; N, mixer for stirring the liquid. 



42$ 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 




vO U 



lute directed into the circle would lead to accident; second, the circular vat is much more difficult 

-t ruction than the straight vat. These objections, however, may be overcome in several ways, 

still preserving all the advantages. If a circular vat is preferred and a chute is desired, the object may 

be obtained by building a short, 
straight vat on a tangent to the 
circle, as shown. in Figure 30. In this 
case two swinging or sliding gates, 
A and B, will be required. 

All of the advantages of the 
circular vat may be combined with 
the easy construction of the straight 
vat by building a straight tub with a 
double .channel, as shown in Figures 
31 and 32, the second swim being 
prolonged in an incline to the drain- 
ing pens. Such a vat may be con- 
structed as follows : 

Build an oblong tub 15 feet 
long, 5 feet deep, 5 feet wide at the 
top, and 3 to 5 feet wide at the bot- 
tom. Running lengthwise through 
the center build an upright, par- 
tially open, partition 10 'feet long 

and A)/2 feet deep (measured from the top of the tub), leaving an open space of 2]^ feet at each 

end and 6 inches at the bottom; this partition is supported by three uprights running to the floor of the 

tub at any point except near the entrance of the swim. A gate is hung at one end between the slide 

(entrance) and the incline (exit), and should extend above the tub in order to prevent the sheep from 

jumping over the middle partition into the second swim; it should extend down to within about 6 or 12 

inches of the floor of the tub. When this gate is 

closed against the middle partition the sheep will 

leave the vat by the incline to the draining pens; 

when it is closed against the inaline, the sheep can be 

forced to swim around the tub two or three times, as 

desired. Or in place of a swinging gate, two sliding 

gates may be arranged to run up and down in 

grooves, .balancing each other or each balanced 

separately by weights. One of these gates is placed 

between the end of the vat and the end of the 

middle portion, the other is placed at the entrance of : 

the incline to the draining pens. 





£ 






CATCHING KRAAL 


| 


Floor where man with fork works, 




TANK |GAT( 


DRAINING- KRAAL 








s 





Figure 26. A Dipping Plant. 




7 



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Figure 27. 

A Dipping Plant in Use in Millard County, Utah. Tank, D ; 
K, K, two pieces, 2 by 6 Inches and 12 feet long, bolted length- 
wise of the tank, leaving a 12-inch space in the middle of the dip 
through which the sheep must put tneir heads, preventing those 
in rear from riding those in front, at the same time keeping their 
backs under the dip. 



By constructing the double vat and sending 
the sheep around three times there would result, 
first, a saving in the original cost of the tank when 
compared with a 90-foot straight swim; second, a 
saving in space; third, less than half as much dip 
would have to be kept warm at a time; fourth, less 

than half as much dip would have to be made up at a time; fifth, the residue after dipping would 
be reduced and thus the loss decreased. It would, however, take a longer time to dip a large flock 
of sheep in such a vat than in a straight vat, 90 feet long. 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



429 



-l5ft.to30Ft- 




DRIPPING 
PENS 



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INCLIN E D. 



CHUTE 



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A 



ft 



Z'/zH. 



4k Ft to 6 ru 



^££/*c 



i£A(S 



A Triple Vat. 



Figure 28. 

The various diagrams give surface view, cross section, vertical section 



of entrance to the vat, and vertical section of the incline and dripping pens. 



Incline to Dripping Pens. — At 

the end of the vat an incline with 
cross cleats is built so that the sheep 
may leave the dip of their own accord 
and enter the dripping pens. A board 
fence 2 feet high above the top of 
the vat should run a few feet each 
side of this incline to prevent the 
sheep from escaping. These inclines 
are shown in Figures 21, 23, 25 and 
26; the rise for fat, heavy wool sheep 
must not be too steep, otherwise the 
exertion will be too great. In Figure 
24 the incline is 5 feet 9 inches in a 
surface distance of 14 feet 3 inches. 
At the Chicago Stock Ya r d s the 
incline is 9 feet. 

Much labor will be saved if a 
hinged, or, still better, a sliding gate 
is placed at the deepest portion of 
the incline. The sheep may thus be 
held in the dip as long as desired ; 
when the time is up the gate is 
opened and the sheep enter the drain- 
ing pens. 

The Dripping Pens. — T here 
should be two dripping pens side by 
side (Figures 17, 18, 21, 23 and 33) 
with a swinging gate at the entrance ; 
one is filled, the gate is then closed, 
opening the other pen; when the 
second pen is filled the first pen is 
emptied; or the pens may be in 
direct line with the vat (Figures 
17 and 22). 

These pens should have a 
slight incline toward the tub so that 
the dripping ooze will run back to 
the tub. A good plan is to Mi 
build the incline from the 
sides toward the center fence; under 
the fence build a partially covered 
gutter inclining to the tub ; the cover 
of the gutter should be removable to 
allow cleaning; at the end of the 
gutter nearest the tub place a gra- 
ting to catch the wool and droppings, 
thus preventing these materials from 
being washed into the dip. Figure 29> A circular Dipping Tank. 

You should provide shelter for the vat, boilers and dripping pens, and it will be well to extend 
the cover over the drive and the forcing pens. 



>? v 



^ 



^ 



^ 




— /— 14$ 



f 



430 



NATURE AND TREATMENT OF SHEEP SCAB. 



Arrangements for Cleaning. — Cleaning the plant may be made easier if the following suggestions 
are observed: It will be well to have one end of the vat slightly lower than the other, so that the ooze 

will run toward that point when the tub 
is being emptied. If the entire floor of 
the collecting pens is made of brick, 
cement or boards, and inclines slightly 
toward one or two points, the yards may 
be more easily cleansed by means of a 
hose and stream of water. . If this plan 
is adopted there should be an upright 
baseboard or a solid wall of concrete or 
brick a few inches in height running 
around the edge of the entire pen. If 
there is direct sewer connection for the 
vat. a trap or manhole should be made to 
catch the droppings and the tags of wool, 
otherwise the sewer pipe will become 
obstructed. 

Boiling, Infusing and Settling 
Tanks. — The arrangement of the boiling 
tanks depends upon two factors in 
particular : First, upon the kind of dip 
used ; second, upon the arrangement 
adopted for keeping the bath at a proper 
temperature. In case a steam pipe is 
placed near the floor of the dipping vat 
in order to keep the ooze at its proper 
temperature while dipping, the vat itself 
Figure 30. A Circular Dipping Tank and Drive and Slide. 




may be used for cheating water. Clear water is run 

into the vat and the steam turned on full force 

until the proper temperature is obtained. If a 

carbolic or prepared tobacco dip is used, the 

material may then be mixed in the vat if desired. 

Even in this case, however, it is best to provide a 

separate boiling tank for heating and preparing 

fresh ooze to replace the dip as it is used up. 

These boiling tubs may be made of wood or iron, 

as is most convenient for you. If steam is to be 

had, the square or round boiling tub may be used, 

an open steam pipe being run into it to heat the 

water. If steam cannot be used, either in the 

vat or in the boiling tanks, iron tanks should be 

provided. Have the iron tanks set in brick or 

stone frames, with a fireplace below. It is best 

to have two tanks, each with a capacity of about 

400 gallons. If a home made tobacco dip is 

prepared from the leaves there should also be 

provided two iron infusing caldrons, each with a 

cover and with a capacity of 80 to 120 gallons. The infusion is prepared in these smaller tanks, while 

the bulk of the water is heated in the boiling tanks or in the swim itself. If a lime and sulphur dip is 




Figure 31. View of Double Oblong Swim. (Consult also Fig. 32.) 



IMPORTANT. 



431 



used, it is absolutely necessary to provide some means for settling the mixture in order that the bath 

may be free from sediment. You may do this in two ways. The better way is to have separate 

settling tubs provided with bung 
holes or pipes 3 or 4 inches from 
the bottom. After the mixture 
is thoroughly boiled it is pumped 
into the settling tubs and allowed 
to remain there until it is entirely 
free from sediment ; the clear liquid 
is then run into the dipping vat 
and diluted with warm water to 
the proper strength.. Or the boiling 
tanks may also be used as settling 
vats. A pipe with elbow joint is 
run into the boiling tank 3 or 4 
inches above the bottom ; the 
opening of the pipes should point 
sidewise, not up. After boiling 
the proper length of time the fire 
is removed and the liquid allowed 
to stand until the ooze is clear; 
only the clear ooze is drawn off, 
the sediment remaining on the 
floor of the boiling tank. 

Measures. — The capacity of 
your vat should be marked at dif- 
ferent depths. The capacity of 
the boilers should also be marked 
in the same way. Mark them for 
every 100, 200, 300, or 500 gallons 

(according to the amount of dipping to be done), and you will have no need of separate measuring tanks. 

If your tanks are not marked in this way, it will be necessary for you to provide a separate measuring 

tank. It will facilitate matters for you to 

provide yourself with a portable pump to be 

used for filling and emptying the tanks. 




aft..- 



Figure 32. 
A'Bouble Oblong Vat; A, ground plan; B, side view of the middle partition; C, 
longitudinal section of the first swim ; D, longitudinal section of the second swim , with 
incline; E, cross section of the entire vat, with partition in the center. 




IMPORTANT. 

Be Sure to Read This. — There are 
numerous proprietary dips for the treatment 
of scab. Some of them are good, some bad, 
some indifferent , but none of them have ever 
arrived at anywhere near a state of perfection. 

Realizing the importance of an abso- 
lutely safe and effective dip, we have been 
working for years in an attempt to produce 
such an article. Pracjtically all of the stand- 
ard reagents having the necessary qualities 
have been taken one by one and thoroughly 



Figure 33. Ground Plan of Yards and Vat. 



investigated. Many times we have congratulated ourselves upon having at last reached the goal, only to 
find after exhaustive tests that one thing or another was not as complete or as perfect as it should be. 






SPECIAL DISEASES. 












•f 3 Oripping Floor f 




X 

BOILER 








r-». 




1 Vat 


/$> 5 Panel fence 1 

*i'° " r 

t d Dripping Floor t 






a 




BOILEH 











Rut we wore firmly decided to offer nothing to the sheep raiser until we were able to produce an 
article that we could offer him and in all honest}" recommend it absolutely, an article that we could 
honestly say to ourselves and to the sheepmen: "This is perfection." We have,, we think, produced 

in our laboratories dips that are even better than 
anything upon the market. We could have manu- 
factured them and sold them and still have given 
the sheepmen something better than anything, 
upon the market,. and by so doing we could have 
increased our business materially. But in our 
entire line we have tried to attain perfection before 
offering, and we prefer to do the same in the 
dip line. 

At the present time we feel that we have a 
preparation that is as near perfection as it is possible for man to make anything. We feel positive in 
our own minds that it is ready to offer to the sheepmen. But it will be a matter of four or five months 
before we can complete our tests and satisfy ourselves on every point. After having conducted these 
tests, should the dip meet them all satisfactorily, we will then be in a position to offer the American 
sheepmen a sheep dip that is so far ahead of anything that even the government has ever 
recommended, that we feel we will have contributed little short of a blessing to the sheep industry. 
Before you purchase a dip from anybody it will be to your advantage to write us and find out 
what progress we have made, for, even after we have perfected our dip and our investigations are con- 
cluded, it will then take some time to get our packages and properly place the dip upon the market ; but 
when it is placed upon the market you may rest assured that it will be as near ideal as it is possible for 
man to make it. 



Figure 34. Ground Plan of Yards and Vat. 



SPECIAL DISEASES. 



or Braxy, is a disease common to almost all animals, dangerous and contagious 
Anthrax Fever, in its nature. Rivers and streams may become contaminated with its poison 

from dead carcasses, and it is asserted that it is equally infectious and destructive 
to the aquatic life with which it comes in contact in the water. It is due to a specific germ, and although 
known under different 

names in different locali- """"^""^Jf \\ 

ties, it is, when analyzed, 
the same affection, pro- 
duced in the same way. In 
the human we often call it 
malignant postule or wool 
sorter's disease; in cattle it 
is anthrax fever, splenic 
apoplexy; in France, char- 
bon; in Germany, milz- 
brand; in India, loodian. 
In the sheep it is called 
braxy in America, while 
in England they call it 
great head, and in Aus- 
tralia, Cumberland disease, 
ft may best be commonly 
defined under the name anthrax. A rod shaped, spore bearing bacillus, termed the bacillus 
anthracis, is in all instan sponsible for its appearance. The disease is an ancient one, mentioned 

in the oldest literature of the world. 




Figure 35. View of the Dipping Plant at the Stock Yards, South Omaha, Neb. 



SPECIAL DISEASES. 



433 



Causes. — It is said that pastures bordering on streams and rivers, especially such lands as are 
inundated annually, are prolific breeders of anthrax, the germ of the disease presumably being carried 
there from other localities, where animals have been infected and died of the disease. Hay from infected 
fields also may produce the malady, the straw and blades of the grass containing spores, which are trans- 
ferred in turn to the animals. Insects and flies also may spread the infection. Dietetic errors seem 
to predispose the system to attacks from anthrax, more especially so when changing from poor to highly 







Figure 36. View of the Dipping Plant at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. 

(This dipping plant, including vat, boiler, etc., cost about $2,500.) 






nutritious feedstuffs, containing a high percentage of nitrogen. Other predisposing causes are a plethoric 
condition, the fattest sheep in a flock generally being the first to be attacked, moving of sheep 
from poor to rich pasturage, forced feeding, grazing on fields where animals recently have 
succumbed to the disease, etc. 

Symptoms. — Feverishness ; loss of appetite; head hanging down; ears cold to the touch; sheep 
stupid, dull, at times delirious ; frequent attempts at urinating ; urine scant and brownish colored ; animal 
lies down and refuses to get up ; there is more or less constipation and apoplectic symptoms ; a mucus 



sis- as 



434 SPECIAL DISEASES. 



harge streaked with blood may run from one or both nostrils, the fecal matters also containing a 
quantity of blood colored fluid; carcass may swell, more especially head and legs. It is well for the 
Bp owner, if he finds some of the above symptoms present in his flock, still is not satisfied with 
himself that the disease really is anthrax, to call in a skilled veterinarian, in order to have the affection 
properly diagnosed in time. In almost all cases an outbreak of anthrax can be prevented or checked 
by inoculating the healthy members with Pasteur's Vaccine, and removing the entire flock to new fields. 

Treatment. — Prevention is the only treatment for this disease. Once attacked the subject often 
before even showing any appreciable signs of sickness, the progress of the disease being marvelously 
swift. First find out whether anthrax really exists in your flock. Then immediately remove the sheep 
to fresh fields and use Pasteur's method of inoculation with the Davis Outfit, vaccinating all the healthy 
members of the flock. This treatment is the injection under the skin of the hind leg of an attenuated 
virus of the disease prepared at the Pasteur laboratory in France, and obtainable in all large cities. Once 
inoculated with this virus sheep become immune to attacks of the disease and never contract it under 
any circumstances. In Europe inoculation of sheep for this disease is widely practiced, with the result 
that it has been greatly diminished and the percentage of losses resulting from it is constantly growing 
less. Be very careful in handling animals which have succumbed to this disease, as man may be infected, 
with the result that bloody postule is produced by the anthrax blood; the smallest abrasion Or scratch 
being able to cause the infection. Wool sorter's disease also may be caused by inhalation of the dust or 
fine powcler arising from a sheep suffering from anthrax. 

in popular language also known as Quarter 111, while the technical name is 
Blackleg, emphysema infectuosum, is an anthracoid disease, due to a germ producing a 

disease which manifests many of the symptoms common to anthrax fever. 
The best feeders in a flock usually succumb the quickest, as is the case also in anthrax. Methods of 
infection also are similar. Marshy meadows, low lying pastures and lands bordering on rivers and 
streams are fertile localities for harboring and spreading the germ. The pastures in which sheep have 
succumbed to this disease reek with its germs, readily infecting the grazing animals. This is more 
especially the case where carcasses of sheep that have died from the disease have been permitted to 
lie above ground and rot, the grass subsequently growing up about them being almost sure to infect 
any sheep partaking of it. Therefore, be sure to bury or burn sheep that have died from blackleg 
as quickly as possible. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; sheep may be off feed; slow in movement and very lame either behind 
or in front, as the disease may be located; animal may be down and unable to rise, in which case there 
generally is a swelling of a fore or hind quarter, consisting of air under the skin, a crackling sound being 
produced when you pass your hand over it. Skin is of a bluish color; symptoms in general very similar 
to those of anthrax fever. 

Treatment. — No medical treatment is of any avail ; prevention is the only cure ; the Pasteur method 
of inoculation with the Davis Outfit is now used with great success both in America and abroad. Burn 
or bury all animals which have succumbed to blackleg, using quicklime in the burying process. Quar- 
antine infected pastures, and thoroughly dress them with lime. This done, and the healthy members 
of your flock vaccinated, you will soon get rid of this destructive disease among your sheep. 

Scientifically known as Eczema Epizootica, and in popular language also known 
Foot and as Infectious Aphtha, is a fever attacking sheep, cattle, pigs, poultry, dogs 
Mouth Disease. and sometimes man. It is known all over the world, is highly contagious, and 

manifests through eruptions or postules in the mouth, around the coronets 
just above the hoofs, and in-the clefts of the digits, the eruptions speedily breaking and forming ugly 
sores, which spread and unite with equal rapidity. It is due to a germ, and the infection is contained 
in the saliva and excretions. An attendant may carry it from animal to animal; the excretions from 



SPECIAL DISEASES. 435 



the sores, also contain the contagion; grazing animals may infect pastures in a wholesale way, and dogs 
and other animals may carry the virus on their feet from one place to another, etc. The mortality from 
the disease, however, is not great. 

Symptoms. — There are four stages of the disease, in the first of which fever appears, alternated 
with shivering fits; pulse being rapid, temperature high; patient is dull; nose dry; in suckling ewes 
the milk secretions cease; head feels hot; urine is scanty, sometimes there is salivating from the mouth. 
The second stage commences in the course of two or three days after the disease has been contracted, 
and is indicated by vesicular eruptions on various parts of the body; feet swell, animal is more or less 
lame; vesicles show plainly around the vulva of the female, the coronets, between the toes (digits), 
also on the teats of the female, more rarely in the mouth. In the third stage the vesicles break and dis- 
charge ; there is ulceration, and the ulcers generally spread rapidly and combine. There is great sloughing 
of the skin above the hoofs, sheep kneels to eat, maybe moving about on its knees. In the worst cases 
the sloughing may extend into the joints, causing joint opening, a dangerous condition. After this 
stage, varying in time from four or five days to several weeks, the fourth sets in with the drying up of 
the ulcers, sores in the mouth heal up, appetite increases, and in the majority of cases the patient 
soon recovers. 

Treatment. — Bathe the feet. Have shallow troughs made, fenced at the side, and let the sheep 
walk in them going in at one end and out at the other ; mix the following medicinal agents in the water : 
Carbolic acid crystals, 10 ounces; acetate of lead, 2J^ pounds; sulphate of zinc, 2J4 pounds; water, 
12 gallons. Mix this together thoroughly and put it in the water of the trough, then let the patient 
wade in it two or three times daily, and see, too, that the lame sheep is not permitted to 
hop through it on three feet, but properly immerses all four legs. Stir well each time before 
driving the patient through it. 

is an affection of the skin caused by a germ called the streptococcus erysip- 
ErysipelaS 1 elatis. In its nature it is extremely contagious and malignant, and when 

gaining entrance into an abrasion, or wound of the cuticle, serious inflammation 
may result, which may penetrate into the underlying structures. The sheep is more liable to contract 
this disease after shearing than at any other time, the reason being injury to the cuticle sustained in 
the shearing process. All wounds of the skin may produce it. Ewes suffering from the effects of the 
lambing process are also prone to become affected; 

Symptoms. — Feverishness ; swelling of the skin, which is hard and tense to the touch; small 
blisters in great multitude will be found on the spot beneath the wool, each containing a red, waterish 
fluid; infected spot at first circumscribed, quickly enlarges its circumference, often spreading quick 
as wild fire, as the popular saying has it. 

Treatment. — Apply Phenalin to the affected surface, or, if this is not at hand, some other 
good antiseptic wash. Give a good dose of Epsom salts, quantity depending on the condition 
and age of the animal; administer Davis Stock Food in double doses in the feed. After washing 
with Phenalin, use a good liniment, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, or camphorated oil, that will 
soothe and relieve the heat. 

This is often met with in suckling lambs, also in lambs already weaned or fed 
Red Water. by hand. Mature sheep also may contract it. Its course is rapid, usually 

fatal, and patient often succumbs in six hours' time. 

Causes. — Watery feed ; hoar frosted turnips, which do not contain flesh and fat forming substances 
in sufficient quantity; succulent grasses; clover wet with the early morning dew, etc., have produced 
the disease. 

Symptoms. — Suspension of rumination; dullness; staring look in the eyes; bowels usually are 
loose ; belly appears enlarged ; discharges are fetid; patient also at times constipated; breathing is labored ; 



436 SIMPLE SURGERY. 



there may be more or less swelling under the jaws and lower part of the neck; patient may drop dead 
suddenly, without symptoms of any kind; there may be giddiness, the animals falling down on one side, 
rolling over, becoming delirious, with death ensuing shortly afterward. When the lamb is attacked 
ually lags behind the flock, falls down and dies suddenly without symptoms of any kind. 

Treatment. — Change the plan of feeding. Substitute dry feed for turnips or a too succulent diet, 
and give each adult sheep 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to each feed, lambs in the proportion of 
1 L > teaspoonful. No medical treatment is of any use once an animal is attacked, but you should take 
this as a warning to immediately remove the flock to drier pastures, and feed as per above advice. 



SIMPLE SURGERY. 

As to what age this operation should be performed there is considerable difference 
Castration. of opinion, the popular belief seeming to be that the operation should be per- 

formed as soon as possible after the lamb is dropped, say from two to three 
weeks old. With favorable weather, the lamb being i$ normal health and strength, this probably is 
the best time. The claim is raised by some that if the lamb is allowed to run until three or four months 
old, before the castration takes place, the sheep will grow larger and stronger. What we here are mainly 
concerned with is the way in which to perform the operation correctly. 

How to Castrate. — Select favorable weather, not too cold nor too warm. Place lamb on its rump, 
make sure that rupture of any kind is not present; now, this done, with the thumb and fingers of the 
left hand take hold of the end of the scrotum and pull it down, then with the knife in your right hand 
cut the end of the sac clean off. Now grasp the upper end of the scrotum, squeezing the testicles down 
and protruding through the opening, then with the scalpel or knife cut a longitudinal incision across 
each testicle, severing the tunics, but not necessarily cutting the testicles; now take hold of the testicles, 
one at a time, and draw them down gradually, twisting the cord and scraping it as you draw, until at 
length it becomes severed. The cord should be drawn out as long as possible in a long slender thread, 
in order to prevent excessive bleeding from the spermatic artery. This can be almost wholly done away 
with if above method of drawing out the cord is carefully followed. If the castration takes place in 
the fly season, a carbolic salve should be employed for the dressing of the wound, in order to prevent 
insects and maggots from pestering the patient. Strict cleanliness in every particular should be observed 
if the operation is to terminate successfully; and if this is done, and the methods described followed, 
almost all operations are sure to terminate favorably. If the operator or any of his instruments, water, 
knife, scalpel, etc., are not scrupulously clean, tetanus may follow. Do not use any of the more elaborate 
methods in vogue in some localities, for instance, searing the cord with red hot iron, etc. This is likely 
to be followed with serious and at times fatal results. Just so with the tying of the scrotum between 
two pieces of wood until it sloughs off, is an antiquated, slow and cruel process, the'simple operation we 
have just advocated being sufficient, 

should be performed at an early age, the time- of castration being preferable. 
Docking The tail of the sheep is a useless incumbrance and may as well be removed, 

especially as it is liable to collect mud, dung, and other filth. Simply cut off 
the tail with a knife without any after treatment, or if convenient, you may sear the cut for a moment 
with a red hot iron, which will check all bleeding at once. Always dock your ewes, whatever you may 
choose to do with your wether lambs. 

or castration of the female, which consists in removing the ovaries, is an operation 
Spaying, seldom performed, s m the sheep, as its advantages are slight. It may be done 

by placing the sheep on its back on an inclined heavy board or plank ; have assist- 
ants hold her securely in this position, then make an incision back of the navel, running backward 
toward the mammae about 2 inches in length, cutting through the skin and underlying tissues, laying 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 437 



open the abdominal cavity ; this should be pierced by inserting the knife at right angles to the body of 
the subject, the opening being widened sufficiently to permit the insertion of two fingers (the two first 
fingers of the hand); with these reach backward and slightly to. one side, and you will find the horn of 
the uterus; trace this forward until the ovary manifests itself, situated on the extremity of the cornua; 
bring this ovary to the surface and while you hold it with one hand use the fingers of the other to trace 
and secure the other ovary, the keeping hold of the first helping you largely to find the other. Twist 
the two organs (ovaries) off to prevent bleeding; do not use a knife for this operation. ^ Now return the 
horns of the uterus to their place in the abdominal cavity and bring the lips of the incision together with 
sutures. Take deep stitches, first penetrating the skin, abdominal walls and peritoneum, then follow 
up with two, surface ones through the skin, bringing the edges of the cuticle together in the original 
position. Do not bring the edges of the wound very tightly together, as the resulting inflammation 
(some inflammation will always follow the operation) will tear out the stitches, and may produce fatal 
consequences. Pine tar, or agents of this nature, to keep the wound in an aseptic condition and to keep 
flrss and other insects away, should be the after treatment. If you have not studied up animal anatomy 
to some extent, not being conversant with the position of the various organs in the abdominal cavity, you 
would better call in a skilled veterinarian than try to perform this rather delicate operation yourself. 

When a bone is broken without harm to the soft tissue covering it, we call it 
Abrasions, a simple fracture, while where there is an open wound connecting with the broken 
Fractures, Etc. bone, it is known as a compound fracture. If the bone is shattered into frag- 
ments, or fine splinters, and serious injury to the adjacent tissues exist, it is 
called a complicated fracture. The treatment should consist in bringing the ends of the fractured bones 
in apposition, holding them together by a plaster of paris cast; if the wound is properly attended to 
in this way the sheep may be depended upon to do its share in nursing the broken leg or bone, and there 
is hope of recovery. However, in cases where legs have been broken, if the sheep is not of especial value 
as a breeder, etc., you would better give up treatment, and sell it for meat. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

is an inflammation of the membranes of the eyelids. Foreign matter gaining 
Simple entrance to the eye, or bites from mosquitoes or other insects may produce it ; com- 

Ophthalmia plications from other diseases, or exposure to inclement weather, may produce it. 

Symptoms. — Swelled eyelids; eye is half closed, drawn into its orbit; 
tears secrete copiously and run down the cheeks. Conjunctiva of the eye on examination will be 
found to be red and congested, dark red streaks covering it. 

Treatment. — Foreign substances, having entered the eye, should be carefully removed. If these 
are embedded in the eyeball it is better to call in a veterinarian. After treatment bathe the eye with 
cold water, and apply Davis Ophthalmia Specific. In case the membrane of the eye has been cauterized 
by lime or other similar agents (as for instance after the lime and sulphur dip) make use of a soothing, 
lubricating medication, as, for instance, a few drops of linseed tea, or a kernel of flaxseed inserted under 
the lids. This will ease the pain and help to remedy the affection. Feed double feeds of Davis Stock Food. 

popularly known as the Blinds, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva of the 

Ophthalmia eye, its symptoms being very much the same as in the trouble just described, 

P roper, with the difference that while the former is caused by introduction of foreign 

substances into the eye, or complications from nasal catarrh or other diseases, 

this is usually produced by an epizootic, and appears in successive stages, each succeeding attack being 

more severe than the former, resulting as a rule in total blindness. Its cause is obscure, but it is not 

believed to be contagious; symptoms similar to those in simple ophthalmia, but constitutional disorder 

and a tendency of the affection to result in blindness distinguishes it from the milder form. 



438 ECZEMA AND FOOT ROT. 



Treatment. — Essentially the same as for simple ophthalmia, but start in with a physic; as, for 
instance, 4 ounces of Epsom salts; apply cool, soothing ointments to the eye and Davis Ophthalmia 
Specific as described. 

is often met with in the sheep family, especially in lambs and younger animals, 
Eczema subjected to forced feeding for exhibition or similar purposes. Of the several 

forms in which eczema appears it is found that the vesfcular is the most common 
in sheep. It may appear very suddenly, as a rule attacking the lips and face first; the skin which is most 
sparsely covered with fleece is also liable to be attacked, favorite spots being beneath thighs, arm pits, etc. 
Immediately intense itching appears, animal rubs itself against all protruding objects, little eruptions 
appear on the affected surfaces, soon breaking and discharging a thin, watery fluid. When they dry 
up a little nodule will remain in place of each eruption, and the farmer may mistake these for the 
altogether different disease, scab. 

Treatment. — Change the method of feeding. Wrong or forced diet is almost always to blame. 
If it is necessary that the animal be forced for any purpose, always allow 1 teaspoonful of Davis Stock 
Food in each feed to the adult sheep and Y^ teaspoonful to the lamb, thus keeping the digestive and 
circulatory functions in proper condition and insuring against the disease. A saline cathartic, such as 
Epsom salts, should be administered. Liniments, such as Davis Veterinary Liniment, applied to the 
skin, also are good. A soothing and cooling lotion, such as the following, will help to keep the animal 
from rubbing and squeezing against convenient objects to alleviate the itching, thereby tearing the 
wool from the skin until the sheep presents a haggard and ragged appearance: Acetate of lead, 4 drams; 
water, 1 pint. This should be applied to the affected surface twice or thrice daily. Pulverized boracic 
acid is also good for this purpose. 

A disease very common among sheep. So far as investigations up to the present 

Foot Rot. time have discovered it is non-contagious, although as yet there exists some 

doubt upon this point. It is a widespread affection and large losses are sustained 

every year by sheep owners through its presence in the sheep flock. Still, it is not, as a rule, a fatal 

disease, but the fever and irritation produced by it is likely to retard the growth of the animal, with such 

symptoms as loss of flesh, unthriftiness, and general indisposition and sluggishness manifesting. 

Causes. — Damp, marshy, wet and low lying pastures, causing the feet, hoofs and ligaments to 
remain in a" constantly moist and wet state. This will cause an apparent increase in the size of the hoof, 
with visible blanching of the tender membranes of the feet. Then, if the weather changes, the ground 
drying up, a reaction will set in. There will be an increased circulation to the feet which had before 
been constantly moist and saturated. The hoof will swell or be pushed from the parts beneath ; there 
is inflammation of the tissues between the "claws; coronet is enlarged; heels bulge; abscesses may form; 
purulent matter exudes between the horn and substance beneath. In the most severe cases the hoof 
drops off entirely. This renders the sheep practically valueless except as butcher's meat. 

Symptoms. — Sheep appears lame ; pains seem to be present when it walks ; on examination of the 
feet a purulent fluid will be found oozing out between the claws; the feet affected are hot, with swollen 
coronet; one or more feet may be affected, but seldom all four feet together; generally it is both fore 
feet or both hind feet at the start; disease, which to commence with is restricted to the feet, may later 
extend, forming sores and abscesses over the hoof, sometimes affecting the tendons of the knee. In 
the progression of the disease the horn of the hoof rots away and falls off ; the tender laminae underneath 
are thereby exposed, and sprout outward,, fungous growths are formed looking like large granulating tissue ; 
when touched they bleed easily; fluid from the diseased parts is offensive in smell, being perceptible from 
a long distance. Later the horny, sole of the feet is affected and peels off, exposing the sensitive parts 
of the pedal bone. There is great lameness and pain in walking; if the fore feet are the ones affected 
ep will lie down, bending the two legs up under it and crawl along on its knees; if the hind legs are 
affected it will move along on its belly; often it lies down and will not rise up for hours; it drags itself 
painfully after its fellows, falls off in flesh, sheds the claws entirely in the most severe cases, and death 
may ensue from malnutrition, owing to its inability to feed properly. Flies congregate about it in swarms 
in the summer, sores are filled with maggots, and the sheep is in such a condition that killing it, on 
the part of the owner, is practically the only recourse and an act of mercy. 



PARTURITION. 439 



In its first stages foot rot is not complicated with constitutional fever; the appetite, as a rule, 
is good; ewes suckling lambs continue to secrete a liberal supply of milk, and the only disease present 
is the local affection of the feet, as a rule, two of the feet only at the start. The eruptions or vesicles 
occurring in foot rot are always local, confined to the members affected, not spreading to any other part 
of the body, as is often the case in foot and mouth disease. It is also distinguished from the latter 
by its apparent non-contagious character. (As intimated, .some doubt exists upon this point, the 
authorities disagreeing.) 

Treatment. — First of all be prompt. Construct a foot bath, according to the following method, 
and drive the flock through it several times each week: Provide yourself with a shallow trough, about 
18 inches deep and 2 feet wide, as appears to you best; place this into the ground. Erect a low fence 
running the full length on each side, forcing the sheep to stand in it; previous to this make up the follow- 
ing preparation of arsenic: Carbonate of potash, 2 pounds; arsenious acid, 3 pounds; water, 14 gallons. 
Boil the potash and arsenic in the 14 gallons of water for half an hour or more, so that they may 
dissolve thoroughly. . Then pour a sufficient quantity of the solution into the trough, at least 3 inches 
deep, or enough to cover the hoofs and coronets of the sheep thoroughly. Pare all the sheep affected 
before driving them into this bath, removing all foreign growths. If you have made the trough 
sufficiently long (20 to 30 feet) it is unnecessary to keep the animal standing in the bath for any length 
of time, just let them pass right through. You must not allow the sheep to graze after passing through the 
bath before the solution has dried from their feet, as the dripping of the arsenical liquid on the verdure 
partaken of would cause poisoning of themselves and other animals. It is therefore well to erect the 
trough in some barren place, removed from the farm buildings, and build a pen at each end of the trough 
to facilitate the operation. Then you simply first drive the sheep into the pen at one end of the trough, 
thence passing them in turn through the trough, and using the pen at the outlet as a drying place, holding 
the animals there until their feet are thoroughly dry. Provide a watertight lid for the trough and keep it 
locked up except when in use, to secure against danger to your other live stock. If the attack be a mild 
one you may substitute the arsenical bath with sulphate of copper (blue stone), using this in the propor- 
tion of 1 pound to each gallon of water. After the bath you will do well in l pplying quicklime to the feet 
of the sheep, which may be done by sprinkling the floor of an outhouse with the quicklime, and driving 
the flock into it. Now, you should bear in mind that the original cause of the disease without a doubt has 
been due to damp, swampy, pasturage, where the feet of the sheep were kept wet all the time, and you 
must change this before any good can result from the treatment. If, as is sometimes the case, a sandy 
or gravelly soil is to blame, this, too, must be exchanged for one better suited to the health of the animals. 
If you have no facilities for changing them around like this the best you can do is to house them over 
night in pens covered with sawdust or in barns where the floor is dry and comfortable. If only a few 
sheep of a flock are affected they should be caught and trimmed; that is, the diseased members (feet) 
must be pared down ; you should carefully remove all shreds of horn or fungus ; cauterize the torn and 
ulcerated places in order that the secretions of the healthy horn may have an opportunity to act. 
Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, creosote, etc., may be used for this cauterization; butyr of antimony is recom- 
mended as that which gives good results without undesirable complications of any kind. After treating 
the affected part in this way, dress with carbolized tar or Stockholm tar, which will help to produce 
the growth of healthy horn from the diseased surface. In case of profuse granulations, cauterization 
with a red hot iron is advisable. If ewes are in lamb, they should not, except in severe cases, be subjected 
to any other treatment than the walk through the copper or arsenical solution described above. If 
you remember that foot rot, as a rule, occurs on damp, swampy land in rainy weather, or, reversing the 
case, on dry land in torrid weather, where the ground is hard and hot under the feet, under such circum- 
stances you will do well in always keeping a careful watch on your flock, and on the first symptoms of 
the disease manifesting itself adopt proper measures to prevent its becoming general among the sheep. 

The act of the sheep giving birth to the lamb after completion of the period of 
Parturition. gestation, which in this animal extends over a period of five months, or, to come 

nearer still to the general average, from 145 to 150 days. There is a marked 
nervous disturbance at the last stage of gestation, the womb in its effort to expel the now full grown 
fetus making violent contractions. The act of birth itself is very much the same as seen in all mammalia, 



440 PARTURITION. 



consisting in successive contractions and efforts as the labors progress. During the act the pains grow 
in intensity, until through the expansion of the genital organs attending upon the continued efforts, 
the vagina and womb become one large distended cavity, and the delivery takes place. In the case of 
sheep producing twins they may be born immediately one after another, or several, days may elapse 
between the first and second birth. Keep the ewe quiet and comfortable during the period of gestation 
in order to guard against premature delivery. Improper hygienic surroundings, dietetic changes, chasing 
by dogs or children, etc., may be followed by abortion and result fatally to the sheep. In order to have 
ewes fit for breeding and producing healthy offspring, the owner should bear two things in mind: The 
first is that he must see to it that the ewe is well nourished, feeding her on special feed if necessary and 
adding Davis Stock Food to the ration. An emaciated, debilitated mother is unfit to bear and may die 
during delivery, the act and pains being doubled and trebled in length and severity. Another thing to 
bear in mind is that the period of gestation should be so arranged that the delivery of necessity must not 
take place in very cold weather. This is often fatal to the ewe as well as the offspring. If tumors or 
other obstructions should exist in the genital organs, they must be removed before the birth of the lamb. 
In cases of rigidity of the tissues leading into the vaginal cavity, from whatever cause, it may be relieved 
by applications of warm water douches, or smearing the entrance with extract of belladonna. Sometimes 
an operation may be necessary to produce delivery and this should be performed as follows: Bare the 
arm to the shoulder and disinfect it in the same way as directed in the chapter on parturition in the cow,, 
then pass the hand into the opening in the vagina. This, being much smaller than the opening in the 
cow or mare, is not always an easy matter, but by using a liberal amount of vaseline, being careful not 
to lacerate the membranes, it may be done; now pass a probe pointed bistoury into the vagina and 
make three slight incisions, one in the upper floor, and two extending to both sides, beginning where the 
upper one left off and running sidewise and downward. These incisions are made in the so called os, 
about midway in the vaginal cavity, and rightly done the operation will enable the animal to make 
delivery. However, it must be done by a skilled hand, and you should not attempt to do it yourself 
until you have seen it done by a veterinarian a number of times. Such an operation must not be resorted 
to except as a last resort, as it unfits the ewe for subsequent breeding. If malposition of the fetus exists, 
making it impossible for the mother to deliver it, and if you are not used to handling such cases, you had 
better call in a skilled veterinarian, watch him working, and then you may learn by degrees how to 
perform the operation. In all less complicated cases of this kind, however, you can readily perform 
the operation yourself. Thus, if the head and one foreleg only is presented, as gently as possible press 
the fetus back into the cavity, get hold of the missing leg, bring it in position with the other, and then 
let the mother take care of the rest. Always vaseline hands and arms well when you make these opera- 
tions. In the same way, if the head alone is presented, both fore legs missing, press back the head, get hold 
of the missing legs, bring them in natural position with the head, and let the mother proceed with the 
delivery. If the two fore legs protrude, but the head is missing, bring your vaselined hand gently into 
the opening, find the head, put a finger into the mouth of the fetus or get your hand around its snout, 
catching hold gently but firmly enough to bring the head out and in natural position with the two legs. 
If the side of the fetus only presents in the opening, the entire body must be so turned as to bring it 
into the natural position (fore legs and head protruding). This requires some skill, patience and judg- 
ment, and if you are not used to doing it, better have a veterinarian show you how ; the same holds good 
where the back only is presented. If the fetus should be turned backward in the womb, the breech 
presenting with the hind legs missing, you can bring about delivery by pushing back the fetus, standing 
it on its head until you can get hold of one of the hind legs, ..bring this into position in the opening, then 
repeat the process, bringing out the other, and assist the mother by gently pulling the lamb out backward. 
If the fetus is too large, it is necessary to cut it up and extract it piece by piece. This you, cannot do 
until you have watched a skilled veterinarian do it a number of times. Too much care cannot be 
exercised in assisting delivery to keep hands and arms well oiled and scrupulously clean, also being 
careful that no foreign substances are allowed to enter in the process. If this is not done, septic poisoning 
with death of the animal is liable to set in afterward. Carbolized sweet oil may be substituted for 
vaseline to oil the arm and lubricate the passage. Be very careful not to lacerate any of the organs. 
If retention of the fetal membranes occurs after delivery (they normally are expelled promptly after 



PARTURITION. 441 



delivery, and if retained for twenty-four hours or over may cause septic poisoning) take the projecting 
portions, twist them around a stick, pulling gently and steadily. This, as a rule, will be all that is neces- 
sary. After the operation you may either give the ewe 4 ounces of Epsom salts, or the following prepara- 
tion: Epsom salts, 2 ounces; nitrate of potash, 1 dram; powdered ginger, 1 dram; carbonate of ammonia, 
20 grains. Dissolve this in 8 or 10 ounces of water and give it to the patient in one drench. Good 
effects may also be produced by administering this to the ewe a week or ten days before parturition is due. 

known also as Flooding or Postpartem Hemorrhage, sometimes occurs due to 
Bleeding, retention of the fetal membranes after delivery, or when they are too quickly and 

abruptly torn from their fastenings ; great exhaustion, attendant upon painful 
and protracted labor, where the womb has been weakened and the contractions of the gland are imper- 
fect, may also be the cause. It should be met by a quick and effective tonic stimulant, as for instance: 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 drams; alcohol, 2 drams; sulphuric ether, 2 drams. To this should 
be added x /% pint of water, and it should be administered immediately as a drench. If, after this is 
done, the womb on inspection is found distended and full of clots of blood, inject warm water with a 
syringe and gently rinse it. After the cleansing process, administer the following: Tincture of iron, 
4 drams; warm water, 1 pint. This should be syringed or otherwise injected into the uterus, after which 
cool off the vulva with cold water and give the patient 2 drams of fluid extract of ergot. 

or Inversion of the Womb, may exist either partially or completely. If a new 

ProlapSUS affection, discovered ,in time, it may be easily corrected, the inverted portion 

Uteri, of the organ being washed with carbolized water, then starting at the farthest 

protruding part, press forward and inward, thus simply turning it back iftto its 
normal position. If the trouble has been allowed to go on for a prolonged period it may be necessary 
to sacrifice the organ, lightly criss crossing it with a knife, cutting nothing but the surface, applying 
common table salt, or a compound of salt, ginger and powdered allspice, then turning the organ back to 
its normal position. If gangrenous conditions exist, it may be necessary to amputate the entire uterus 
to save the life of the patient. Take a needle with a double thread, pass it through the neck of the organ, 
reaching in as far as possible. Now sever the ends of the thread close to the needle, thus producing four 
separate ends; then take the ends of one thread and tie an ordinary knot, making it tight, thus enclosing 
and effectually stopping the circulation of half the stem. Repeat the process, doing the same with, the 
other thread, and thereupon sever the parts outside the suture with a sharp knife. When you have 
amputated the uterus, you must place the patient in such a position that the hind parts are raised. It 
is not advisable for you to perform this operation yourself until you have had a skilled veterinarian 
to show you how. The same holds good if after the womb in simple prolapsus has been returned into 
position it tends to fall outward again. It may then be necessary to suture with sterilized silk through 
the lips of the vagina, or employ other methods for holding the organ in place. Call in a veterinarian 
and have him perform the operation. 

may be complicated with prolapsus of the womb or exist separately. It is 
VaginaJ. akin to the former disorder. It is most often met with together with premature 

Inversion ' rupture of the fetal membranes, the waters escaping too early. Or the cause 

may be extraction of the fetus in an abrupt and brutal manner, causing lacera- 
tion and tearing of the tender membranes which line the vagina, combined with the underlying tissues. 
This "may produce a flaccid and nerveless condition of the organs, which in turn produces the inversion 
after the lamb is born; straining due to after pains also occasionally produces this condition, or abortion 
or retention of the fetal membranes may produce it. Lack of firmness and proper tone in the parts 
may produce it even in ewes that are not pregnant, just as injury of any kind to the parts or other abnormal 
conditions are likely to bring it about. The condition may easily be discovered by the projection from 
the vulva, forming a round, reddish, protruding mass, especially prominent when the animal is lying 
down. To the experienced eye of the stock breeder it is easy to distinguish between this disorder and 
inversion of the uterus; in vaginal inversion the protruding mass is perfectly smooth and on its under 
surface a furrow leads to the urethra, the entrance to the uteri in some cases being discernible in 
the middle of the mass. It is a disorder which needs prompt treatment if serious consequences 
are not to ensue. 



442 PARTURITION. 



Treatment. — Prepare a warm, soothing, antiseptic wash of Phenalin, apply this gently with a 
clean sponge, then, starting from each side, at the lips of the vulva, commence to turn the edges inward, 
continuing to apply the antiseptic with the sponge at intervals, gently handling and manipulating the 
mass until it returns to its natural position. If the organs have become lacerated in any way a suitable 
astringent may be required, and made up as follows: Lead acetate, 1 ounce; water, 1 pint. Dissolve 
the acetate of lead in the water, and add 2 ounces of laudanum. Inject this into the vagina, and if it 
is required you may insure against a subsequent inversion by taking a deep suture through the vulva. 
This must not be done except when absolutely necessary. 

or Inflammation of the Vagina, usually is brought about by some injury sus- 
Vaginitis, tained by the organ in the act of parturition; complication in the form of inflam- 

mation of the womb is often present, making it a serious trouble. It may be 
discovered by the swollen appearance of the lips of the vulva, the membranous lining of the cavity 
attaining a livid or deep red, inflamed color; the parts are then feverish, hot and dry, and the natural 
mucus secretion is absent. There is pain when urinating; intense itching; as the trouble progresses, 
the suspended secretion of mucus reappears in the form of a serous fluid, streaked with blood and turning 
into an offensive, purulent discharge. This, where the inflammation is pronounced, may assist in bringing 
about a gangrenous condition, the patient dying of septic poisoning. 

Treatment. — Wash with warm water, then use astringent injections, same treatment as recom- 
mended in vaginal inversion may be resorted to. If there are symptoms of gangrene, administer iron 
and quinine internally and dress the organs with carbolized oil. 

or Inflammation of the Womb, is a grave complication, which may be brought 
Metritis, about by injury to the organs during labor, retention of the fetal membranes, 

introduction of septic material, exposure during parturition, etc. 
Symptoms.- — Hurried respirations ; congestion of the visible membranes ; face of patient is haggard 
and distressed" pulse full and throbbing; vulva swollen; lining of vagina red and inflamed; bowels 
constipated; secretion of milk suppressed; a reddish thick fluid (at the start clear) exudes from the 
vagina; patient lies down and can onb* be aroused with difficulty; abdomen may be distended; 
temperature in fatal cases remains high. 

Treatment. — First give a good dose of Epsom salts. Or better, make up the following compound: 
Epsom salts, 2 ounces; common salt, 2 ounces; ginger, 1 dram; molasses, 8 ounces. Mix this thoroughly 
and give it to the patient in one dose. You should also be careful to place the patient in dry, warm and 
comfortable quarters. The sheep is a cleanly animal and you may improve its condition materially 
by seeing that its bedding is always fresh and sweet. Should the udder be swollen, bathe it several 
times a day with hot water, afterward applying a soothing, refreshing ointment, as, for instance, Ben- 
zoated lard, 2 drams; poke root, powdered, Yi ounce. Apply this gently to the inflamed surface. In 
case of malignant parturient fever, which is always caused by septic poisoning and erysipelas, a very 
serious condition, which may be carried from one ewe to another by the lamber, you may treat it in the 
same way as Metritis, the symptoms being also very much alike, except that they here are evidenced 
in an aggravated form. The progress of the disease is very rapid, and fatality common, coma generally 
being present before death. In treating it first syringe out the womb thoroughly with a warm antiseptic 
wash. You may use permanganate of potash to the extent of 1 dram in 1 pint of water, or carbolic 
solutions, one part carbol to forty parts water, are good. Internally administer iron and quinine, or 
salicylic acid together with carbolic acid ; give often but in minute doses. Then use such agents as aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, alcohol, etc., to keep up the strength of the patient: Carbolic acid, m. iii; and sal- 
icylic acid, grs. x, dissolved in 1 ounce of gruel and given in a single dose, repeated every two hours, 
is the correct proportion for this form of treatment; or you may substitute with the following: Tincture 
-ride of iron, y 2 ounce; sulphate of quinine, 1 dram; water, 12 ounces. Mix this thoroughly and give 
it in 1-ounce doses, repeating every two hours. Then give the following as a stimulant: Aromatic spirits 
of ammonia, 3 ounces; alcohol, 3 ounces; sulphuric ether, 3 ounces. Give 1 ounce of this in 4 ounces 
of water, repeating every three or four hours. Warm fomentations to the inflamed udder should 
be frequently applied. Ointment of poke root and lard should be used as a dressing between the 
entations. Always take the lamb from the mother as soon as the attack is discovered. 



AFFECTIONS OF THE LAMB. 443 



also known as Garget or Mastitis, is simply congestion of the udder, due either 
Mammitis, to exposure, abrasions from contact with stony ground when the animal lies 

down, or it may be caused by the circumstance that the ewe only has one lamb, 
unable to consume the full supply of milk contained in the udder ; it may also be a complication of par- 
turient fever or other diseases of the genital organs. It is a frequent and serious disease in ewes, at 
times fatal, and at times causing a permanently enlarged, abnormal condition of the udder, unfitting 
the ewe for breeding purposes. 

Symptoms. — Swelling of the gland, commencing as a rule at the teats, and spreading rapidly; 
secretion of milk is partially suspended ; milk is often streaked with blood ; swelling of the udder is hard 
and tense to the touch ; if septic poisoning sets in these symptoms are aggravated and disease likely to 
result fatally. There are also symptoms of fever; patient is dull; appetite is lost; pulse is rapid and 
hard ; rumination suspended ; skin of the udder flaming red (in severe cases it may turn black with the 
setting in of mortification) ; there is gradual sloughing of the gangrenous portion of the gland ; patient 
loses flesh rapidly, and blood-poisoning may cause death. The disease is considered contagious, it is 
quick in its course, and death may ensue in twenty -four hours in severe cases. Even if the patient should 
recover, the udder is liable to remain enlarged and abnormal, and the ewe should not be used as a breeder 
any more. 

Treatment. — Take the lamb from the affected animal; raise it by bottle, or transfer it to another 
ewe, if convenient. Bathe the udder in warm water, dissolving 2 ounces of baking soda in every quart 
of water. Dress the gland with camphorated oil after the wash. Internally give a good dose of Epsom 
salts (4 ounces) and if high fever is present, give aconite. In case of blood poisoning try quinine and 
iron, also poke root; anticipate the affection with this if possible. Administer the medicine in J/^j tea- 
spoonful doses every three or four hours. If abscesses have formed, open them and press out the contents, 
then wash out the scars with an antiseptic fluid, keeping them clean and sweet. If gangrene has set in 
the only way is to amputate the part affected, and a veterinarian should do this by incising the parts inside 
the line of demarcation, thus preventing too much hemorrhage. After the operation dress the wound 
carefully with oil of turpentine, renewing at least once a day. The recovery from this affection is slow, 
and in the process the patient usually slips its fleece. 



AFFECTIONS OF THE LAMB. 

may be caused by an interrupted circulation in the navel (umbilical cord), 
Asphyxia too much pressure being brought to bear on it in the passage of the fetus from 

the womb. When you discover signs of asphyxia in the fetus during the act 
of parturition or immediately after, clean all secretions from the nostrils, close up the mouth, then blow 
into the nose. If you succeed in restoring the breathing, give the lamb a gentle stimulant or pour a few 
drops of brandy into the nose, then place it with its mother, where it can be warm and comfortable and 
it will soon recover. 

technically known as Umbilical Hemorrhage, may be caused by the cord being 
Hemorrhage cut off too close to the body. Nitrate of silver, tannic acid, etc., applied as 
from the Navel, astringents, will usually effectually overcome this disorder. If, however, 

inflammation of the umbilical cord exists (the disease known as navel ill), the 
case becomes more serious, and may result in blood poisoning, often terminating fatally. As a rule the 
affection spreads from the umbilical vein to the surrounding tissues. A clot forms at the umbilicus, 
attended by suppuration and a pervious opening or fistula appears at the base of the organ. Ultimately 
the whole course of the vein, as far in as the liver, becomes inflamed, and the trouble results in death. 
Symptoms.— In normal state the navel cord after birth dries and withers away. When inflamed 
it remains moist and gradually swells, projecting from the navel, being hard and unyielding to the touch, 
its size being about that of an ordinary penholder or pencil; it emits a thin, viscid fluid, without any 



444 AFFECTIONS OF THE LAMB. 



odor. Lamb is dull ; prefers lying down ; if made to get up it will stand with its back arched, drawing 
its feet together under the body; it does not show any inclination to suck its mother, breathes heavily, 
and seems to be in pain. These symptoms aggravate as the disease goes on; navel is swollen and painful 
to the touch; bowels loose; fluid from the cord becomes offensive, urine scanty, often red in color; mem- 
branes take on a yellowish hue, showing that the liver is implicated; there are swellings in different parts 
of the bodv, and the patient dies in the course of a short time after these appear. 

Treatment. — Prevention. If there is a tendency to the trouble, the first thing to do is to observe 
scrupulous cleanliness around the patient. Be careful that the newly severed cord does not come in 
contact with a dirty floor or other filthy surfaces; immediately after birth annoint the just severed cord 
with Phenalin or some other powerful antiseptic. This simple remedy alone will in the majority of cases 
act as a deterrent of the affection, and not very many of the lambs will contract or succumb to navel ill, 
even in a large flock of sheep. If, however, the disease is once contracted, it will be found a difficult 
matter to treat or cure it. As a rule the patient will succumb. In case it does recover, it will take time 
and patience, and it will never amount to a very valuable sheep. Try the following treatment: Acid 
carbolic (sol.), y 2 dram; acid salicylic, 20 grains; water, 2 ounces. Mix this well, and give as an injection 
three or four times daily. Give antidotes or agents counteracting blood poisoning as internal treatment. 
Salicylate of soda, 10 grains every hour, giving 15 minims of the tincture of iron (med.), alternately, 
may be tried with good results. As a feed, fresh cow's milk, diluted with warm water in proportion of 
one-third, or warm skimmed milk should be used. The ewe should be well fed on a substantial nourishing 
diet, allowing her 1 teaspoonful of Davis Stock Food to each feed. 

If the disease should appear in a flock in the form of an epidemic, you must first of all change the 
sheep from the old pastures where they have grazed to fresh ones, then carefully watch each lamb as soon as 
delivered, and if any symptoms of navel ill should be present treat it as above advised. 

means the expellation of the fetus from the womb in a semideveloped state. 

Abortion If dropped twenty days or more before the proper time of delivery, we call it an 

abortion. Various causes may produce this — inclement weather, climatic changes 
from warm to cold especially; cold drizzling rains, to which the ewe is exposed, may be the reason, or 
improper feed, overfeeding, too highly concentrated, stimulating feed, etc.; also too much cold water, 
moldy, smut covered grain, etc., sometimes produce abortion, and should so far as possible be elim- 
inated in the care of the pregnant ewe. Still other causes may be sudden fear, the chasing of the animal 
by children or dogs, purgative medicines, neglect, starvation, tupping of the ewe by a ram. Last but 
not least should be mentioned bacteria, which enter the vagina of the pregnant ewe, and by setting up 
irritation and excitation, may produce abortion in a very brief period. This is by far the most frequent 
and serious condition causing the disorder, and deserves to be specially enlarged upon, it coming under 
the head of infectious abortion. 

Scientifically we now catalogue this disorder as a specific disease, produced by 

Infectious bacteria entering the vagina of the ewe, the same having been demonstrated to 

Abortion. be the case in pregnant dairy cows. It has also been conclusively demonstrated 

that it is a highly contagious affection, and if you introduce a ewe which is 

smitten with the disease to your flock of pregnant females it will be almost sure to cause a large number 

of abortions. Experiments so far have been restricted mainly to cows, but there is no doubt but that 

it is very much alike in both species of animals. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; sheep refuses to feed; uneasiness; frequent bleating. These symptoms, 
at first light, quickly aggravate, then labor pains commence, and in the course of a few hours' time the 
abortion occurs. If these symptoms indicate the approach of the abortion it is generally the result of 
incorrect diet or fear, while if infection produces it there is but slight, if any, warning. It may be stated 
here that abortion in the ewe is often followed by inversion of the womb or vagina or both of these 
organs. After the animal has expelled the fetus it should therefore be carefully watched and treated as 
soon as symptoms of this trouble manifest. 

Treatment. — Prevention is better than a cure, here as elsewhere. Change of pastures, as soon 
as tendency to abort manifests in your sheep, will often check it; of course you must separate the animals 
which already have succumbed from the remainder of the sheep. Look to the cause and remove it. 



AFFECTIONS OF THE LAMB. 445 



Should the season be cold and wet and the pasturage upon which the sheep have fed, low and 
swampy, immediately remove them _to higher altitudes, if possible, and substitute the watery, 
succulent diet with one of dry fodder. If the pregnant animal has been exposed to excitement or fear, 
and abortion seems imminent, place her in a quiet, comfortable place, and administer a soothing nerve 
tonic — opium, chloroform, or viburnum prunifolium, given in teaspoonful doses as fluid extract — and 
you may stay the abortion. If, however, it should take place, at once remove the fetus and all its mem- 
branes, either burning or burying it deeply with quicklime. Be careful that your hands do not come in 
contact with any member of the healthy flock while you handle the aborting ewe and her fetus, as this 
may produce infection, and before you know it every ewe in your flock will abort. After the process 
of abortion, if any of the membranes are retained in the uterus, you may cause their expellation by 
administering the following preparation: Powdered fennel, 2 ounces; bicarbonate of soda, 2 ounces; 
laurel berries, powdered, 2 ounces. This should be infused in 2 quarts of water, and the patient given 
an 8-ounce dose every six hours or so, until relieved. If your flock is but a small one and it is practicable, 
you may, if you have cause to fear that infectious abortion has been contracted, wash the vulva and 
base of the tail with an antiseptic wash, as, for instance, Phenalin, or a 5 per cent watery solution of car- 
bolic acid. This, as a rule, will have the desired effect, staying the act. In administering the wash 
see that a small portion of it is gently injected into the vagina. Of course, if your flock is a large one, 
it would not be quite possible for you to administer such individual treatment and the other methods 
suggested must be followed. However, whenever you fear that an animal is going to abort, it will be 
well for you to immediately separate her from the remainder of the sheep, and keep her by herself for a 
week or two. An exhausted ram, having served too many ewes, also at times is to blame for abortion; 
this you may remedy by limiting the number of animals to each ram, rather keeping a surplus of these 
in stock than have them serve in an exhausted condition. Feed the pregnant ewe rather sparingly, 
preferring dry feeds to watery, such as turnips, roots and succulent grasses; give 1 teaspoonful of Davis 
Stock Food to each feed, to keep the digestion and circulation in order. Always remember that the sheep, 
and more especially the pregnant ewe, is a high strung animal, requiring the best of care and attention, 
hygiene, sanitation and feeding, if you would culture her into a first class breeder, producing strong, 
healthy offspring. 



There is no good reason why the sheep industry of the United States should not be the greatest 
of its kind in the world. On the slopes of the Pacific Coast, on the plains of Arizona and New Mexico, 
on the prairies of the great and prosperous Northwest, Minnesota, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and throughout 
the middle states, throughout the Rocky Mountain regions of the West, and winding in and out on the 
slopes of the Blue Mountain Ridge, in the fair valleys of Virginia; in short, at any geographical point 
throughout the length and breadth of America, are immense areas of land ideally suited for sheep 
pasturage, and often for nothing else. The sheep are a hardy race, and will live and thrive on pasturage 
where no other domestic animal could sustain life. If a little care and good judgment is used in its breeding, 
and the various diseases to which it is peculiarly liable, and which have been set forth in this treatise, 
are eradicated and eliminated from the flocks by the simple means suggested, it will, with less care and 
attention, pay better dividends to its owner than are derived from most of the other animal industries. 
If you take proper care of the digestive and circulatory functions of your sheep, always bearing in mind 
that the sheep in its nervous make up ranks among the most highly organized and sensitive of our domestic 
animals, it will live and thrive under almost any climatic conditions, yielding ample returns. 

Davis Stock Food will prove an invaluable aid in making your flock profitable if the methods 
suggested are followed, always remembering that its first mission is to maintain the health of the 
animal and its constant use will pay big dividends. Its formula is your property; we have nothing to 
conceal and nothing to fear. We ask your confidence and take you into ours, knowing that it is to our 
mutual advantage. 



THE HOG. 



Odd and interesting indeed is the fact that the hog, one of the most valuable and indispensable 
animals in the domestic group which man has gathered around him for service and sustenance of life, 
is at the same time, one might say, the most despised among all the species, the contradiction going so 
far as to always identify and compare anything unclean, vulgar, low and filthy with the general make 
up of the hog. As long as we continue to depend upon the hog as one of our main sources of meat, it 
would be well for us not to heap any more abuse and contempt upon his fat shoulders than he actually 
deserves; and it is a fact, that if only the farmer will give the same care and attention to this animal 
as he bestows upon his other stock, guarding it as carefully against disease, seeing that the same amount 
of sanitation and hygiene is imparted into its care and quarters, the hog will in the main prove itself 
as cleanly and well bred a member of the inhabitants of the farmyard and pastures as any of his fellows. 
Treat him well, see that his quarters are kept as clean and sweet as possible, feed him properly, guard him 
against the diseases to which his family is liable, and you will find that the offensiveness and filthy condi- 
tions which before surrounded him as a halo will largely disappear. In this treatise we shall endeavor 
to tell you just how to treat your swine when affected with any of the diseases common to his kind; 
while in another part of this work you will find a general description of this much abused friend of man, 
whose meat properly prepared from healthy hogs furnishes a large percentage of the best and 
cheapest food available for the human race throughout the world. In treating upon the various 
diseases of the swine we are first of all concerned with what is popularly known as Hog Cholera. 

The yearly losses from this disease in the United States are without a doubt 
Hog Cholera. large. In this connection it should not be inferred that all the affections of 

the swine come under this same classification, as is believed in some quarters. 
The farmer not familiar with the specific conditions under which diseases may be separated and classified, 
having no means to ascertain the differentiation in symptoms and conditions under which disease appears 
in the hog, is prone to call all its maladies cholera. This, however, is wrong; for although it has been 
scientifically demonstrated that the conclusion of some of our most advanced and intelligent farmers, 
that there exists a widespread and destructive plague to which the name hog cholera may be appro- 
priately applied, the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, which in a most thorough and systematic 
manner, with all necessary resources at its comma'nd, has conducted investigations along this line, at 
the same time has shown that side by side with hog cholera there exists another disease called swine 
plague, which seems to be almost as common and fatal as the former. In order to compare the two. 
and show you in so far as possible how and where they differentiateNve will go on with our story, 
alternatingly acquainting you with the symptoms and characteristics of both. 

The two diseases resemble each other very closely in symptoms, and it requires 

Hog Cholera an examination of the internal organs after the animal's death, in many cases 

and Swine even a microscopical study, to clearly distinguish between them. It is, however, 

Plague. fortunate, that, according to the Bureau of Animal Industry, it is quite possible 

to formulate methods for the prevention, cure and eradication of the diseases 

in question which may be applied with equal success in both instances. In fact, hog cholera and swine 

plague are not only similar in symptoms, but also in their effect upon the bodies of the affected animals.' 

Both are caused by bacteria, and both must be combated by measures which will prevent exposure to 

—446— 



THE HOG. 447 



these bacteria or destroy them after they have once been- introduced upon the premises. The sick 
animals must be treated with remedies which will reduce the fever, stop the multiplication of the germs, 
and assist the affected organs in resuming their normal functions. We are largely indebted to the Bureau 
of Animal Industry — the best source in the world without a doubt — for the valuable and excellent statistics 
upon which the following dissertation is based, we, in so far as possible, holding ourselves to its language 
and conclusions in our compilation. 

The difficulty of distinguishing between hog cholera and swine plague is, for the reasons previously 
set forth, therefore, of no great consequence in the practical work of controlling and eradicating them with 
which the farmer is concerned. To know that one or the other of the two affections is present will as a 
rule suffice, because this knowledge leads at once to the adoption of the measures applicable to the treat- 
ment of infectious diseases. If you only are reasonably certain that your swine suffer from either of the 
two maladies in question, you may safely make use of the treatment recommended here, for the reason 
that the agents which destroy one of these germs will also, as a rule, destroy the other. 

There are other infectious diseases which at times attack hogs, but they have either never been 
introduced into this country or have never approached in their destructive character the two diseases 
mentioned. The erysipelas of the European continent appears to be the most destructive of the swine 
diseases in the' countries where it is known. But it is unknown in America. It was a few years ago 
proposed by enthusiastic though reckless investigators to introduce the virus of the erysipelas as a 
vaccine for the prevention of hog cholera; but subsequently the Bureau of Animal Industry dem- 
onstrated that the diseases were not similar ; that hog cholera could not be prevented by the vaccine of 
erysipelas, and that the only effect of the proposed measure would be the introduction of a new plague, 
probably as destructive as' the dreaded hog cholera itself. There is a disease known as anthrax, which 
may attack all species of the warm blooded animals and sometimes affects the hogs in limited areas 
of this country. The disease does not spread from farm to farm with the rapidity that is common 
with hog cholera, nor does it extend nearly so far in distance. When it does exist, cattle and sheep, 
often horses also, are likewise affected; and the hogs usually contract it from eating the carcasses of 
animals that have died with it. It is a disease confined to certain regions of the country, reappearing 
there year after year. It is not a common disease among hogs. 

These are about the only diseases liable to be mistaken for hog cholera and swine plague, and 
as one of them has never been seen in this country, and as the other is infrequent and more often affects 
other species of animals, it is plain that any contagious disease confined to swine which breaks out in 
this country is in all probability either hog cholera or swine plague. 

Characteristics.— Hog cholera and swine plague are both very fatal and destructive. They 
affect hogs in all parts of the United States', and cause heavy losses, which have been estimated to reach 
$10,000,000 to $25,000,000 annually. And it is impossible to say which of the two causes the greater 
losses, owing to their close resemblance, but both are spread by infection and are equally common. 

Among young pigs hog cholera is especially fatal, and they are often attacked while the older 
animals go free. The latter have greater power of resistance to the virus, and this power, also known 
as immunity, is increased when hogs have been exposed and only so slightly infected that they have 
recovered after a short illness, without showing any of the evident symptoms of the disease. That is 
to say, if hog cholera breaks out among a herd of swine and is checked and apparently eradicated by 
proper treatment, the hogs that are saved are capable of resisting the contagion on the premises, "while 
purchased hogs that have not been exposed will, when put with the others, contract the disease and die. 
This demonstrates that the virus has been left upon the premises and the hogs have been saved, not 
by the destruction of the contagion, but by keeping the infected hogs alive until they became immune. 
This is an important thing to know, and one which you will do well in always remembering when 
trying to guard against the disease in your herd. 

The virus of the hog cholera is the more tenacious and resisting of the two, and is also more 
easily spread and communicated to healtrfy animals. Swine contract hog cholera by taking the virus 
into the body with the feed and drink, by inhaling it with the air,_and less frequently its gaining entrance 
through the surface of a fresh wound. The virus of the swine plague, on the other hand, is generally, 
if not always, taken into the lungs with the inhaled air. The time elapsing between the infection and 



THE HOG. 



appearance of the first symptoms of illness, is known as the incubation period, and varies from four 
to twenty days. In the course of this period the germs multiply slowly and gradually overcome the 
vital powers of the animal by means of poisonous substances which they produce as the result of their 
th. As soon as the first symptoms of the disease show you should at once take the infected 
animal in hand and place it under proper treatment, as hereinafter described. 

Symptoms. — In the worst cases the animals die very suddenly, either before sickness has been 
observed or after they have been ill but a few hours. Such cases are met with most often when the 
disease first appears in a herd. As a rule, however, the progress is slower, and there is therefore a much 
better opportunity to observe the symptoms. Most prominent among these in the two diseases we 
have under consideration are feverishness; shivering; unwillingness to move; more or less loss of appe- 
tite; elevation of temperature, which may reach 106 or 107 degrees Fahrenheit; the animal is stupid and 
dull, and has a tendency to hide in the litter or bedding and remain covered by it. At the start bowels 
may be constipated or normal, but later there is usually a liquid and fetid diarrhea, abundant, exhausting 
and persistent to the end. Eyes at first are congested and watery, but soon the secretion thickens, 
becomes yellowish, accumulates in the angles and gums the lids together. Breathing is rapid; may 
become oppressed and labored in the latter stages. Cough may be present, single or paroxysmal. Skin 
is often congested and red over the abdomen, inner surface of the limbs, under surface of the neck, 
and on the ears. The color varies from a pinkish red to dark red or purple. An eruption is sometimes 
seen, which leaves crusts and scabs of various size over the skin. There is a rapid loss of flesh, the 
animal grows weak, stands with arched back and the abdomen drawn up, and walks with a tottering, 
uncertain gait. There is less and less inclination to move, and the weakness and exhaustion increases 
until death results. 

The symptoms of swine plague in most instances are not materially different from those of hog 
cholera. There is, however, often extensive inflammation of the lungs in swine plague, and in that 
condition the breathing is more oppressed and labored, and the cough more frequent and painful. 
The course of these diseases varies from one or two days to two or three weeks. 

Appearance After Death. — The germs of hog cholera have a habit of collecting or growing in clumps 
in the blood vessels, which leads to a plugging of the smaller vessels, with frequent rupture and escape 
of blood. This causes red spots where the blood leaves the vessels and collects in the solid tissues. In 
swine plague the bacteria are evenly diffused through the blood, never form plugs, and therefore hem- 
orrhages from this cause are not seen. In the worst cases of hog cholera the changes seen in the various 
organs consist principally of these red spots caused by hemorrhages of greater or less extent. The 
spleen is generally enlarged from two to four times its normal size, is soft, and engorged with blood. In 
the chronic form of the disease, however, the spleen is rarely enlarged; the lymphatic glands of the 
affected intestine are enlarged and tough. Lung lesion may be found in the worst cases. The 
subacute and chronic forms of hog cholera are the most common, and the same is the case in swine plague. 
In this form of hog cholera the principal changes are found in the large intestines and consist of ulcers, 
which appear as circular, slightly projecting masses, varying in color from yellowish to black. Occa- 
sionally these ulcers are slightly depressed and uneven in outline. When cut across they are found to 
consist of a firm, solid growth extending nearly through the intestinal wall. In swine plague the lungs 
are often found to be inflamed, and to contain large numbers of small points, which may be made out 
by loss of color, where the life of the tissue has been destroyed. There may also be found in the- lungs 
large cheese like masses from 1J^ to 2 inches in diameter. Inflammation of the serous membrane is 
very common in swine plague ; there also may be congestion of the mucous membrane of the large intes- 
tines, particularly of the large intestine. In hog cholera the first effect of the disease is believed to be 
upon the intestines, the lungs being invaded afterward. In swine plague it is just opposite. Summing 
up the matter we find that the most characteristic lesions in hog cholera consist in (1) ulcerations of the 
large intestines and (2) collapse of the lung tissue, and less frequently, broncho-pneumonia. The most 
characteristic lesions of swine plague are (1) inflammation of lungs; numerous small necrotic points 
in these organs, or a few larger cheesy masses; (2) inflammation of serous membranes with fibrinous 
deposits, and (3) congestion of mucous membrane of intestine, or inflammation of the same with 
fibrinous deposits. 



THE HOG. 449 



In spite of this very distinct differentiation in typical cases, there are many outbreaks where it 
is difficult to make a diagnosis even after the post mortem examination, because both diseases may be 
affecting the same animal at the same time, or the changes may resemble both diseases without being 
very characteristic of either. In such cases only an expert, by microscopical examination and 
cultivation of the germs, is in position to make a reliable diagnosis. 

Causes.- — Both hog cholera and swine plague are caused by bacteria, wh c have now been so care- 
fully studied that they may be easily indentified by persons accustomed to bacteriological research. 
For the layman, however, this is immaterial, and we shall here only mention such causes as are evident 
to the eye, or which may be guarded against by the farmer once he becomes acquainted with them. 
Hog cholera may be produced experimentally (1) by exposing well hogs to diseased ones in the 
same pen ; (2) by feeding the internal organs of diseased carcasses or cultures of the germs ; (3) by 
hypodermic injections of cultures of the germs in doses of J^ to 1 cc. or greater. Swine plague may be 
produced experimentally (1) by cohabitation; (2) by injecting cultures of the germs into the lung tissues. 
Both diseases are produced by injecting cultures of their respective germs directly into the blood vessels. 
From experiments it has been demonstrated that germs of the hog cholera find their way into 
the bodies of swine principally with the feed and drink and with the inspired air ; while those of swine 
plague are taken in almost entirely with the air, or, at least, they almost invariably gain entrance 
through the lungs. 

Diagnosis. — Naturally when your swine have been attacked by disease of any kind the first ques- 
tion that will occur to your mind is, "What is the nature of the disease with which they are affected? 
It is important to consider briefly the evidence upon which this question may be answered. If several 
animals are affected with the symptoms already enumerated, and if the same disease has been affecting 
the hogs on neighboring farms, we may decide that one or both of the diseases in question are present 
since no other epizootic disease has been recognized in this country. In anthrax districts there may 
be occasional small outbreaks of that disease, in which, there is great inflammation and swelling of the 
tongue, or of the throat, or simply a fever with no local swellings. If this disease is anthrax, other species 
of animals, horses, cattle and sheep, will also be affected. If, on examining the carcass after death, 
projecting, button like ulcers are found in the large intestines, we know that hog cholera is present. 
It must be remembered, however, that the ulcers are not found in the most acute cases, but only in the 
subacute or chronic form .of the disease where life is prolonged a sufficient time for them to form. If 
there is inflammation of the lungs, and particularly if cheese like masses are found in the substances of 
these organs, the disease is probably swine plague. Small blood spots in the tissues or scattered over the 
internal organs indicate hog cholera, while inflammation of the serous membranes indicates swine plague. 

Prognosis. — The losses which result from the outbreak of hog cholera and swine plague depend 
partly upon the condition of the hogs — that is, upon their susceptibility to the disease, and partly upon 
the virulence of the contagion in the particular outbreak. If the animals are very susceptible and the 
contagion very virulent, the loss" even in large herds may reach 90 to 95 per cent, or even 100 per 
cent, in those cases where the disease is allowed to run its course. In milder outbreaks or with 
animals more capable of resisting the contagion the losses vary from 20 to 60 per cent. Toward the end 
of an outbreak a larger proportion of animals will recover than at the beginning. A portion of those 
recovering will fatten, but other animals remain lean, stunted in their growth, or never really become 
healthy animals. 

Difference. — It will be in order here to point out a few of the more prominent symptoms, char- 
acteristic of hog cholera, swine plague and swine erysipelas (also called rouget) respectively, in order that 
you may be able in the great majority of cases to distinguish between them. 

You will find that if the case is hog cholera that there are purple spots on the snout, eyes, mouth, 
skin, etc. ; also that the affected hog has a tendency to vomit, its temperature being high, usually running 
up to 104 to 108 degrees Fahrenheit. The patient prefers lying on the side; his belly is tender; move- 
ments feeble; he grunts and shows signs of uneasiness and distress; breathing hurried and difficult; 
cough often present ; if the disease runs on for a couple of weeks, button like ulcers appear on the large 
and small intestines; bowels at the outset are constipated, later bloody; at this stage offensive diarrhea 
is one of the symptoms. 



Sig.39 






450 THE HOG. 



In swine plague you will fiaad congestion of the mucous membrane (a symptom not present in hog 
cholera). On snout, eyes and mouth are purple spots (same as in cholera) but ulcers rarely appear. 
Vomiting, as a rule, is absent, but the temperature, as in the other disease, is high in acute cases. Patient 
may show inclination to lie on his side, the body being rigid and stiff as in cholera, but not so pronounced. 
There is a hard frequent cough, with a wheezy breath. The diarrhea is either entirely absent or much 
less pronounced. 

Lastly, in swine erysipelas, a disease unknown in this country, the mucous membrane is deeply- 
congested, being dark red or even violet in color. The purple spots on the skin are especially prominent 
and extensive. Ulcers are generally absent, vomiting rare, temperature very high, running from 107 
to 109 degrees Fahrenheit. As the disease progresses diarrhea ensues, the animal prefers lying On his 
side, is stiff and appears to be in an exhausted condition. In the latter stages the lungs may become 
affected with frequent coughing. 

Treatment. — Can the two diseases in question be cured? This is naturally the first question you 
are prone to ask, and the one interesting you above all others if your swine have either of them. In 
this connection you should never lose sight of the fact that here as in every other sphere prevention 
far outweighs any amount of curing, and Davis Stock Food used regularly with the herd will prevent it. 
The great aim of the government and the farmers, working in unison, therefore, should be to prevent 
the spread of infectious diseases of all kinds. Every swine raiser should use the utmost precautions 
to prevent the introduction of these plagues into his herd. In spite of such preventive measures many 
herds will become infected. Until the Federal Government or the individual states enforce measures 
of eradication, it is, consequently, legitimate to ask and to answer the question as to proper medical 
treatment. Before formulating this treatment it should be explained that a remedy that will cure every 
case is not to be expected. There has never been discovered a remedy for a single one of the infectious 
diseases of man or animal that will cure every individual attacked. Some forms of these diseases are 
so violent that the animals are dead almost before they are observed to be sick. Under such conditions 
there is no time for the most active remedy to produce a beneficial effect. In many instances, however, 
the outbreak of the malady is less sudden and virulent and there is time to treat the animals after they 
are sick, and also the whole herd after some members of it have shown they are diseased. For a long 
time after beginning the investigations of the infectious diseases of the swine the head of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry who had them in hand was doubtful if any remedy or combination of remedies 
could be made which would produce any marked effect. The experiments of (1904), however, 
indicate that treatment, if- properly applied, may be successful, and the Bureau has developed and 
compounded a number of formulas which may be used with good results. The most efficacious of 
these is given herewith: "v 

Wood charcoal 1 pound. 

Sulphur 1 pound. 

Sodium chloride 2 pounds. 

Sodium bicarbonate 2 pounds. 

Sodium hyposulphite 2 pounds. 

Sodium sulphate 1 pound. 

Antimony sulphide (black antimony) 1 pound. 

Pulverize these ingredients completely and mix them thoroughly. In case there is profuse diarrhea 
the sulphate of sodium may be omitted. The dose of this mixture is 1 large tablespoonful for each 200 
pounds weight of hogs to be treated, and it should be given only once daily. When hogs are affected 
with these diseases they should not be fed on corn alone, but soft feed should be given them at least 
once a day, made by mixing bran and middlings and corn meal, or ground oats and corn, or crushed 
wheat with hot water, stirring Davis Stock Food into this in the proper quantity, 2 tablespoonfuls to 
each hog. Hogs are fond of this mixture; it increases their appetite. Thus they will readily be made to 
take the medicine if the ration is made up as above described. Animals that are very sick and that 
will not come to the feed should be drenched with the medicine shaken up with water. Great care 
should be exercised in drenching hogs or they will be suffocated. Do not turn the hog on its back to 



THE HOG. 451 



drench it, but pull back the cheek away from the teeth so as to form a pouch, into which the medicine may- 
be slowly poured. It will flow from the cheek into the mouth, and when" the hog finds out what it is it 
will stop, squealing and swallow. Hogs which were so sick that they would eat nothing are often 
so much improved a short time after getting a dose of the remedy that they will commence to eat and 
keep on gaining until they appear perfectly well. The medicine for which the formula has been given 
may also be used as a preventive of these diseases and for this reason may with advantage be put in the 
feed of the whole herd. Care should, of course, be observed to see that each animal receives its proper 
share. In cases where it has been given a fair trial, it has apparently cured most animals that were 
sick and has stopped the progress of the disease in the herds. It also appears to be an excellent appetizer 
and stimulant of the processes of digestion and assimilation, and when it and Davis Stock Food both 
are used in the. feed regularly you may rest assured that these important organs are properly taken care 
of and stimulated into healthy activity. The appetite in formerly slovenly and unthrifty hogs is vastly 
improved, they taking on flesh rapidly and assuming a healthy appearance. In giving out these facts 
to the public, Mr. D. E. Salmon, D. V. M., Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, indicates that, while 
from a scientific point of view he should prefer to conduct these experiments for another year before 
recommending this formula as a remedy for the diseases in question, he nevertheless, by the many urgent 
requests which have been made upon him for making public the formula, has let himself be persuaded to 
:nake it public without any further delay (1905). In trying it all farmers are asked to kindly cooperate 
with the Bureau of Animal Industry, trying the mixture when occasion calls for it and report the results 
to the Bureau, in order that the hog raising industry of the entire country may benefit by their experience. 

Success or failure with this remedy depends largely upon the manner in which it is used. If it 
is improperly administered, or the hogs left out in cold storms and compelled to remain day and night 
in mud six inches or a foot deep, under the necessity of searching through this mud to find an ear of corn 
in order to get anything to eat, the farmer might as well save his money and let his hogs die, as nothing 
which so far has been discovered will save them under these conditions. If, however, the sick animals 
can be made reasonably comfortable and dry, and given soft, easily digestible feed to eat, with Davis 
Stock Food added to the ration, the medicine of which we have just given the formula may be used 
with confidence that it will give good returns for its cost and the trouble of its administration. Appar- 
ently, it is not so beneficial in swine plague as in hog cholera. In treating hogs for these diseases it must 
not be forgotten that in nearly all cases there is more or less inflammation of the internal organs, and 
particularly of the stomach and intestines. To treat such diseases successfully the animals should be kept 
dry and comfortable, and where drafts of air will not blow upon them. The feed must be such as can be 
digested by the irritated and inflamed organs, and Davis Stock Food should always be given, in order 
to stimulate the digestive and assimilative functions into healthy activity. With these general principles 
in mind the farmer may undertake to treat his sick hogs with a fair prospect of success. He may not 
save them all, but he should be able to save a good proportion of them. 

The next question -that confronts us is, what disposition should be made of the hogs during treat- 
ment, and what sanitary measures should be adopted in addition to the medical treatment? When 
the hogs are first found to be affected with hog cholera or swine plague the lot or pens where they are 
confined should be disinfected by dusting plentifully with dry, air slacked lime, or by sprinkling with 
a 5 per cent solution of crude carbolic acid. The animals should then all be removed to new quarters. 
If possible the sick and apparently well should be separated before they are removed and put into 
different lots. This is not essential, but is an aid to the treatment. The hogs should be kept in dry 
lots or pens where there is no mud, and above all, no stagnant water. It is well to keep these lots 
disinfected by the free use of air slaked lime or carbolic acid. 

By this supplementary treatment it is not expected that the hogs will be entirely removed from 
the influence and attacks of germs. This is not necessary. The number of germs" which gain access to 
their bodies may be so reduced by following this plan, however, that the vital force of the system, aided 
by Davis Stock Food and the medicine prescribed, is sufficient to overcome them. 

In the course of this treatment the hogs will gain a marked degree of immunity. No doubt this 
is the result of attacks of the disease from which they recover. This recovery is in spite of continued 



452 THE HOG. 



-lion of the premises, and even though the hogs which have gone through the outbreak are apparently- 
well and thriving, new hogs added to the herd are liable to be attacked. For this reason five or six months 
should be allowed to pass before any new hogs are purchased and brought on the premises, or before 
any are sold to be put among other lots of hogs. Young pigs, born under favorable conditions, in some 

re able to resist the infection, while in other cases they may suffer severely and die. If hogs die 
during the outbreak, their carcasses should be carefully burned or deeply buried, and the places where 
they have lain or the ground over which they have been dragged should be disinfected with carbolic 
acid or lime, according to the method already mentioned. 

Sanitary Measures. — Use every effort to prevent the introduction of the contagion on your farm. 
If you purchase hogs from a distance or send your own animals out for exhibition at the fairs, see to 
it that they are transported in clean cars, which were properly disinfected if used for swine transport 
before. When you bring new hogs to the farm or when your own are returned from the exhibition, they 
should be rigidly quarantined and not allowed to come in contact with other hogs on the farm for at 
least six weeks. If you live in the neighborhood of the railroad you should not allow your hogs to run 
at large near the roadbed, especially if you know that swine are being transported over it. Very often 
infected hogs are shipped to market, and there are sufficient droppings from the cars in which they are 
earned to scatter the contagion along the railroad for the whole distance they travel. If the disease 
should occur on a farm in the neighborhood of yours you should take measures to prevent the spread of 
the contagion. Let no one from your household go upon the fields or into the pens where the sick 
animals have appeared and subsequently handle your own- herd. Remember that a particle of 
manure or dirt the size of a mustard seed from any infected farm is sufficient to start an outbreak 
that will destroy a herd of swine. A particle of that size may be carried upon the shoes of a visitor, 
upon the foot of a dog or other animal, upon a wagon wheel, or in a multitude of other ways. No 
intercourse at all at such time is, therefore, the best prevention. Experience shows that hogs kept up- 
in a pen or small lot are less subject to infection when cholera is in the neighborhood than those which 
are allowed to run at large in the fields. It is consequently advisable, when there is reason to fear this 
disease, to keep the animals in a small enclosure, which should be as dry as possible and disinfected once 
a week with air slaked lime or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. A small quantity of carbolic acid 
(3 to 15 drops, according to age) in the drinking water tends to prevent infection and may have a 
beneficial influence upon the course of the disease. 

Prevention. — Proper feeding and breeding may do much to prevent hog cholera and swine plague ; 
in fact, if the swine are kept in a high state of health and vigor immunity in many cases is practically 
insured. Thus it is found that two herds may sometimes run together and be exposed to the same extent ; 
and one of them will be nearly or entirely destroyed, while the other apparently does not suffer in the 
least. These facts lead to the inquiry as to whether it is possible to breed and feed hogs in such a 
way as to largely or entirely prevent disease; the answer at present is that, although enough experiments 
have not as yet been made to absolutely demonstrate this, yet it is clear that much can be accomplished 
in this way, and as the carrying out of the plan at the same time would increase the hardiness and 
thriftiness of the herd it is certainly well worthy of adoption. 

The first principle of this method of prevention is to breed only from mature breeding stock 
which is only distantly or not at all related. The second principle is to select, if possible, animals for 
breeding stock which have shown, by having passed through an outbreak without becoming affected, 
that they possess the power of resisting hog cholera. The third principle is to feed the growing shoats 
upon a variety of feed which will lead to normal and harmonious development of the various organs. 
always taking care to keep the digestive and assimilative organs in a high state of perfection by using 
such an agent as Davis Stock Food with the feed. This should be done regularly, steadily, not in s» 
slipshod way, feeding the stock food today and leaving it out tomorrow. See that the attendant who 
takes care of your hogs gives them the stock food as regularly as the ordinary feed ration (always mixed 
into the feed, 1 tablespoonful to each meal) and you will be surprised at the improvement made on you* 
herd in a short space of time. The application of the above principles must be made by the individual 
breeder in accordance with his circumstances and surrounding conditions. The breeding from matun. 
animals which are not closely related can be easily adopted by anyone. The selection of stock whicfe 



THE HOG. 453 



has shown that it possesses a power of resisting the disease is much more difficult, and in many cases it 
will be impossible for the ordinary farmer, though there are many of the larger breeders who could 
profitably experiment in this direction. 

The diet of corn alone, upon which the hogs of so large a part of the country are raised, has done 
more than anything else to weaken the vital powers of the animals. With wheat selling in the markets 
of the country as low as corn, there is no longer any excuse for limiting the feed of hogs to a single grain. 
Wheat is much better than corn for growing animals, but should be crushed or rolled to give the best 
results. Ground oats, middlings, bran, and peas may also be used to give variety. It is hardly necessary 
to add that during the warm months of the year hogs should have plenty of young grass and clover. 

By intelligently applying these principles in the production of the breeding stock a strain of ani- 
mals may be developed which will be hardy, vigorous, prolific, and much more capable of resisting disease 
than the ordinary inbred and corn fed stock which is now so generally used by farmers of this country. 

This treatise is prepared for your use, if you are a hog raiser anxious to learn something of the 
nature of the diseases to which your stock is liable, their cause, prevention and cure. In compiling 
the chapter on hogs we have followed the method pursued throughout the entire volume, to compile 
our statistics from the very best authorities in the United States and Europe, making all information 
given herein absolutely sound, reliable and up to date in every particular. If you will but take time 
to study up the subjects in which you are specially interested, be it in regard to the horse, the cow, the 
sheep, the hog, or any of the species of the feathered kingdom ; if you will do this, and carefully and intel- 
ligently follow the teachings laid down, the .losses from disease of any kind will be greatly reduced on 
your farm. Use Davis Stock Food regularly and follow the general treatment set forth herein, and you 
will be surprised and pleased with the results. 

When a hog is badly affected with lice, hundreds of eggs will be found on the 
Hog Louse. hair back of the ears, along the front of the shoulders, and on the flanks. The 

freshly deposited egg is bluish white in color, elongated, oval in shape, 1 . 5 mm. 
long, and is enlarged at the end bearing the circular operculum, or lid, which is forced open when the 
young louse is ready to hatch out. The egg is attached at its smaller end to the base of the hair by 
a gluey substance that usually completely encircles tho hair. The surface of the egg is covered with 
small hexagonal punctuations, which give it a honeycomb appearance. The shell of the egg is perforated 
by numerous stomata. The egg will hatch out in about five days after being deposited, according to 
a somewhat antedated work on swine industry, but the Bureau of Animal Industry has modified this, 
and by experiments shown that the time of incubation will vary with changes in the temperature. Exper- 
iments have demonstrated that eggs freshly deposited and kept in a room of ordinary humidity at a 
temperature of 85 degrees Fahrenheit during the months of September hatched out in from fifteen to 
sixteen days, while the eggs placed in a closed dish, containing a receptacle filled with water hatched 
out in the course of twelve days. If you lower the temperature it retards the development of the eggs. 

Injury Done by the Hog Louse. — As a rule but little attention is given by the farmers to this para- 
site, and it therefore seems necessary to give some little attention to the subject here. Every farmer 
and stock raiser is familiar with the frequency and wide distribution of the hog louse, but they do not 
always attribute to it any pathologic or economic importance. When a drove of hogs is not thriving 
properly the more common custom is to pronounce them out of condition, or simply off feed. In such 
cases, if a careful examination be made of the animals, the cause of the unthrifty condition of the herd 
is often directly traceable to the presence on the skin in large numbers of lice or other external parasites. 

When the lice increase to large numbers, as they are likely to do if not destroyed, the skin of the 
animals becomes covered with scales and sores, and in extreme cases swelling and inflammation develop 
as a result of the parasites piercing the skin with their mouths hundreds of times a day in their effort 
to secure blood for food. The irritation thus produced is a source of constant annoyance and worry 
to the hogs, evidenced by their restlessness and incessant rubbing against any convenient object. The 
ultimate effect of such affliction is to seriously interfere with the growth and fattening of hogs, especially 
young pigs. 

Lice not only produce a direct injury to hogs by impairment of the skin, but also, by reason of 
the debilitated condition of the animals which ensues, indirectly create a greater susceptibility- to various 



154 THE HOG. 



>. It has been demonstrated during epidemics of hog cholera that animals affected with lice 
are most susceptible to the disease, and that the percentage of fatalities is greater than among herds free 
from lice. An authority upon the hog and its diseases has therefore recommended as the first treatment 
for hog cholera the destruction of the lice on the animals and disinfection of the pens. The opinion that 
hog lice may cany the infection of hog cholera from sick to healthy animals is not without support 
among some writers on the diseases of hogs. No positive evidence or experiments has been brought forth, 
however, and the possibility of hog lice conveying^ the disease is an open question. The destruction 
of the parasite is a comparatively easy matter, and practical tests have demonstrated the economic 
importance of freeing hogs from pests that deter growth, weaken the general physical condition, and 
render the animals easy prey to contagious maladies. 

Treatment. — In the treatment for hog lice preventive measures as well as destructive remedies 
must be applied. The sleeping quarters of lousy hogs become infested with lice, which crawl off 
the hogs and secrete themselves in the crevices of the building and in the bedding, while the eggs on the 
hair that the hogs shed and rub off will hatch out young lice. These parasites in the building immedi- 
ately reinfest animals from which the lice have been removed by treatment. The selling and slaughtering 
of the majority of hogs at a comparatively early age, and the consequent destruction of lice on 
them in the scalding vat, is naturally a great check to the increase in the number of the parasites. As 
a usual thing, however, an entire herd of hogs is not sold "at one time, and the few remaining animals 
will serve as hosts for the lice in the building until a new drove of hogs is replaced in the same pens, 
when the lice at once begin to multiply rapidly on their new hosts. A thorough treatment, therefore, 
includes the destruction of lice in buildings and pens in addition to the treatment of the animals them- 
selves. If the pens where lousy animals have been kept are left vacant for a period of two weeks all 
lice will have perished, and any new animals introduced will be in no danger of infection. 

For disinfection of buildings a 3 per cent solution of any of the coal tar preparations, to be applied 
with a broom or spray pump, is recommended. 

In experiments made with kerosene emulsion and Texas oil it was demonstrated that the kero- 
sene emulsion — the lice being plunged into it — killed them instantly, while the Texas oil acted more 
slowly. The hogs in the experiment which was made by the Bureau of Animal Industry were sprayed 
twice, two weeks intervening between the two treatments. Kerosene in a 10 per cent solution proved 
successful. Phenalin in a 3 per cent solution also destroyed the lice. The Texas oil in a 10 per cent 
emulsion was found to be absolutely useless. Later experiments with Texas oil in its crude state have 
demonstrated its value as a dip for hogs affected with lice and the itch mite. Fifty-two gallons of oil 
were placed in a tank with 60 gallons of water and the pigs dipped once. A few days after dipping the 
lice were found to have disappeared, and the scab mites with which the animals were severely affected 
were also destroyed. 

The foregoing account of results of experiments with different remedies used against the hog 
louse shows that the tollowing are successful, cheap, easily prepared, and readily applied: Kerosene 
emulsion, kerosene and water, kerosene (pure, but to be used with caution), Beaumont oil, and benzine 
emulsion (not much used). The lime and sulphur dip recommended as a cure for scabies in cattle and 
hogs was tried as a remedy for lice on hogs but has not as yet been sufficiently tested for a statement of 
results at this time. 

Formulas of Oil Emulsions. — (I). Kerosene emulsion is prepared according to the proportions 
in the following formulas: 

(a). Hard soap, J^ pound (one-half bar common soap). 
Kerosene, 2 gallons. 
Water, 1 gallon. 

Boil the water and soap until the latter is dissolved, remove from the fire, then add kerosene and 
churn or agitate vigorously till an emulsion is formed. This emulsion if thoroughly mixed will form 
a gelatinous mass on cooling; it keeps indefinitely and may be used at any time by diluting with warm 
water to 20 gallons. If used after cooling, the mixture should be heated again (great care must be 



THE HOG. 455 



used in heating the second time because of the inflammable kerosene present, and for safety the 
mixture should be heated out of doors) and then thoroughly mixed a second time, 
(b). Soft soap, 1 quart. 

Hard soap, 34 pound. 
Water, 2 quarts. 

Mix as in preceding formula and dilute with 1 gallon of warm water. Reheat as in formula (a), 
(c). Sour milk, 4 gallons. 
Kerosene, 2 gallons. 

Mix the milk and kerosene and dilute with warm water to 20 gallons. 
This formula has the advantage over other methods of making kerosene emulsions, as it avoids 
T;he necessity of making a soap mixture, the milk acting as an emulsifier. 
(d). Hard soap, Yi pound. 
Pyrethrum, 33^ pounds. 
Kerosene, 2 gallons. 
Water, 1 gallon. 
Boil the water and soap until the latter is dissolved. Extract the pyrethrum with the kerosene 
by stirring the pyrethrum and kerosene together and allowing the mixture to stand for twenty-four 
hours, then pour off the liquid. The kerosene extract is then mixed with the soap solution, as in 
formula (a). For use dilute with warm water to 20 gallons. Reheat as in formula (a). 

The pyrethrum is said to add to the effectiveness of the emulsion. The kerosene emulsion when 
prepared should not have oil drops rising to the surface. If drops of oil are seen it is proof that the emul- 
sion has not been sufficiently churned or agitated to emulsify the mixture. Golf, an authority upon the 
subject, recommends a spraying pump for mixing kerosene and water, which mixture is said to be more 
penetrative than an emulsion. This pump is fitted with a foot valve admitting oil and water through 
separate orifices, and a graduated screw regulating the proportionate amount of each fluid admitted. 
The packings and pistons should be made of leather and the valve seats of brass, on account of the 
destructiveness of the action of the liquid on fittings made of other materials. 
(2). Benzine emulsion: 
Soft soap, 4 parts. 
Water, 10 to 15 parts. 
Benzine, 1 part. 
Boil the water and soap until the latter is dissolved, remove from the fire, then add the benzine 
and agitate till an emulsion is formed. 

Mange in hogs, which is a disease of the skin caused by parasitic mites, is of 
Mange, or two kinds. The so called demodecic form is produced by a mite named Demodex 
Scabies Of HogS. folliculorum var. suis. The sarcoptic form, which is better knoWn and con- 
sidered to be more common than demodecic mange, is caused by a mite known 
as Sarcoptes scabiei var. suis. These two parasites of mange in hogs are designated as variety suis in 
order to distinguish them from varieties of the same species which cause, mange in the dog, the cat and 
sheep and some other animals. 

The parasite belonging to this form of mange is the largest of its species and 
Sarcoptic Mange, can readily be seen with the aid of a pocket lens. It is small, white, globular 

in shape, with the body transversely striated. In front is a prominent mobile 
rostrum. On the dorsal surface" of the body are numerous three-cornered scales, also six thoracic and 
fourteen abdominal spines. The first and second pair of legs in the female bear a pedicellate sucker. 
The third and fourth pair end in a long spine. The first, second and fourth pair of legs in the male 
bear a pedicellate sucker, while the third pair end in a long spine. The female is nearly }/% millimeter 
long and about J^ millimeter broad. The male is a little smaller than the female. 

Symptoms. — The skin at the start is inflamed and irritated about the eyes and ears; the pruritus 
gradually spreads over the withers, flanks and inner surface of the body. The skin becomes wrinkled, 
is covered with crusts that take on a bluish gray luster, and the bristles either fall out or become matted 



450 THE HOG. 



with the crusts that are continually forming and dropping off. Beneath the crusts the skin is raw and 
cracked, the excoriation filially becoming so severe that bleeding occurs when the crusts are pulled off. 
Conclusive diagnosis of sarcoptic or demodecic . mange is obtained by finding the parasites. It is 
necessary to pull off the crusts and scrape the skin to the quick, and then examine the scrapings with 
a hand lens. 

Contagion. — The disease is distributed only through contagion, either by diseased animals or by- 
means of the buildings and pens where diseased hogs have been kept. It gradually spreads throughout 
a herd. An infested sow will transfer the disease in a severe form to her young before they are 
three weeks old. Scabies of the pig has been transferred to the dog, and is said to be transmissible 
to the horse. Numerous instances are recorded of man contracting the disease through contact with 
many hogs. 

Injury. — On account of its destructiveness to the skin and the restlessness produced in the animals 
infested, sarcoptic mange is a very serious disease, that increases in severity, and not only prevents proper 
fattening and growth of the hogs, but will finally cause the death of young pigs. It is, too, a more 
common disease than is generally believed. 

Treatment. — The instructions usually given for treating scabies, or marige, of the hogs, direct 
that the animals must be thoroughly cleansed and scrubbed with soap and water or some strong alkali 
solution before the remedy is applied. Such care and detail are possible where only a few hogs are to 
be treated, but where herds numbering from 50 to 500 are to be treated such time consuming and expen- 
sive operations are out of the question. Dipping the animals is the only practical method of applying 
remedies to large herds. Mange is at its best a hard disease to combat, especially in hogs, because of 
their unclean habits and usually filthy quarters. When mange is discovered, the hogs should be shut 
away from mud wallows a day or so before treatment, in order that the dirt and crusts may be rubbed 
off the skin. 

It is not very difficult to control the hog in a properly constructed dipping vat, and an animal may 
be kept in the dip as long as desirable, while the liquid is being rubbed into the skin with a brush or broom. 
Care must be taken to wet the inside of the ears thoroughly by rubbing them with the hands. If the 
hogs are simply driven through the dip without any scrubbing it will require a long time to eradicate 
the disease. After the hogs have been dipped they should be kept away from mud wallows and dusty 
pens for a day in order that the dip may not be absorbed by dust and iflud coming in contact with the 
wet skin. A time should be chosen for dipping when there has been no recent rain to make it possible 
for hogs to become covered with mud crusts. Never dip in cold weather. If only a few hogs in a herd 
show symptoms of scabies it is not sufficient to dip only those few that are badly infested, for other ani- 
mals in the herd are sure to harbor some of the parasites, which will continue to spread the infection. 
A single dipping is not sufficient for a cure, for some of the parasites will escape destruction by the first 
dipping, and more young mites will hatch from recently deposited eggs. A second dipping, therefore, 
should follow six days after the first treatment. The incubation period of the eggs under favorable cir- 
cumstances is said to be from three to five days. Perseverence is the only way to effect a permanent 
cure. The improved condition of scabby hogs, even on the day following a successful treatment, will 
be evident from their usual quietness and better humor. 

There are numerous mixtures and compounds that kill the scab mites, but the item of expense 
and the facility of preparation and application restrict a choice of remedies. Liquid remedies are the 
only practical ones to be used on a large scale ; if ointments are used it is necessary to scrub the animals 
thoroughly before they are applied. 

Ointments. — (1.) Helmerich's pomade (sublimed sulphur, 2 parts; potassium carbonate, 1 
part; lard, 8 parts). 

(2.) Creosote, 1 part; lard, 25 parts. 

(3.) Sulphur, 10 parts; lard, 30 parts. 

(4.) Turpentine, 8 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part. 

Liquids. — Beaumont, or Texas, oil. Place 52 gallons of oil in a tank containing 60 gallons of 
Water, and dip the pigs once. 

One part of creosote mixed with thirty parts of linseed oil is a remedy much used in Germany. 



THE HOG. 457 



A hog raiser in Nebraska recently observed that a number of swine in his herd were in poor 
condition, covered with grayish scales. Examination revealed sarcoptic infection in a severe form. 
The animals without any previous washing or preparation were dipped in the Beaumont oil. They 
were driven into the dip and scrubbed with an old broom. Special care was taken to rub the inside of 
the ears with the hands, since the skin on those parts was raw and cracked and harbored scores of the 
parasites. The day following this treatment the animals were more quiet and ate their feed better. 
This improvement was particularly noticeable in the young pigs. One month after the treatment the 
owner wrote to a friend: "As to the condition of the hogs, they are much better since the treatment; 
some seem to be entirely cured of that scaly look. I would recommend the Texas oil as a good thing 
for scabby hogs." Failure to dip a second time according to instructions, accounts for the lack of 
complete success in this experiment. 

On account of its resemblance to a laurel leaf the Demodex in pigs has been 

Demodecic scientifically named Demodex phylloides. Government inspectors have fre- 

Mange. quently withheld hogs from the market because of a peculiar appearance of 

the skin which was shown to have been caused by Demodex. Leather 

manufacturers state that a large percentage of beef hides received are partially ruined by the pitted 

condition of the skin, a condition which is produced by this parasite found on the cattle. It is generally 

held that Demodex does not produce any detrimental effects in' the way of retarding the growth or 

fattening of the pig. In cattle the only complaint seems to come from the leather manufacturer. 

In applying liquid insecticides to hogs, spraying and dipping are the two methods 
Application generally used. Where there are only a few animals, the remedy can easily 
Of Remedies. be applied with a brush or broom, but in a large herd a more rapid method of 

application is necessary. 

Dipping is obviously the most thorough method, but more expensive on account of the labor 
and material necessary to construct a dipping vat, unless a large number are to be treated. A dipping 
vat may be constructed in accordance with the following method, the price of which will be about $25.00: 

12 feet 4x6-inch white pine or tank lumber. 

64 feet 4x 4-inch. 

16 feet 2x6-inch. 

16 feet 2x4-inch. 

24 feet 3x4-inch. 

For the approaches on the dripping platform: 

10 feet 2xl2-inch tank lumber. 
100 feet 4x4-inch yellow pine. 

60 feet 2x6-inch. 
114 feet 2x4- inch. 
162 feet fencing. 

17 pounds 20-penny nails. 
7 pounds 10-penny nails. 

10 square feet of zinc. 
4 T hinges, 8-inch. 

The zinc is used to cover the incline leading to the vat, in order that the smooth surface afforded 
will prevent the animals from halting after once starting for the plunge. The zinc covering is, of course, 
not a necessity, but it is very convenient. The vat is placed in an excavation in the ground, and should 
project about 6 inches above the surface of the ground, in order to prevent dirt and trash from falling 
into the dip. Most farmers and stock raisers usually have a quantity of unused lumber lying about 
that may be utilized in the construction of a dipping plant, thus diminishing the actual cost of 
construction. A canvas curtain hung at the entrance to the slide will facilitate driving the hogs. 
The dripping platform, constructed of tongued and grooved lumber, slants toward the vat, and is 



THE HOG. 



Lered with narrow strips along the sides in order to direct the liquid back into the vat. The dipping 
should be placed in close proximity to the pens, and where a stationary chute is not built, movable 
panels of fence will make the transferring of the hogs an easy matter. 

In 1892 the Oklahoma Experiment Station constructed a galvanized iron 22-gauge vat, in which 
^j-inch gas pipe was used as a framework. The entire cost of such a vat, with inclined entrance and 
exit, is between J25.00 and $30.00. 

There are a number of dipping tanks offered on the market, any one of which will give satisfactory 
results. Galvanized and cast iron tanks of various sizes cost from $10.00 to -120.00. 

A simply constructed portable dipping vat is used by the Bureau of Animal Industry, for 
experiments in treating lousy and scabby hogs, with very satisfactory results. " It is well suited for 
dipping moderate sized herds of hogs and is also inexpensive. No dripping platform was used in the 
experiments conducted by the Bureau, but this caused a considerable quantity of liquid to be wasted. 
Where there are more than 40 or 50 hogs to be dipped it is necessary to provide a dripping platform 
or else replenish the liquid. The following materials were used for constructing this vat : 

Two lxl 2-inch 14-foot hard pine. 
One 2xl2-inch 24-foot hard pine. 
Three 2x4-inch 12-foot hard pine. 
One lx6-inch 15-foot hard pine. 
One 2x 6-inch 12-foot hard pine. 
Two pounds 20-penny nails. 
Two pounds 10-penny nails. 

The 2-inch planks are used for the bottom and ends of the tank, the 1-inch boards for the sides, 
and the 2x4 sticks for braces. When matched lumber is not available, the boards are joined at the edges 
as perfectly as possible, the cracks smeared with pitch, and calked. The boards for the sides of the tank 
are cut 6 feet 6% inches long, clamped together (after the edges have been smeared with pitch and dowel 
pins adjusted), and the proper braces (2 feet 7% inches long) nailed on each end l /i inch from the end, 
with the braces projecting below the lower edge of the side. The middle brace is now 
nailed on in the position relative to the notch in the bottom made to receive it. The end 
■boards are similarly joined and held together by temporary braces tacked on the outer side. The two 
boards for the bottom are joined, and the braces, cut just long enough to extend between the inner 
margins of the notches made to receive the side braces, are nailed in place. The sides are then set in 
the grooves in the bottom (using pitch in the joint), forced firmly into position, and the side braces nailed 
to the bottom and to the ends of the braces on the bottom. The ends are next firmly fitted in the grooves 
in the bottom, nailed from the under side with 20-penny nails, and then nailed to the sides and side braces. 
The braces across the top are then nailed on. 

Three pieces of 2x6 inch plank 2% feet long, held together by cleats nailed across them serve 
as a ladder for the pigs to crawl out on. The upper end is movable so that it may be raised from position 
in order to keep the pigs in the dip as long as desired. The lower end of the ladder is supported 6 inches 
above the floor of the tank and is anchored down with a cord tied to a staple driven into the bottom 
of the tank. The upper end rests on the brace across the top and is held from slipping down by means 
of a cleat nailed on the under side. The inside measurements of the vat when completed are 6 feet 6 
inches long, 1 foot 8 inches wide, 2 feet 5 inches deep, and holds 6% gallons of fluid to an inch of depth. 
Twenty inches of fluid is sufficient to cover a 300-pound hog. When using this vat it is of course necessary 
to increase the heiglhvof the side by a temporary construction and to construct a chute leading to the 
vat. The vat should be sunk into the ground a depth of 2 feet, thus saving the trouble of having to 
force the pigs up an inclined plane. It is most convenierit to place the vat in front of the door to a hog 
house, sink it into the ground till the top is level with or a little below the floor of the house, and then 
build a barricade from the door along the sides of the vat. 

Spraying. — When the necessary apparatus is provided, dipping the hogs is the most convenient 
and rapid method of applying insecticides. Experiments, however, have proved that spraying liquids 
over animals is equally effective if thoroughly performed. A force pump is fitted with a hose of sufficient 



THE HOG. 459 



length to permit freedom of motion to the operator. A spray nozzle is attached to the end of the hose, 
or, as has been done in the absence of a suitable nozzle, the end of the hose is simply compressed between 
the thumb and forefinger, making a fan like spray that can be readily directed in any quarter. Any 
outfit for spraying trees is likely to contain nozzles that can be adapted to spraying liquids over animals. 
For those who do not possess a spraying apparatus, and do not care to purchase the more expensive outfits, 
one of the cheaper pumps put out by firms handling such goods will serve the purpose very well. 

There should be considerable force to the jet of fluid, and the spray must not be too finely 
divided, otherwise the liquid will not penetrate between the hair and thoroughly wet the skin, as it 
must do to be effective. 

The following method of applying kerosene to hogs is as simple as it is effective: A 6x6- inch 
oak post is set firmly into the ground. A 2- inch hole is bored 12 inches into the top of the post. A 
lj^-inch hole is bored from each side of the post to open into the bottom of the larger hole. Soft 
pine plugs are driven into the small holes and burlap or old cloth is wrapped around the post, covering 
the pine plugs, and bound down with wire. The hole in the top of the post is then filled with 
kerosene. In a short time the rags become saturated with kerosene percolating through the pine 
plugs. Two quarts of oil daily are required the first three or four days and afterward one quart a 
week. A hog raiser who had erected such a device, jokingly remarked, in response to an inquiry 
as to its utility, that every hog wanted to be first at the post, and that the lice in the herd soon 
disappeared. A platform should be built around the post in order that the hogs will not dig a mud 
wallow about its base. Another hog grower devised a wholesale method of ridding hogs of lice by 
digging a basin or wallow in the yard, pouring in water and throwing in a small quantity of kerosene. 
He states that the pigs frequented this place and the lice soon disappeared. 

This affection is often met with in hogs, and its general cause is improper feed- 
Acute Gastric ing; making up the ration of such feedstuff s as swill, sour potatoes, half decayed 
Indigestion. or otherwise spoiled turnips, apples, frozen feed, too large a quantity of succu- 
lent vegetables, and the mixing of alkaline powders, such as have been used for 
dish washing, etc., with the swill (do not feed the dish water to the hogs). Other causes are the swal- 
lowing of indigestible matters, such as hoof, horn, hair, bristles, bark. If such are partaken of and 
the system is not relieved of them by vomiting, gastritis and indigestion may ensue. Again, medicinal 
agents of a poisonous nature, as, for instance, paint and lead, may produce the affection. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; arching of the back; erection of the bristles; hog may be seen standing with 
the feet brought together; hiding under the bedding; uneasiness; grunting; restlessness; the belly is 
tense and enlarged. Diarrhea with subsequent recovery may follow these symptoms, or the 
vomiting up of the matters which have produced the disease may bring relief. 

Treatment. — Give a full emetic, such as 1" ounce of Glauber salts. As antidote for alkaline poisoning 
give vinegar, followed by a laxative. In order to insure good health and vigor in your hogs keep 
their digestive and assimilative functions in good working order by always adding 1 tablespoonful of 
Davis Stock Food to each feed. If the hog until you started doing this had been backward, unthrifty 
and slow to grow and lay on flesh you will find a surprising change take place shortly after you commence 
using the stock food, and you will admit that it is worth its price over and over. 

consists in an inflammation of the gastric mucosa, or the gland from which the 

Catarrhal gastric juice is secreted. It is accompanied with a mucopurulent discharge. 

Gastritis Causes. — All kinds of feed that are in a state of decomposition; fer- 

menting swills; an excessive quantity of brine; v/ashings from tables, dishes, etc. ; 
dish water; irritants of all kinds; also parasites of the gastric organs. 

Symptoms. — Restlessness; colicky pains; costiveness or diarrhea; vomiting; stiffness; feverishness; 
grunting; arched back; tail is usually limp and lifeless, the belly tender and tense, and the hog 
moves about uneasily as if in pain. The condition may be relieved by a sudden attack of vomiting, 
followed by recovery. 

Treatment. — You should at once change the diet of the hog or hogs affected. Give them, for 
instance, for a change, freshly cooked roots, buttermilk, boiled milk, linseed meal, etc., always adding 



400 THE HOG. 



Davis Stock Food, 1 teaspoonful to each feed, to the ration. This will soon correct the condition. 

Remember that the stock food may be given both in health and disease with equal benefit. No hog 
«r should be without it. As an emetic, in cases of catarrhal gastritis, 30 grains of ipecacuanha 
E commended. If the animal is constipated you may relieve it by a dose of calomel or jalap. If 

there is a violent diarrhea give small doses of gray powder, and to relieve the attendant irritation of the 
ric mucous membrane you may administer a small quantity of bismuth subnitrate. Thoroughly 

cleanse and disinfect the pens with Phenalin, change the litter frequently and allow a generous supply 

of fresh straw for bedding. Do not let manure accumulate in the pen. 

We are accustomed to divide swine fever into two forms, known as the fatal, 
-, and the subacute or slowly progressive. They are of marked differentiation, 

and it is quite easy to tell the one from the other, if the respective symptoms 
are known. 

Symptoms. — The usual symptoms attendant upon diseases accompanied by high fever are present 
in the acute or fatal form of swine fever. There is a loss of appetite; exhaustion; prostration; dullness 
and listlessness; animal is inclined to lie down or hide under the litter; sensitiveness to cold; skin is hot 
and feverish; eyes partially closed; patient is in evident pain and distress. Three or four hours after the 
first signs of the disease become manifest, the hog becomes worse ; on the parts of the body where the hair 
is absent you may observe a scarlet blush (looking for it, for instance, on the inside of the thighs, across 
the abdomen or belly, on the point of the axilla, etc.). The feces are thin and have a peculiarly offensive 
odor, this following upon the costiveiress present at the onset of the disease. The patient often succumbs 
three or four days after the onset of the affection. This disease is a common one among swine, and is 
very infectious. An entire herd may be attacked once it is introduced and it is hard to check its course, 
this being more especially so when young pigs are the victims. 

In the other form of the malady, called the subacute, there is a gradual progress of the disease. 
It is hard to diagnose and it is only an examination after death which enables the skilled veterinarian 
to absolutely satisfy himself that it really is a case of the disease in question. There is, however, no red- 
dening of the skin; the animal is slow, unthrifty, grows but little, may suffer from almost constant 
diarrhea, and this should enable the experienced hog raiser not alone to differentiate between the acute 
and subacute forms of the malady, but also to satisfy himself with reasonable certainty that the animal 
suffers from the disease in question. The rule is that swine fever tends to assume this subacute and 
slowly progressive form after the animal has reached a certain age making it better able to resist disease 
of any kind. The age of eight or ten months or over generally favors their recovery. 

Causes. — Swine fever is caused by a bacillus, presumably taken into the digestive organs with 
the feed and there allowed to develop. 

Symptoms. — Typhoid fever in the human and swine fever have much in common. The latter as well 
as the former is a disease of the digestive organs, and its foremost symptom consists in changes well 
denned, occurring on the surface of the mucous membrane in the alimentary canal. There is a formation 
of ulcers, single or grouped together, covering some part of the intestinal tract. These ulcers are of a 
yellowish gray, or dark gray shading into black color, generally round, size and shape varying. You 
may discover these ulcers on the tongue, stomach, small intestines or the epiglottis; still more often in 
the colon and large intestines. The lesions may cover the whole thickness of the mucous membrane, 
but they are rarely found to take in the other layers or coats of the organs. The peritoneal covering of 
the intestine is seldom penetrated by these ulcers, even in cases of long standing. In the fatal cases of 
the disease the small intestines become more generally affected. In the other form an examination 
after death often reveals the lesions in the large intestines so abundant and thick that it is to be 
wondered at that the opening in the organs allowing of the passage of the feed and feces has not long 
since become closed and the patient died of acute constipation or congestion. On the other hand, it is 
a fact that in the case of very young pigs, in which death had followed shortly upon infection, there is 
often an entire absence of the ulcers mentioned, inflammation of the stomach and bowels being the only 
symptoms present. Even in adult pigs, dying in the first stages of the malady, it is often found that 
no visible ulcers or lesions have developed. 



/ 



THE HOG. 461 



Associated with swine fever is sometimes found a disease of the heart called Verrucous Endocar- 
ditis. It is, however, not produced by swine fever, and various experiments made for the purpose of* 
determining as to whether this affection is communicable from one hog to another led to the conclusion 
that it is noninfectious, at least none of the attempts to inoculate healthy pigs with the blood taken from 
the heart of those affected with verrucous endocarditis, or with cultures of the bacilli, developed from 
the blood taken from the heart of the diseased animals, have ever been attended with the least success. At 
times also pneumonia with or without pleurisy, occurring simultaneously with swine fever has caused the 
theory to be advanced that lung complications were part of the symptoms attributable to this fever; 
but experiments made to demonstrate if this was in reality the case answered the question in the negative. 
It is, however, a fact that animals suffering from swine fever are extremely liable to contract pneumonia 
and pleurisy, and this is ascribed to the lowered vitality and diminished resistance of the hogs, attendant 
upon the fever. 

No treatment except the preventive methods advocated in all instances of acute or chronic 
diseases, such as proper feeding, hygiene and sanitation, cultivating a high degree of health and strength 
in your herd by always keeping the digestive and assimilative functions up to the standard, can be recom- 
mended for swine fever. Always have Davis Stock Food at hand, and feed it regularly in each feed (1 
tablespoonful to each feed), and you will find your herd growing strong and hardy, each individual 
member acquiring a constitution that will increase his resistance against disease 50 per cent or more. 

This rather common disease of the swine is principally caused by irritation in 
General Catarrhal the intestines and stomach, produced by, for instance, feed that is too hot; 
Stomatitis, also feed that is hard and fibrous, or feed containing irritating substances, 

such as spikes and awns of a size permitting them to enter sores or gland duct, 
or adhering to mucous membranes; also, all kinds of putrid, decaying, fermenting feed or medical agents 
of an irritating character may induce the disease. Forcing the jaws of the hog apart with a piece of wood, 
or catching and holding the animal by making a running noose on a piece of rope and fastening it around 
the upper jaw, are also often responsible. Again, inflammation of the mucous membranes, erosion, erup- 
tion, etc., may be responsible. Bad, decaying teeth may react upon the secretive glands and produce it. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite; refusal to eat, or dainty eating, in place of the usual voracious 
appetite of the hog; preference to soft, liquid feeds; champing of the jaws; hankering after cold water;, 
a disposition to swallow hard materials half chewed; frothing around the lips; mouth dry, hot and red, 
emitting an offensive odor, are symptoms. 

Treatment. — Soothing and cooling lotions; astringents in the form of antiseptic lotions, vinegar 
and honey, a dose of tincture of myrrh once a day or oftener if the mucus is spongy and eroded. The 
feeding of soft feeds, such as pulped roots, gruels, etc., adding 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to 
each feed; plenty of cool, clean drinking water, which should at all times be within reach. Also, in case 
of indigestion or constipation, administer a laxative, followed by soft succulent feed containing 1 
tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food. 

Various causes, such as insufficient feed of an irritant character; confining of 
Ulcerative the hogs to close, damp, badly ventilated pens, an exhausted physical condition 

Stomatitis. attendant upon wasting, debilitating diseases, have been mentioned as respon- 

sible for this affection in the swine. Ulcerative inflammation may result as 
an outcome of the spots of congestion and petechiae developing on the buccal mucous membrane. It 
seems, however, that these conditions are complicated with bacteria introduced into the *mouth and 
digestive organs by the feed and water partaken of. 

Symptoms. — Fomentation of froth around the lips; gnashing and grinding of the teeth; loss 
of appetite; offensive breath; champing of the jaws; tongue and gums are deep red in color; the mouth 
is full of vesicles or white patches, which in falling off leave red angry sores in their place; deep, putrid, 
offensive ulcers with nasty odor to the salivation and breathing, may result from these. There is a 
tendency to increased dullness and exhaustion as the disease progresses, and the loss of flesh, debility 
and emaciation become more and more marked. If the case be a severe one it may later on be complicated 



462 THE HOG. 



with infective pharyngitis or enteritis, indicated by virulent matters from the mouth, tenderness, redness 
and swelling of the throat; also colicky pains, offensive dark colored diarrhea, often followed by death. 
Treatment.— First of all you should without delay separate the diseased members of the herd from 
the healthy ones. Next thoroughly disinfect the pens, including all troughs, and other articles with which 
the affected animal or animals have come in contact. Phenalin and ordinary slaked lime are excellent 
disinfectants for this purpose. Then employ local antiseptics. In the milder cases a local wash with 
Phenalin once or twice daily may be all that is required. Sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, diluted in 
fifty times their volume of water, may be applied in more severe cases; tincture of iron, chlorate of potash, 
or chloride of ammonia, or borax, are also good. Keep the patient's digestion and circulation in order 
by always adding 1 tablespoonful of Davis Stock Food to each feed, and if the case is not too far advanced, 
the chances are that a change for the better will shortly ensue, and complete recovery result. The 
stock food should also be fed to the healthy members of the herd, in order to increase their strength, 
vitality and powers of resistance against disease in any form. As a preventive against disease in any 
form, and as an agent par excellence for putting the stock into superb condition, pleasing to the eye and 
of the highest value in the markets, it pays foritself over and over again. This cannot be too oft repeated. 

This is a disease often met with in this country, and consists in a worm lodged 
Kidney Worms. in the fat environment of the kidneys of hogs. It is often supposed by stock 

breeders to cause certain forms of paralysis of the hind limbs. In scientific 
language this worm is known as Sclerostoma pinguicola, and it should not be confused in the lay mind 
with the other kidney worm, Dioctophyme viscerale, common to dogs and man. It is true, however, that 
both worms belong properly to the same zoological family (Strongylida),but the genera and subfamilies- 
differentiate materially. Thus, while the kidney worm of the hog only attains a length of 2 inches in 
the highest, the kidney worm in the dog may grow to a length of from 1 to 3 feet. The body of the hog 
w r orm is plump, mottled in color, white, yellow or black, according to the organs visible beneath it. 
Length of the female averages 37 mm., the male, 32 mm. Worms usually are found in pairs in cysts 
or canals in the organ, the connective tissue layers between the fat being the usual seat of infection, and 
the cysts of parasites may there be found in great numbers and closely packed together. Notwith- 
standing the fact that as a rule a . cyst is found to contain only two worms, a male and a female, 
occasionally three may be found lodged together, two females and one male or just as often one female 
-and two males. In the cyst is contained pus in which the parasites swim or are bathed, and in this 
pus thousands of eggs in the segmentation stage are enveloped. Occasionally such cysts in the 
kidneys are found empty, as if their occupants had left them. It is not demonstrated with any degree 
of satisfaction how the eggs leave the cyst in the kidney fat, or enter the bodies of fresh hogs, but it is 
presumed that they in the fullness of time, having developed to a certain extent, find their way 
out of the body with the urine. One authority thus reports having found the eggs of the worm in 
the urine. Thereafter the embryos are supposed to develop for a limited time in water around the 
pens and yards, shedding several skins in the process, ultimately to again gain access to the body of 
the hog, being contained either in the drinking water or feed. 

Treatment. — On account of the filthy and unclean habits of the swine, encouraged in many instances 
by the owner instead of being constricted as they ought to be, it is not easy to advocate any practical 
measures fit for being adopted to prevent the occurrence of this troublesome worm. If you feed from 
troughs exclusively and supply your hogs with plenty of pure drinking water you may to a certain extent 
decrease the liability to the affection, but will not have entirely excluded it from your pens. An excellent 
old German authority upon the breeding and feeding of hogs, gave it as his advice to his countrymen 
that swine should be kept in a less swine like manner, and this maxim may well be adopted by the 
hog raiser here as elsewhere. 



"Keep your swine in a less swine like manner," is a maxim which you will do well to adopt as the 
first principle to be applied in the hog raising industry. It will pay you well. Cleanliness, hygiene 
and sanitation, observed both in the manner of feeding, the feed supplied, and the quarters in which 



THE HOG. 463 



the herd is confined are all essentials if the largest possible success is to be achieved in this important branch 
of activity in the world of stock breeding. Remember that in the care of the hog, cleanliness, as in all 
other departments of life, must be internal as well as external. A physical body to be clean and sweet 
and healthy, should not alone be kept free from dirt and filth on the surface, but, most important of all, 
the organic functions, the uninterrupted and healthy activity of each and every organ, should be carefully 
regulated. The secretive glands, the functions of digestion and assimilation, the action of the liver 
and kidneys, and so on throughout the whole intricate and wonderful mechanism, should all be made 
to act harmoniously and healthily together; and if this be attained, the cleanliness of the surface of the 
body will to a large extent take care of itself, the healthy active pores which in millions of numbers cover 
the skin, will go on excreting all the impurities of the system, and all we have to do is to apply water and 
soap and wash it off from the skin. But if, on the other hand, the system is clogged up from disease, 
the organs acting sluggishly and spasmodically without unison and harmony, you may rest assured that 
a chronic state of uncleanliness will go hand in hand with it on the surface. It is almost impossible 
to wash a diseased, congested body clean, and the reason for this is that the pores in the skin are inactive, 
clogged up and congested with the rest of the organs. And here is where the great and lasting good 
accomplished by Davis Stock Food becomes most apparent. Liberating the juices of the mouth and 
stomach, acting thus directly upon the digestive system, correcting and curing all tendencies to consti- 
pation or other diseases of the alimentary organs, perfecting the assimilative powers, and this again 
reacting upon the circulation of the blood, causing it to flow freely and unobstructedly through the veins 
to every part of the system, enriching it in quality and substance, it will in the course of a short time make 
a glean thrifty animal of one that before was unthrifty, untidy and backward. There is no secret about 
how it is done either. The process is simple and natural and admits of universal application, both as 
regards the swine and all other domestic animals. It will give you a clean animal inside and out, and 
if you place that regenerated animal in clean, sanitary surroundings, feeding it properly, continuing 
to allow Davis Stock Food with the regular ration, you can increase the value of your entire stock 50 
per cent in the course of a year or two. 



^2@p^ 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 

(From U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

There is no more important undertaking on the farm than the building of the 
Introductory. house which is to be at once the owner's residence, his office, and in every sense 

of the word his home. But notwithstanding this fact there is no undertaking 
which, sometimes as a result of entirely unavoidable circumstances, more often from other causes, 
receives so little forethought, so little careful consideration, and so little skilful planning and workmanship. 
Too often the farmer finds himself compelled to provide a residence for himself and his family on 
short notice and on a short bank account. The result is an inconvenient, poorly constructed house, 
and frequently, in the end, money wasted. Many facts and ideas which the farmer has stored away 
in his mind for such an emergency are crowded out or lost sight of in the press for time. Frequently 
the nearest village carpenter has to be- entrusted with many important details and the result is far 
from satisfactory. 

It is with the hope of being of service to all who have to build a farm home that this bulletin is 
written, but particularly is it aimed to help those who have neither the time nor the funds to build as 
they would like to, and who must therefore begin in a very modest way. To that end some very trite 
statements are made, some very simple facts stated — facts that everybody knows, but which many are 
apt to forget at the very time when their remembrance would prove useful. 

Designing a House Capable of Enlargement. — By carefully designing a house so as to facilitate its 
subsequent enlargement, money may be saved and its" convenience increased. Additions costing $400.00 
might have been so provided for in the original scheme as to have permitted their erection for $350.00, 
and so on. Poorly lighted and inconvenient rooms and passages, inaccessible chimneys, steep or dark 
stairways, etc., are all likely to prove obstacles in building additions to houses where the original plans 
did not take into consideration the probability of such additions. 

Comfort, Convenience, and Economy. — Practically speaking, three essentials should be combined 
in every farm home; they are comfort, convenience, and economy. It is hardly necessary to enlarge 
upon comfort as an essential in every home, and particularly in the farm home. The farmer, whose • 
duties are always exacting, and which usually expose him to all the discomforts of all kinds of weather, 
needs and deserves a home where, during the hours of rest and recreation, he can enjoy comfort to the 
fullest extent. In the matter of convenience his wife is, perhaps, more to be thought of. Her duties 
are always numerous and her work never done. Anything that can save her steps or lighten her burden 
is well worth the effort. Unfortunately there are few farmers who are not obliged to give the closest 
study to the matter of economy, and there is certainly no greater saving to be accomplished than that 
which results from carefully prepared plans and the use of proper and durable materials. 

Necessity of Perfecting Title to Land. — It may seem trite to urge the necessity of making sure of 
the title to land before building on it, and yet the records of our law courts demonstrate, every 
week in the year, that hundreds of people neglect this to their sorrow. 

Land, and particularly farm land, is often held for years without a question as to its ownership, 
and then its increased value prompts someone to dispute the title. - Frequently such suits are the work 
of shyster lawyers, whose work on the county archives has revealed to them some flaw in the holder's 
title or a seemingly or really reasonable claim to the land held by some other person. 

An offer of their services to prosecute such a claim, their remuneration to be contingent on their 
ess, is generally accepted, and the holder, who is usually the equitable owner, is put to endless expense 
and worry to defend his title to his and his children's home. 

— 464 — 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 465 

A few dollars paid to a reliable lawyer in the beginning would have saved all this. He would 
have discovered the flaw at a time when it could be remedied, or at least before the land was improved 
and made more valuable by the erection of a dwelling and of other buildings, and his charge would 
have amounted, as a rule, to less than a small percentage of the amount necessary to defend the title 
once it was attacked. 

We cannot too strongly advise the prospective builder to have the title of his land examined 
by a careful and competent lawyer before going to the expense of erecting a house thereon, unless the 
owner has received his title direct from the government. 

The title having been settled, the question of location next deserves attention. 

Location Of The first, and by all odds the most important, consideration is that of health- 

the Buildings. fulness. Build on low, ill drained ground, and ill health will follow as inevitably 

as night follows day. A dry, well drained soil is absolutely essential, but the 

question of air drainage should not be lost sight of. A hollow, however porous and well drained the 

soil, will prove a cold and frosty spot in winter, a hot and sultry one in summer. A site too closely 

shut in by timber will lose what it may gain in shade by the absence of free circulation of air, by the 

cutting off of every breeze during the sultry days of summer, and in winter the absence of sunlight, is 

again a draw back. 

Advantages of Hillside Slope. — All things considered, a gentle hillside slope offers the greatest 
advantages, and, if a hillside where the highest land is to the north and west, little more could be desired. 
Proximity to Strip of Timber. — In many portions of the country a strip of timber of greater or 
less extent to the north and west is an essential, not only to the comfort of the house, but to the comfort 
of those who are obliged to do chores about it in the severe weather, as well as to the stock which must 
be quartered near it. 

Shade Trees. — Again, a few fine shade trees are a great addition to both the comfort and beauty 
of the farm home, and while trees may be planted and will grow in time, other things being equal, the 
advantage of building near a few fine trees should not be lost sight of. 

The Well. — After the consideration of healthfulness there is, perhaps, none more important than 
that of water. A good well cannot be secured everywhere, and there is no greater inconvenience than to 
have the well located far from the house. In fact, the nearer it is the better. 

The Barn and Kitchen Garden. — Before definitely deciding on a site, some other points should be 
looked into. The saving of time, labor and exposure to be gained by having the barn, and especially the 
stabling, reasonably near the house should not be lost sight of, and therefore suitable sites for these neces- 
sary buildings should not be decided upon before definitely locating the house site. Good soil about 
the house is also desirable. With good soil an attractive dooryard is easily possible and while the pro- 
spective builder may reflect that a few loads of manure will bring up the soil, he should also remember 
that both the manure and the time to haul it may prove none too abundant, especially during the first 
two years of his occupancy. The possibility of locating the kitchen garden conveniently near, and also 
• the chicken house and yards, is worthy of consideration. 

Distance From the Road. — If your location is too far from the road the almost inevitable loneliness 
and isolation of farm life is intensified. On the other hand, if too near the road, all privacy is lost, the 
dust becomes an annoyance and a source of injury, and there is an undesirable appearance of being 
crowded for room. A sward 100 feet wide with a driveway along one edge which approaches the house 
with a gentle curve, presents the nicest possible appearance and gives the house an air of repose 
that nothing else will do. If the sward be lined on its outer edges with fine shade trees, an attractive 
setting is assured. 

Too much care and thought cannot be devoted to the plan of the house itself. 
Plan of the House. Generally speaking, no one is so competent to plan a comfortable, convenient 

house, adapted to all his needs, as the farmer himself, unless it be his wife, but 
it requires plenty of time and thought. To successfully plan a house one should be able to picture to 
himself every room and every passage. 



4tn> PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 






Preliminary Drawing. — Having conceived the general idea of the house to be built, the next step 
is to lay it out on paper, and a far better idea of the size and proportion of the rooms will be gained 
if the drawing is made to a scale. This is not a difficult feat. Let x /i inch on the 2-foot rule equal 1 
foot. Allow for whatever thickness of studding may be decided on, and add 1 inch for lath and plaster 
on each side of partitions, 1 inch each for lath and plaster, for sheathing and for siding on outside walls, 
and a plan sufficiently accurate for practical purposes will be obtained. Get the advice and counsel 
of the wife, explaining to her whatever on the plans she may not understand.. By consulting her con- 
venience in various ways you may save this busy woman many thousands of useless steps every week 
of her life. Remember that comers cost money and let in cold. The nearer a house approaches to a 
square or rectangle the cheaper will be its construction and the more solid and substantial will it prove 
when completed. Bay windows are an expensive luxury and are no longer in style. Keep in mind when 
planning the house the construction of the roof. A simple roof is cheaper and less liable to leak. 
Valleys are apt to cause trouble. 

Employment of Architect or Builder. — When your plan is completed to your own satisfaction 
submit it to an architect or an experienced builder. Get him to point out any possible improvements, 
and adopt them if you can see that they are improvements. Especially invite him to point out 
defects. Let him make your working drawings and prepare your bill of materials. Unless you have had 
wide experience, he will save you all and more than his fee will amount to. 

The Contract. — Sometimes it will pay to let the contract for the whole or a part of the house; 
but in case that is done, insist upon being your own superintendent, with power to reject any material 
or workmanship that does not come up to your idea of the quality contracted for, and have these 
conditions specified in the contract. 

The Farmer as His Own Contractor. — As a rule the farmer with his team, more or less of his own 
time, and often that of one or more hands, will find it cheaper to be his own contractor, hiring such skilled 
and other labor as may be necessary, doing his own excavating, hauling, etc., contracting directly with 
a mill for his lumber. 

Prices of Mill Work. — The prices of one mill should seldom be accepted without obtaining those 
of a competitor. Sometimes a mill at a considerable distance will be willing to pay freight and make 
lower prices than the local mill. At all events competition should be invited. 

Cash Purchases. — Generally speaking, it will pay, where ready cash is not at hand and when it 
is at all practicable, to borrow the money and pay cash for the material, thereby obtaining the lowest 
prices. Sometimes it is possible to obtain a loan similar to those made by the building and loan associa- 
tions, viz., the lender will advance the money for the building, taking as security a mortgage on the 
house and some land, the money to be paid directly to the person furnishing the material, on order 
of the owner, for labor on presentation of receipted pay rolls, thus insuring that the money advanced 
is invested in that which constitutes the collateral for the loan. 

In the event of a contract being let to a contractor or builder the owner should assure himself 
that the workmen are being paid promptly, as, in most states, the owner has few rights as against a 
mechanic's lien, and he also should satisfy himself that the materials are or will be paid for without 
recourse to him. 

Owing to a variety of circumstances it not infrequently happens that the farmer 

Cheap Farm finds himself in a position where the building of a residence is an imperative 

Residence. necessity while sufficient ready money for such an undertaking is not available. 

A cheap, but incommodious and inconvenient structure, or a heavy mortgage, 

with its never failing interest, too frequently an addition to a mortgage already given on the land, seem 

the only alternatives, and it is especially to mitigate such conditions that the simple plans submitted 

herein have been prepared. 

It often occurs, too, that when the occasion arises for adding to the home no practicable plan 
presents itself and an entire and expensive remodeling, if not a complete new building, becomes necessary. 
This situation might frequently have been avoided had the original structure been built along the lines 
of a preconceived plan which provided for eventual enlargement. . 






PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



467 



The following plans provide in each case for an inexpensive main building, 
Two Plans for capable of considerable enlargement and development without the undoing 
Residences, or alteration of practically any of the original work and the gradual erection 

of a convenient and commodious home. 



A $600.00 House.- 



-The first plan (Figures 1, 2 and 3), provide a main building with a living room 

15x15 feet, a back room 9 feet 6 inches 
by 10 feet 6 inches, with a commo- 
dious closet, with a staircase from 
the first floor, while upstairs are two 
chambers, respectively 15x15 feet and 
9 feet 6 inches by 10 feet 6 inches. 

A $500.00 Addition. — The plan 
provides for a further addition when 
necessity for enlargement of the house 
arises and the financial condition of 
the owner permits. This addition 
will be 16 by 28 feet, providing on 
the first floor a living room and kitchen 
and on the second floor a bed cham- 
ber. The kitchen will be 11 feet by 
11 feet 6 inches, with a pantry and 




Figure 1. 
A $600.00 Farm House with $500.00 Addition. 



stairway to cellar. The walls of the main 
building are 14 feet and those of the addition 
12 feet, the lower ceiling of the chamber 
over the living room proving no serious 
detriment in so large a room. The house as 
completed should also have a porch 8x153^ 
feet, large enough to prove not only an 
ornament, but a great convenience during the 
warmer portion of the year. 

Possible Enlargement. — Should addi- 
tional room ever be required, one or two 
bedrooms can be added to the right of the 
kitchen. A simple extension similar to the 
kitchen, across the back of the main build- 
ing, would give a room opening off the 
kitchen 11 by 15 feet, which might be used 
as a bedroom or divided into storeroom, milk 
room, etc. 

An equally feasible enlargement could 
be obtained by extending the main building 12 
feet back. This would give the room already 
described off the kitchen and a chamber of 
equal size above, to be reached by providing 
a short stairway leading up from the first 
landing of the original staircase. The window 




Figure 2. 
First Floor oi $600.00 Farm House with $500.00 Addition. 






PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



in the back room on the first floor is placed in the side wall to allow of just such an extension. Two 
chimneys built from the ground permit of heating every room except the last two suggested, and should 
that addition be anticipated when the original structure is erected an additional flue for that purpose 

could be added to the large chimney in the 
living room, the extra flue to project into 
the corner of the kitchen. 

Should necessity for economy dictate, 
this house could be begun for an extremely 
moderate sum by building only the portion 
described as the main building. In such 
case the back room on the first floor would 
have to serve as a kitchen in winter, while a 
cheap lean-to could be provided for summer 
use. The two bedrooms above would provide 
ample accommodations for a small family. 
Later the addition could be added, the first 
floor room to be used as kitchen and dining 
room, making the room back of the parlor 
available for an extra bedroom, and reserving 
the original living room for a parlor. The 
chamber over the living room, unless needed 
for immediate use, could be left entirely 
unfinished until its use as an additional 
bedroom became necessary, although, if sim- 
ply floored,' it would prove a convenient 
storeroom until such time as its completion 
could be afforded, quite possibly until after 
the kitchen, pantry, etc., had been built. 

The next step would be the building 
of the porch, which would greatly add to the 
appearance of the house, and with this com- 
pleted a very comfortable and convenient 
house would have been secured, little by little, and on the economical and convenient pay as you go plan. 

Cost of Materials.— We give two bills of materials for this house. The first provides only for the 
main building and for a style of building suitable only to the extreme southern portion of this country. 
A competent architect, figuring on the bill of materials as given, and including in his estimate the entire 
cost of labor, places the cost of the main building complete at $658.68, lumber being figured at $24.00 
per 1,000 feet, and carpenters' wages at $2.50 per day. 

It will be noticed that the bill of materials calls for foundation posts 1 foot long. These, however, 
should, of course, extend below the frost line, and their length will therefore vary with the latitude in which 
the house is built. The price quoted, 25 cents per post, will cover the cost of posts of any ordinary length. 
Of course, the farmer could, in many cases, obtain posts simply for the cost of cutting. No sheathing 
or building paper is provided for, and only a single floor for the first story is estimated on in giving the 
cost, but the amount of sheathing lumber and building paper required are given separately, as are also 
the extra flooring and paper required to double floor the first story. 

Anywhere but in the far South these extras will be most advisable, if not essential. On the other 
hand, the amount of labor, hauling and excavating which the farmer will be able to perform himself 
will very nearly offset the increased cost, and so it may be safely stated that even for the most northern 
states the farmer can, by performing a portion of the labor himself, erect the main building in a .manner 
that will render it extremely comfortable for but little more than $600.00, the cost of lumber and wages 
remaining the same as those figured on. 




Figure 3. 
Second Floor of $600.00 Farm House with $500.00 Addition. 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 469 

A bill of materials for the addition is also given, to which the above remarks equally apply. The 
bill calls for sufficient material to build the addition complete, including veranda, kitchen, etc., and the 
estimated cost, figured on the same basis as the main building, is $658.68. This expense could, of course, 
be incurred little by little as previously suggested. 

When the house is completed the owner will find himself in possession of a comfortable, roomy 
house, containing seven good rooms, which has not cost him over $1,200.00, and one that is still capable 
of further enlargement at his convenience. 



BILL OF MATERIALS FOR COTTAGE. 
Main Part of House, Design No. I . 

Dimensions, 16x27 feet. Walls, 16 feet. Ceilings, first story, 9 feet; second story, 8 feet. 

5 pieces, 6x 8 inches, 16 feet long, - 320 feet B.M. for sills. 

2 pieces, 6x 8 inches, 12 feet long, 96 feet B.M. for sills. 

37 pieces, 2x 8 inches, 16 feet long, 790 feet B.M. for joists, floor and porch. 

6 pieces, 2x 8 inches, 12 feet long, 96 feet B.M. for joists. 

4 pieces, 4x 4 inches, 16 feet long, 86 feet B.M. for corner studding. 

150 pieces, 2x 4 inches, 16 feet long. 1,600 feet B.M. for studding, plates, ceiling joists, collar beams, etc. 
42 pieces, 2x 4 inches, lTfeet long, 392 feet'B.M. for rafters. 
4 pieces, lx 6 inches, 16 feet long, 32 feet B.M. for joist bearers. 

3 pieces, 2x10 inches, 16 feet long, 80 feet B.M. for stair horses. 

150 pieces, lx 3 inches, 16 feet long, 600 feet B.M. for roof sheathing, etc. 

Total 4,092 feet, at $24.00 per M $98.20 

18 posts, 6x6 inches, 1 foot long, at 25 cents, for foundation 4.50 

3,600 cypress shingles, 5x20 inches, at $6.50 per M 23.40 

1,800 feet 3^-inch pine siding, dressed two sides, at $27.00 per M. ..." 48.60 

1,050 feet %-inch No. 2 matched pine flooring, at $23-.00 per M 24.15 

112 lineal feet O. G. crown mold, for cornice 2.52 

103 lineal feet bed mold 1.28 

7 pieces, %xl2 inches, 16 feet long, for planscia . . . _ . . 2.80 

7 pieces, %x 8 inches, 16 feet long, for frieze 2.06 

7 pieces, j^x. 4 inches, 16 feet long, for fascia - . .* 1.03 

7 pieces, %x 6 inches, 16 feet long, for outside base, dressed two sides 1.40 

7 pieces, 34 x 2 inches, 16 feet long, heart pine, for water table 1.00 

2 outside doors, 2 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 10 inches by 1% inches 6.00 

2 casings for outside doors 4.50 

3 windows, 4 lights, glass 14x30 inches, and 3 cased frames for same, with sash weights and cords 14.50 
2 windows, -4 lights, glass 14x28 inches,, and 2 cased frames for same, with sash weights and cords 9.00 
2 windows, 6 lights, glass 10x14 inches, and 2 cased frames for same, with sash weights and cords 7.00 

4 pieces, 13^x43^ inches, 16 feet, dressed two sides; 4 pieces, 13^x33^ inches, 16 feet, dressed two 

sides, for corner boards, etc ; 1.08 

Inside Finish. 

2 inside doors, 2 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 10 inches by ^% inches $ 6.00 

4 inside doors, 2 feet 8 inches by 6 feet 8 inches by 1% inches . . . 8.00 

6 door frames for above, 5MxlJ^ inches 3.00 

240 lineal feet pine base board, %x8 inches, dressed two sides 4.00 

240 lineal feet base mold, lxl^ inches 3.60 

240 lineal feet shoe, 3^x1 34 inches 1.60 

28 lineal feet window stool, 13^x3)^ inches, O. G. face 56 

385 lineal feet 5-inch casing mold 7.70 

42 corner blocks, 5x5x1 y§ inches 1.68 

.32 base blocks, 5x8x13^ inches 1.92 



I P RACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 

Bill of Materials for Cottage, Design No. I. — Continued. 

3 pieces, 1 ' s*l- inches, 16 feet, stepping plank, dressed two sides , $ 2.00 

3 pieces. : s xS inches, 16 feet, risers, dressed two sides 90 

3 pieces. : s xl2 inches, 16 feet, dressed two sides, for staircase '. 1.20 

1,400 brick and laying, for chimney, including 1% barrels lime, 1 yard sand 27.00 

Plastering, 350 yards, including 7^ barrels lime, 5 yards sand, 4 bushels hair, 5,250 laths, 55 

pounds 3-penny nails 87.50 • 

Painting, including ZYi gallons outside primer, 33^ gallons body paint, 2 gallons trimmer paint, 

] 4 gallon sash paint, 2% gallons inside paint, or filler and hard oil, 3 coats outside and in. .112.00 
Hardware, including Y^ keg 20-penny nails, 1 keg 10-penny nails, y% keg 8-penny nails, y 2 keg 
8-penny casing nails, y 2 keg 4-penny shingle nails, 2 pounds 10-penny casing nails, 20 
pounds 8-penny casing nails, 10 pounds 6-penny casing nails, 8 pair hinges, 1 front door 
lock, 6 mortise locks, 1 closet catch, 6 sash fastenings, 4 pairs sash lifts, 7 rubber tipped door 

stops, )^ gross coat and hat hooks, etc 24.00 

Tin work, including 52 lineal feet gutter, 60 lineal feet conductor 12.00 

Carpenter work '. . . . . 100.00 

Total • : $658.68 

Extra for Sheathing. 

1,500 square feet %-inch sheathing '. $18.00 

1,800 square feet building paper 3.60 

Carpenter work : 9.40 

Total $31.00 

Extra for Double Flooring, First Story. 

450 square feet sub floor • -.- $ 5.40 

400 lineal feet strips, 1x2 inches , 45 

500 square feet building paper 1.00 

Carpenter work 4.00 

Total . . . .' .$10.85 



BILL OF MATERIALS FOR ADDITION TO COTTAGE. 

Design No. I. 

Dimensions, 16x18 feet. Walls, 12 feet. Ceiling, first story, 9 feet; second story, 8 feet. 
3 pieces, 6x8 inches, 16 feet long, 192 feet B. M. for sills. 
2 pieces, 6x8 inches, 14 feet long, 112 feet B. M. for sills. 

1 piece, 4x6 inches, 24 feet long, 48 feet B. M. for porch sill. 
53 pieces, 2x8 inches, 16 feet long, 1,132 feet B. M. for joists. 

88 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long, 704 feet B. M. for studding. 
46 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long, 430 feet B. M. for rafters. 

2 pieces, 2x6 inches, 16 feet long, 32 feet B.-M. for hip rafters. 

25 pieces, 2x4 inches, 16 feet long, 266 feet B. M. for studding and plates. 
12 pieces, 2x6 inches, 12 feet long, 144 feet B. M. for ceiling joists. 
200 pieces, 1x3 inches, 16 feet long, 800 feet B. M. for roof sheathing. 

Total 3,860 feet B. M., at $24.00 per M $92.64 

14 posts, 6x6 inches, 1 foot long, for foundations, at 25 cents 3.50 

5,200 cypress shingles, 5x20 inches, at $6.50 per M. . . 33.80 

r*& lineal feet boards, 1x6 inches, for joist bearers .24 

1 60 square feet beaded ceiling, for porch 3.20 

1 ,000 square feet J^-inch matched flooring 23.00 

1 ,000 square feet J^-inch pi ne siding, dressed two sides 17.00 

128 lineal feet 3J^-inch crown mold, for cornice 2.75 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 471 

Bill of Materials for Addition to Cottage, Design No. I. — Continued. 

125 lineal feet 134xlK-inch bed mold, for cornice ; $ 1.80 

8 pieces, %xl2 inches, 16 feet long, pine, dressed two sides, for planscia 3.20 

8 pieces, %x8 inches, 16 feet long, pine, dressed two sides, for frieze 2.40 

8 pieces, %x4 inches, 16 feet long, pine, dressed two sides, for fascia 1.20 

4 windows, 4 lights, glass 14x30 inches, and 4 cased frames for same, with sash weights and cords 19.00 
1 window, 4 lights, glass 14x28 inches, and 1 cased frame for same, with sash weights and cords . . . 4.75 

1 window, 6 lights, glass 8x10 inches, and 1 cased frame for same, with sash weights and cords. . 3.50 

2 outside doors, 2 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 10 inches by \% inches, and 2 cased frames for same. . . 10.50 

5 pieces %x6 inches, 16 feet long, pine, dressed two sides, for outside base boards 1.00 

5 pieces, 1)^x2 inches, 16 feet long, heart pine, for water table .80 

4 pieces, 13^x4^ inches, 12 feet long, for corner boards; 4 pieces, 13^x33^ inches, 12 feet long, 

for corner boards 1.00 

Interior Finish. 

3 inside doors, 2 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 10 inches by 1% inches, and 3 cased frames for same. . . .$ 9.00 

2 doors, 2 feet 8 inches by 6 feet 8 inches by 1% inches, and 2 cased frames for same 5.00 

192 lineal feet pine base boards, %x8 inches, dressed two sides 3.60 

192 lineal feet base mold, 1x13^ inches 2.80 

192 lineal feet base shoe, 3 / 2 x -l inch 1.50 

295 lineal feet 5-inch casing mold .- . 3.80 

34 comer blocks, turned center, 5x5x13^ inches 1.75 

22 base blocks, 5x8x1 x /% inches 1.30 

150 lineal feet %xl2 inches pine boards, dressed two sides, for porch and shelves 3.75 

Plastering, 250 yards, including 53^ barrels lime, 4 yards sand, 23^ bushels hair, 3,750 laths, 30 

pounds 3-penny lathing nails 62.50 

Chimney, including 1,400 brick, 13^ barrels lime, 1 yard sand 27.00 

Tin work, including 33 lineal feet gutter, 30 lineal feet of conductor 8.00 

Painting, 3 coats, including 2J^ gallons outside primer, 23^ gallons body paint, 1 gallon trimmer 

paint, yi gallon sash paint, 1 gallon floor paint, y% gallon ceiling paint, 13^ gallons inside paint 90.00 
Hardware, including 34 keg 20-penny nails, x /% keg 10-penny. nails, 34 keg 10-penny casing nails, 

34 keg 8-penny casing nails, y 2 keg 6-penny casing nails, 25 pounds 4-penny shingle nails, 8 

pairs hinges, 1 front door lock, 7 mortise locks, 5 sash locks, 5 sash lifts, 8 rubber tip door stops 18.00 
Carpenter work .7 90.00 

Total $553.28 

Extra for Sheathing. 

800 square feet %-iiich pine sheathing $ 9.60 

1,000 square feet building paper , 2.00 

Carpenter work .- 5.00 

Total $16.60 

Extra for Double Flooring, First Story. 

420 square feet sub flooring * . . $ 5.00 

500 lineal feet lx2-inch strips . 1.00 

500 square feet building paper 1.00 

Carpenter work 3.00 

Total . . .'. .$10.00 

A $ 1 ,200.00 House. — The second design given (Figures 4, 5 and 6) provides for a somewhat roomier 
house, an attractive exterior design, and one capable of being made into a larger, finer residence 
eventually. The first cost is somewhat greater, although there is but little difference in the cost of the 
completed structures. 

A smaller area of outside wall in proportion to the interior makes it easier to heat, and the general 
compactness of the design will lighten the labor and shorten the steps of the housewife. _^ 



472 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



The design contemplates the practical completion of the exterior in the beginning the second 
v. with the exception of the hall, being left for subsequent completion 

A large giving ; room, a conveniently large kitchen, and two good sized bedrooms together with 
. large covered porch, take up the space on the first floor. The second floor, when complete*^ ^11-pro 

vide a hall, a garret, two bedrooms, 
and bathroom, all roomy and well 
lighted. A single chimney with two 
flues is so placed as to make it possible 
to have a stove in each of the first floor 
rooms, while a large heater placed in 
the upstairs hall would give sufficient 
heat on that floor. 

The design -has the virtue of 
originality, beauty, and a general 
appearance of comfort, and it is, 
moreover, capable of considerable 
enlargement. The pantry under the 
stairs may be lighted by the window 
which serves to light the stairway, 
if a.few of the stairs risers are omitted, 
thus allowing the light to shine 
through the steps. The double doors 




Figure 4. A $1,200.00 House. 



between kitchen and living room serve to keep odors of cooking out of the latter 
» n + I Matenals.-The remarks made in regard to the bill of materials for Design No 1 atmlv 
equally to the bill given for this house. The first bill provides for completing the entire exterior the 
first floor interior, and the second story 
hall, which can easily be used for a bed- 
room at first, as it is well lighted and 
easily heated. The cost, estimated on 
the same basis as the previous design, 
is placed at $1,041.60, the cost of com- 
pleting the second story at $100.00, 
making the total cost $1,141.60. 

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR COTTAGE. 
Design No. 2. 

Dimensions, 34x27^ feet. Walls, 
14 feet. Ceilings, first floor, 9 feet ; second 
floor, 8 feet. This bill provides for com- 
pleting first floor, and hall on second floor. 

3 pieces, 6x8 inches, 16 feet long, 192 
feet B. M. for sills. 

4 pieces, 6x8 inches, 14 feet long, 224 
feet B. M. for sills. 

6 pieces, 6x8 inches, 12 feet long, 288 
feet B. M. for sills. 

1 piece, 2x8 inches, 14 feet long, 19 feet B. M. for porch sill. 

1 piece, 2x8 inches, 9 feet long, 12 feet B. M. for porch sill 
36 pieces, 2x8 inches, 15 feet long, 520 feet B. M. for first floor joists 
3 8 | 2x8 inches, 12 feet long, 288 feet B. M. for first floor joists 




Figure 5. First Floor of $1,200.00 House 



6 pieces, 2x8 inches, 13 feet long, 104 feet B. M. for porch joists. 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



473 



BUI of Materials for Cottage, Design No. 2.— Continued. 

27 pieces, 2x8 inches, 15 feet long, 540 

feet B. M. for second floor joists. 
27 pieces, 2x8 inches, 13 feet long, 468 

feet B. M. for second floor joists. 
27 pieces, 2x6 inches, 16 feet long, 438 
feet B. M. for ceiling joists. 
5 pieces, 4x6 inches, 14 feet long, 140 
feet B. M. for main studs. 
100 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long, 933 

feet B. M. for studding. 
35 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long, 233 
. feet B. M. for studding. 
25 pieces, 2x4 inches, 18 feet long, 300 

feet B. M. for studding. 
75 pieces, 2x4 inches, 9 feet long, 450 

feet B. M. for studding. 
50 pieces, 2x4 inches, 8 feet long, 267 

feet B. M. for studding. 
50 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long, 467 

feet B. M. for plates, etc. Figure 6. Second Floor of $1,200.00 HouseT 

40 pieces, 2x6 inches, 18 feet long, 720 feet B. M for rafters 

150 lineal feet, 1x6 inches . . 75 feet B. M. for joist bearers, etc. 

400 lineal feet, 1x3 inches 100 feet B. M. for bridging etc 

875 square feet, 1x5 inches JS75 feet B . M. sheathing for roof, etc 

Total 7,653 feet 

28 posts, 6x6 inches, for foundation 

2,000 square feet pine siding, 3^x5^ inches, at $27.00 per M 
115 square feet beaded ceiling, y 8 x3y 2 inches, for porch 
1,200 square feet matched flooring, %x3^ inches 
125 square feet matched heart flooring, %y&y 2 inches, 'for porch 
140 lineal feet outside base, %x8 inches, dressed two sides . 

115 lineal feet water table, 1 ^x2>£ inches 

100 lineal feet corner boards, 1^x4^ inches', dressed two sides' ' 

10 lineal feet angle strips, l^xl M inches 

50 lineal feet square, round 

37 

5.06 




B. M., at $24.00 per M $183.66 

7.00 



3.45 
27.60 
3.12 
2.37 
.50 
3.00 



230 lineal feet O. G. crown mold, for.cornice 

230 lineal feet, J^x4 inches, for facia for cornice, dressed two sides 
230 meal feet, %x8 inches, for frieze for cornice, dressed two sides 
230 lmeal feet, %xl2 inches, for planscia for cornice, dressed two sides 

4 pieces 2x4 inches 6 feet long, dressed four sides, for porch rails 
60 lineal feet 1^x1% inches, dressed four sides, for porch balusters 

2 porch columns 

2 porch half columns 300 

\ ^rtort^^t e l by ' f6et 10 ^^ by ^ incheS > COm P lete With frame -d'tnm .' WWW. \ 7 00 
\ fir, tW' T I Z hY 6 feet " i ° incheS h ? ^ inches > com P le ^ with frame and trim 6 00 

5 first floor inside doors, 2 feet 10 inches, by ft feet 10 inches by 1 H inches, complete with frame 



4.14 

6.21 

.80 

.60 



and trim 



1 first floor closet door, 2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches by ' i% inches/complete' with 'frame and 
4 second floor doors, 2 feet 8 inches by 6 feet 8 inches by lx'fc^ complete with frame and trim! 



24.85 

4.12 

16.48 



~ PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 

BUI of Materials for Cottage, Design No. 2._Continued. 

second floor closet door, 2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches hvis/; i, 

u } o xeet o inches by 1 % mches, complete with frame and 



trim 



4.12 
dtrim 4.12 



1 second floor closet door, 2 feet 6 inches bv V fe*+ i™' is/"-" "u 

9 windows, 4 lights, 14x30 mches, 1 ^-inh check ra" /o^J ^ T^* ** *""* ^ ' 

9 windows, lights, 10x12 inche , itC^'Zw ^w *' WdghtS ' C ° rd and finish 472 * 
1 dormer window complete with glass, frame In ish' etc ^^ W61ghtS ' C ° rd and finish 30.00 
185 lineal feet inside base, %x8 inches, molded ' 6 -00 

10 lineal feet closet base, %x8 inches 3.00 

1,500 cypress sap shingles, 5x20 inches, at $4.25 per M.'for gables 20 

MoO cypress heart shingles, 5x20 inches, at $6.50 per M. for roof 6 ' 48 

Hardware, including 1 keg 20-pennv nails 2 ke^s m «»««, -i ,7 "„' 39.98 

casing nails, 1 keg 4-pennvlnI naik to ^T^ ' g 8 " Penny nailS ' 1 keg ^^ 

front door lock, Wmo^^^^T^^^ 7 "^ "^ 16 P&irS hi ^ es - * 

Chimney, including 1,500 bricks, SS^^^~5^^?^ "* *** ™»™ 36.00 

Plast T*^^ 270 ° 

^te^gu^^ 

Painting, including 6 gallons outside primer,' 7 gallons bodv oamV V ™ii " " V " " i 1378 

Ion sash paint, 1 gallon floor paint V In 7 P ' g nS trtmmer P ain t. X A gal- 

filler and varnish . * '. ^ g ^ Venmda Ceilmg P aint > 5 g all °^ ^side paint or 

Carpenter work, figured at $2.50 per day 140.00 

Total ;• 2 34.86 

$1,041.60 

unn . , . . Extra for Sheathing. 
1,500 square feet >g-inch sheathing S 

1,800 square feet building paper ........' $18.00 

Carpenter work and nails 3.60 

Total ' • 8.40 

' $30.00 

Extra for Double Flooring, First Floor. 
900 square feet sub floor 

660 lineal feet, lx2-inch strips $10.80 

1,000 square feet building paper 1 - 32 

Carpenter work and nails . 2.00 

Total • 3.00 

'""'"""••••••• ■ $17.12 

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR COMPLETING COTTAGE.-Design No 2 
y«n • ■ , L Fmishin g off Tw ° Bedrooms, Bath, Two Closets, etc. 

750 square feet matched flooring, %x33^ inches * 

2 closet doors, 2 feet 6 inches by 5 feet by 1 finches ' $17 - 25 

166 lineal feet molded base, J/ 8 x8 inches 604 

40 lineal feet molded closet base, y 8 x8 inches'.' " ' ••:•••• 2.80 

H keg 10-penny finishing nails 65 

2 mortise locks and knobs 1-40 

2 gallons paint ... 1.50 

"""tsS ssfisS^' 6 tarreis : ime ' 4 ^ s '- i: 3 " ^ **>' ^ » p— ■ • 175 

Carpenter work 50.00 

Total • 1861 

; $100.00 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 475 



Possible Improvements. — Among the improvements which may be added as desired is a short, 
ornamental staircase in the living room leading up to the first landing of the other stair. This would 
obviate the necessity of going through the kitchen to get upstairs. 

A further change would be to enclose the porch and place a staircase in the hall so made, leading 
up into the space marked garret in the plan. If this change is made the bedroom to the left of the hall 
should be converted into a parlor or reception room, a change quite possible with the completion of the 
second story bedrooms. 

In case this change is contemplated the doorway between the bedroom and porch should be 
provided for in the wall, the studding placed at proper distances, with cross stud and cripples, or short 
studding, in place, the studding doubled on either side, etc. Studding the exact height of the door 
can then be set in place, and the whole lathed over and plastered and so left until the time comes to use 
this door. This will save expense and weakening of the wall when the time comes to make the change. 
Furthermore, the front door should be placed far enough to the left to allow of room for the staircase, 
which will save moving it later. 

The house is susceptible to an addition at the back of almost any size and at any time. The 
addition would take in the window in the rear wall of the living room, the window becoming a door, 
and might extend to the kitchen door, the only change necessary being the transferring of the window 
in the stairway and pantry of the kitchen wall of the same, so that they would receive their light from 
the kitchen. If the addition were built two stories high, communication with the second story could 
be had by changing the long closet into an extension of the hall. 

Should the porch be changed into a hall, a veranda built about its two sides would prove a 
grateful addition. 

In both of these designs various modifications and additions will suggest themselves, whereby 
expense may be saved or improvement made. For instance, the railing around the porch may be 
■dispensed with, a glazed door may be added, and so on. 

A house built on either of these plans will prove convenient and economical. Both plans 
serve well to illustrate the theory of evolution as applied to house building, which it is desired to 
make most clear. 

Both location and expense must govern the style of foundation adopted. The 
The Foundation. cheapest foundation consists of short posts extending from below the frost 

line to a foot or more above the ground, set near enough together to adequately 
support the sills. Naturally these posts will rot in time; they provide no walls for a cellar, and the space 
between them must be either boarded up or cold floors will be the result. As a temporary expedient they 
serve their purpose. They will support a house fairly well for a number of years and can then be replaced 
by a brick or stone wall. In most localities a brick wall, two bricks (9 inches) thick, will prove the most 
economical and satisfactory, all things considered. Such a wall should extend well below the frost 
line. If there is to be, as their should, a cellar, the wall should be 7 feet high. It will pay to use well 
made brick and thoroughly prepared mortar. See that the lime is fresh and unslaked either by air 
or water. The sand should be the purest obtainable, gritty, free from dirt, gravel, etc. The latter 
should be removed- by screening. The lime and sand should be thoroughly mixed and just wet enough 
to trowel well. No more water should be used than is necessary to make a good joint. The walls 
should be perfectly true and plumb. All joints should be broken. Sometimes the farmer will be 
able to lay the brick himself, but the farmer who can make a good wall is the exception. It will 
usually pay better to make the excavation, haul brick, linie and mortar, and then employ a good 
brick mason, the farmer or his hand preparing and carrying the mortar and otherwise acting as helper. 

Sometimes bricks are laid in cement mortar, but there is little advantage in so doing. It is 
more costly, and if the land is poorly drained water will seep through the bricks, even though the 
mortar is waterproof. After the bricks are laid, a thin plaster of Portland cement and sand applied to 
the entire outside surface will render the wall waterproof, but, again, unless a cement floor is pro- 
vided, and the first course of brick is bedded in cement, the water is liable to come under the wall. 



476 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



■ i 

______ ■ 

k , . _^ 



Where a good brick wall is built, a lighter sill may be used than otherwise. It is a good plan to 
k the joint by laying the outside course one brick higher than the inside, and bedding a 2x4 on 

the inside, bringing the top of brick and timber level, and spiking the sill 
to the 2x4. In this case a sill as light as 2x8 will answer (see Figure 7). 
With such a sill the floor joints should extend clear across the sill and 
be spiked to the studding, and the floor should be extended between the 
studding clear to the sheathing, or siding, to prevent drafts and vermin 
from entering the walls. In localities where stone is plentiful a well 
bonded stone wall, carefully laid with good mortar, makes the most 
satisfactory and durable foundation. 

An excellent foundation, and one that the farmer can often lay 
himself, is of grout. To lay it, plank frames should be prepared of the 
proper width, not less than 3 feet in depth and without top or bottom. 
The length may be any common divisor of all the walls to be laid. Sharp 
Method of Breaking Joint Be- sand and good cement should be provided along with a sufficient quantity 

of broken stone. The whole should be thoroughly mixed while dry, then a 
small portion at a time wet up, using just enough water to wet all the material, and it should be 
rammed into place inside the frame, the frame being raised as the work proceeds. 

In building the cellar enough windows should be provided for light and 

The Cellar. ventilation and a good sized door opening outside. Double doors should be 

placed over the stairs leading up from this opening to the surface, and should 

be set at an incline that will readily shed water. The wall should extend around the space left for the 

stairs. In cold climates another and perpendicular door should be placed at the foot of the stairs, 

separating them from the cellar. 

In laying off the ground for the house two stakes should be placed at each corner, 
each some feet beyond the corner proper, so that when a chalk line is stretched 
on the stakes it will look like the illustration (Figure 8), 
the places where the lines cross (a) being the real 
corners of the house. 

The lines may be squared by a triangle made of straight edged lumber, 
the base and perpendicular of which shall have been squared by the steel square. 
A rule for proving the squareness of the lines when set is as follows: 
Select one corner, and 8 feet from the intersection of the lines stick a pin 
through the chalk line ; 6 feet from the same corner on the other line place a 
pin, and if the diagonal distance from pin to pin is 10 feet the lines are at right 
angles. By applying this test at diagonally opposite corners the correctness of 
the lines may be assured. 

All chimneys should start from the ground. Those placed on brackets are unsafe 
Chimneys. and often increase the rate of insurance. In a properly designed house of mod- 

erate size one or at most, two chimneys, each containing several flues, will serve 
every purpose. If possible a flue should be provided for each stove, as much better drafts are 
thereby obtained. 

The chimney should have a solid foundation of brick or stone, and if of brick an extra footing 
course should be laid. The exterior walls should be two bricks thick and the division walls one 
brick thick. In case the chimney is lined with one of the patent fire clay linings now on the market, 
one brick will prove of sufficient thickness for the exterior walls. In case it is necessary to carry a stove 
pipe any distance inside a partition to reach the chimney a terra cotta thimble should be used, and 
where a pipe passes completely through a partition it should be protected by a ventilated thimble. 
In no case should a stove pipe enter a chimney in a closet or an unused room. Such an arrange- 
ment is likely to increase the cost of or even make it difficult to secure insurance. The necessity of such 
makeshifts can invariably be avoided if sufficient care is given to the original plan, the possibility of 
enlargement kept in mind, and likely additions actually designed when building is first undertaken. 



Marking 
the Ground. 




Figure 8. 

Method of Staking OS 
Ground. 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



477 



Precaution Against Fire. — Great care should be taken by the owner of a building to make sure 
that nowhere does any of the woodwork of the house bind the chimney. The careless or incompetent 
carpenter is always tempted to use the chimney to steady and perhaps brace his work, and such 
construction is dangerous in the extreme. The chimney is almost certain to settle, and as it does so it binds 
against the woodwork and hangs there; a crack results, and sooner or later sparks reach the doubly dry 
timbers and a disastrous fire ensues. Insurance adjusters claim that this is the most frequent 
cause of conflagrations in farm residences, and it will therefore pay to give the matter all the attention 
necessary to insure perfect construction. 

Fireplace. — If means will permit, the house should possess at least one fireplace, preferably in 
the living room. There is nothing more cheerful than an open fire, nothing more conducive to a cozy 
family circle. Moreover, whatever may be the means employed for heating the house, there are always 
days in early fall and late spring when a fireplace will prove an economy, days when no fire will be needed 
except in the sitting room, and that more to take off the dampness than to warm the atmosphere. On 
such days a small wood fire in an open fireplace will make a world of difference in the comfort and health- 
fulness of the room, and will prove far more economical and far less troublesome than lighting a stove. 
If in building the chimney a cast iron damper be provided just above the fireplace and a pipe hole 
cut above the mantel, the fireplace can be closed and a heating stove using the same flue can be installed 
when the weather becomes sufficiently severe to require it._ There are now on the market a number of 
patented grates, etc., designed for fireplaces by which it is claimed several rooms can be heated from 
the one fire and the heat which was formerly lost up the chimney made available. Without being able 
to recommend any of these devices, the writer is strongly of the opinion that these new inventions should 
be investigated before building a house. 

The usual, in fact, the only type of frame house built nowadays is that known 
The Frame. as the balloon frame. It consists of sills, studding, plates, joists, and rafters. 

Sills. — The sills may vary in vertical thickness, dependent upon the 
foundation. Where the latter consists of posts either of brick or wood, the vertical width of the sill 

should not be less than 8 inches. Should it be difficult to secure 
timbers of the proper size, an equally satisfactory and possibly 
better sill can be made by spiking together a sufficient number of 
2-inch planks to secure the proper thickness. In case the sill is so 
made all joints should be broken just as they are broken in laying 
brick. If solid sills are used the joists should be rebated and the 
timbers spiked with hardwood pins driven into holes bored for 
that purpose. According to the old fashioned method of building, 
gains were cut into the sills, for the floor joists which were them- 
selves cut with tenons. The more modern method, and the better, is to spike to the inner side of the 
sill a 2 by 4 scantling, on which rest the tenons of the joists. (See Figure 9.) By this method the sill is 
not only saved from the weakening of the gains, but is strengthened by the 2 by 4, while the extra 
expense of the 2 by 4 is more than compensated by the saving of labor. 

The horizontal width of the sill should be, ordinarily, 6 inches. This allows for 2 inches space 
inside the studding on. which the flooring should rest, making the walls tight at the bottom and so 
excluding both drafts and vermin. 

Floor Joists. — The floor joists should be not less than 2 by 
8 and should be cross bridged once in every span of 10 feet, twice 
in a span of 15 feet, and so on. The additional strength and 
solidity of the floor will well repay the extra expense of cross 
bridging. (See Figure 10.) 

The Studding. — The studding in almost all frame houses is 
2 by 4 inches. While 2 by 5 makes a better frame, the writer 
doubts if the extra expense is warranted. He would, however, 
strongly advocate the use of a 4 by 4 or two 2 by 4's spiked together 
at all corners and on either side of all door and window openings. 




Figure 9. 
Method of Supporting Floor Joist by Spiking 
2 by 4 to Sill and Resting Tenon Thereon. 




Figure 10. 
Cross Bridging of Floor Joists. 



At corners he would use a 4 by 4, 



47S 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 




Figure 11. 

Method of Placing Floor Joists, Framing, 

Corners, Etc. 



and on either side spike a 2 by 4. (See Figure 11.) Not only is a more solid corner thus produced, but 
When you come to lath your rooms you have a solid bearing for the ends of the lath on both walls, 

instead of being compelled to lath one wall and then tack on 
a strip, known to builders as a furring strip, on which to nail 
the ends of the laths of the other wall, a method bad at 
best and usually worse than bad when done by the lathers' 
careless slap bang methods. A badly cracked corner in the 
plastering is the almost inevitable result. 

Plates. — The plates should consist of 2 by 4's laid 
double, securely spiked into the top of every stud and with 
all joints broken. 

Rafters. — Rafters should be of 2 by 6 stuff, long 
enough to permit of generous eaves and accurately sawed to 
allow of tight nailing to ridge board and plates. 

In every case where it is at all possible, 
Floors. a double first floor should be laid, at 

least in all but the mildest climates. 
The first floor may be of comparatively rough stuff, but must 
be brought to an even thickness and laid diagonally. If pos- 
sible use a 4-inch matched flooring for this floor. It should be 
tight and smoothly laid, butting well onto the sills, so that 
nothing can get between it and them. It will prove a con- 
venience if laid as soon as the sills and floor joists are com- 
pleted. In completing the building, after the plasterers have gotten through their work, this floor should be 
covered with a layer of good building paper and 1 by 2-inch strips nailed on top of that and immediately 
over the joists, and then a thoroughly dry 3-inch matched floor laid on the strips, blind nailed (Figure 
12) and butting squarely against the grounds . This method will give a thoroughly satisfactory floor, 
and the extra expense will be soon saved in the fuel, the amount of cold excluded being almost beyond 
belief. Such a floor finished with some good filler and an oil finish need 
never be carpeted, will be easily kept clean, and will prove far warmer 
than the ordinary floor with carpet and carpet lining. Under all 
circumstances rugs are to be preferred to carpets. 

The second floor joists rest on bearers usually 1 by 5 or 6 inches, 
let " into the studding at the required heights. These bearers should 
be let in more than their actual thickness and the lathing carried over 
them on furring strips. Otherwise there will be no room for the 
plaster to form clinches, while if the moisture in the plaster causes the 
bearer to swell, badly cracked plaster will be the result. 

The roof should have a pitch of not less than one-third, or better still, one-half. 
The Roof. A roof with the latter pitch is less likely to leak; the outward pressure on the 

walls is less and the exterior appearance is better. Moreover, by placing a 
slatted ventilator in each gable above the ceiling of the upper rooms much greater comfort in summer 
will be secured. A scuttle giving access to the space immediately under the roof should always be 
provided, and, if possible, a permanent ladder to it. Not only will this prove necessary should a 
leak in the roof become manifest, but in case of fire it may become the means of preventing its gaining 
serious headway. 

Shingles. — The most popular form of covering for roofs is shingles. Properly laid, with not more 
than 5 inches to the weather, one nail in each shingle, and the joints double broken, they will prove 
(entirely satisfactory, though not so enduring as slate. Where shingles are used the roof should be sheathed 
with strips, preferably 1 by 3 inches, nailed to the rafters, with spaces between each course of strips of 
not less than 1 inch. This will permit the access of air to the under side of the shingles and accelerate 
drying out after heavy rains, thus obviating the greatest menace to shingle roofs — rotting. 




Figure 12. 
Illustrating Blind Nailing Floor. 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



479 



*-; 



Painting. — Shingle roofs should never be painted, as the paint serves merely to retain the water 
under the shingle and so causes the roof to rot much sooner than if left unpainted. If it is desired to color 
the shingles they should be completely dipped in a pure but thin paint, or some shingle stain, prepared 
for the purpose. Some of the latter, it is claimed, will greatly prolong the life of the shingle. A properly 
dipped shingle, if the dip be thin paint, or only linseed oil, will naturally prove more impervious to moisture 
and, consequently, more lasting than the natural wood. 

Metal Roofs. — Metal roofs of various kinds are in fairly common use. They are more expensive 
and somewhat more difficult to lay, but if kept well painted will last longer and are a great protection 
against fire, both from lightning and other causes. In fact, some insurance companies will make a reduced 
rate where metal roofs are used. In planning a house it should always be borne in mind that the simplest 
roofs are best. Flashings and valleys are always prone to leak. In lining valleys it will pay to use a 
good quality of tin, and paint it on both sides. Especial care must be given to the flashing around the 
chimneys, or they will prove a constant source of trouble and expense. 

- Gutters. — The gutters should be placed outside the walls; that is, farther down the roof than 
the point where the rafters rest on the plate. If so placed and they do leak, the probabilities are that 
the walls and plaster will not suffer. The tin lining of gutters should extend further up the roof than 
a. line drawn level with the top of the gutter board. Then if the standards should become choked and 
the water set back it will flow over the edge of the gutter before it can rise sufficiently to seep under the 

tin lining. 

Standpipes. — The standpipes or standards for con- 
veying water to the ground or cistern should be of good 
size, and if made of corrugated iron will be less injured by 
ice. When there are trees sufficiently close to the house to 
render it likely that any considerable quantity of leaves 
will blow onto the roof, a light wire guard over the top 
opening of the standards will save them from becoming 
clogged and keep the cistern purer. Leaves that would 
otherwise have entered the standards will be retained on 
.the outside, and on the return of dry weather will dry out 
and blow away. 

Eaves. — Generous eaves always prove an economy 
in the long run from the extent to which they protect the 
walls from the weather. They also add to the substantial 
appearance of the house. 

Cornice. — A plain cornice, the ends of the rafters 
neatly boxed with the use of the least possible amount of 
molding, is the present style, and a very sensible one. 
Ornate gables and cornices are too often used to hide 
inferior carpentry. They add little or nothing to the real 
beauty of the house and materially increase the expense. 
A house with good lines, properly proportioned, needs no gingerbread or ornamentation, and a poorly 
planned structure cannot be improved by it. In fact, it only serves to make the cheap house look cheaper. 

There are three essentials to a good wall — good sheathing, good paper, and good 
The Walls. weather boarding. The first two may be omitted, but to do so is poor economy. 

Better, far, decrease the size of your house or finish only a small portion of the 
interior than slight the walls. 

Next the studding there should come a sheathing of cheap lumber, but carefully put on. 
The best method is to place this sheathing diagonally. So placed, every board is a brace which 
will serve to stiffen and strengthen the frame. This sheathing should fit tight around all window 
and door frames and extend entirely over corner posts, plates, and sills, completely boxing the frame 
work of the house. 




<-/> 



Figure 13. 
Construction of Cornice. 1, studding; 2, plates; 3, 
rafter; 4, roof sheathing; 5, sheathing; 6, siding; 7, frieze; 
8, planscia; 9, fascia; 10, crown mold; 11, shingles; 12, 
gutter; 13, tin gutter lining. 



ISO 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



Building Paper.-The diagonal sheathing, although it will well repay the extra expense mav h. 
omuted. The papering never should. A good quality of building pape/should co^plS^^tE 
outside walls, fitting closely around all openings. Such a covering if well put on will more than Lav 
.1.0 shgh expense m any latitude, but the owner should watch this portion of the wor^wTth a vie lant 

and heat 77 7* ? ^"^ ****** by ** **""* h ^ Its *«*<« »^K 
ami heat, and therefore it must cover every inch of surface. In northern climates the saving of fuel 
the first winter will usually repay the additional expense. g 

• , A ^ la P b0ai ; d — Th ^ most serviceable and most satisfactory covering for the exterior is the old fash 
oned clapboard, sawed thinner at one edge than the other and each board overlapping the ^Sne below 
If it checks or shrinks rt will still let in less weather than the various drop and other T^JdW 
Because of its thinness it is made of a better quality of lumber and will hold paint better Vo make 
.perfect job it should be put on with the old fashioned cut finishing nails, and they should be driven 
at least an inch above the lower edge. *"uuia De anven 

. q . t A Wi f dG ' T! P Wat6r tablG CUt fr0m h6art Stuff Sh ° uld be Prided, one rabbeted to permit the clap- 
board to set weU down on it and projecting far enough to carry all water beyond the founda^on Such 
a water table should also be placed above every opening, unless tin flashing is used, "see Figure 14) 
-_.. , Wlde windows are always preferable to narrow ones 

Windows. even though there be fewer of them. Great care should 

be exercised in placing the door and window cases to see 
that they fit snugly and leave no spaces for rain or drafts to enter the walls or 
rooms. The sash should be of the style known as check rail and glazed with double 
strength glass. 

Storm Windows.-In the colder parts of the countrv double or storm 
windows should always be provided for winter use. The amount of fuel they will 
save and the additional comfort they will afford will amply repay for them They 
can, of course, be provided at such time subsequent to building as convenience 
may dictate. For use in the country" nothing has been found that answers every 
purpose so well as outside blinds. In preparing specifications wrought iron 

hinges should be indicated. They can be bought practically as cheap as cast «*»£?%£ Table. 
iron which they will outlast three to one. In exposed localities or where high pt^^WSESg 
winds are frequent, some form of fastenings to hold the blinds open, in addition to ^ * ° U " We **• 

the usual catches on the hinge, will be required. A simple device is made to drive into the wall 1 It 
has a swivel end which stands upright by its own weight and holds the blind open except whelmed 
to permit of < , osmg. In windy localities these catches will save many hinges and possibly some g"ss 
«M f* v 7 randa '- Good broad verandas are no longer regarded as luxuries, but as necessities The 
old fashioned porch, too narrow to sit on and hemmed in by a close railing, was a farce and an aggrava- 
tion, but a broad veranda, the roof supported by plain columns and with no railing, practically affords 
an additional room for summer use. Of course, if the floor of the veranda is far" from the ground a 

or not atT T Y ? n6CeSS T t0 inSUrC Saf6ty t0 Children - Whether such a one » Possible at first 
or not, at least so plan your house as to permit one later on. 

The floor of the veranda should always be constructed of narrow, matched strips of heart wood 
blind nailed, laid m white lead (the tongue of each strip heavily coated with white lead and oil before' 
he next strip is driven on) and if possible, with not less than three good coats of paint. The ceiling may 
be of matched and beaded 3-inch stuff or left open to the roof. The former will, of course, give a much 
more finished appearance. ' & 

D . This is an extremely important portion of the work of building the house far 

Fainting. more so than seems to be generally considered. Not only does the good 

snf1 rf - . ,, ap P earance 0f the house depend very largely upon the painting, but its durability 

ZtrZ 11 T ^ , best / ldm S manufactured will deteriorate rapidly if left unpainted, posts and 

pilars will crack and check, and warping and shrinkage will make entrances for wintry blasts The work 
of painting can sometimes be done quite as well by the farmer himself, but too often he reserves too much 
to be done by himself, and months elapse before he succeeds in accomplishing this very necessary work 




PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 481 

Purchase of Materials. — Whether he performs the labor himself or hires it on contract it will 
hardly pay him to purchase his own materials. There are some excellent ready mixed paints, but the 
very cheap grades are practically worthless. Seroco Paints, a brand now on the market, are undoubt- 
edly the best and are much better than any the farmer could mix himself. It is the poorest kind of . 
economy to slight this part of house building or to use inferior materials. 

Seroco colors are absolutely pure and properly ground and mixed and the labor of applying 
will be no greater; the paint will go farther and last infinitely longer than where cheap, adulterated 
paints are used. 

The Priming Coat. — The first or priming coat should be mixed very thin. A cheap ochre will 
answer every purpose for color and body. It should be worked well in and brushed out, as the painters 
put it, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The second coat should be somewhat thicker, of the proper color 
and smoothly laid on. The third coat should be still thicker, and should not be put on until the second 
coat is thoroughly dry and hard. In fact, it is best to wait six months before applying the final coat. 
If any cracks or checks have occurred it will fill them, or they may be puttied, and if the materials have 
been of the very best it will almost enamel the wood and leave it in condition to withstand all kinds 
of weather for years. 

Color of Paint. — As to colors, light tints should always be chosen for country dwellings. The 
smoke and dirt which render them impractical, or at least expensive to maintain in the city, are not 
present in the country, and they give a house surrounded by green (as the farm house should be) a brighter, 
cheerier and cleaner appearance. A delicate pearl with light trimmings gives a durable covering and 
a neat combination. At all events avoid many of the brilliant colors. Bright blues, pinks, yellows, 
etc., are indicative of bad taste, and soon tire even to those who first advocated them. The custom, also, 
of combining a variety of colors — the house mainly of one color with a pink gable and a yellow 
foundation, and similar abominations— is to be severely condemned. A light blue makes a pretty 
veranda ceiling, and there its usefulness ends for house painting. 

The interior of the house should be almost free from paint. The kitchen floor, 
Interior Finish. walls, and ceilings and the bathroom walls are the only places where it should 

be found. The woodwork should be sandpapered, and one coat of filler and 
one coat of hard oil applied. 

The carpenter should straighten all walls and ceilings and place -grounds or strips of the same 
thickness as it is intended to make the plaster to which to nail the interior finish before turning the job 
over to the lathers. Lathers should bre'ak joints at least every 18 inches, and should put on no laths 
vertically. Spaces between the laths should be z /% inch to make the plaster hold properly. 

Plastering. — The plasterer should use only the best clean sand and good unslaked lime and 
plenty of goat or cattle hair. He should allow several days for his plaster to thoroughly rot before 
applying. The first coat should be well scratched before it hardens, in order to provide for the second 
coat's holding. When the second coat is perfectly dry the third or skim coat should be put on very 
thin and should leave the wall smooth and white. The plasterer should make all angles and corners 
square and true and plumb and bring all his work exactly flush with grounds. He should further be 
required to return after all interior finish is completed and repair any injuries done by carpenters 
or other defects. 

Hardware. — There is no item of expense connected with building for which the builder seems to 
pay so much and get so little as the hardware. Good hinges pay and so do good locks and knobs. Sash 
lift's on windows may be dispensed with when one is figuring close, and so, even, may window fastenings 
in. bedrooms, kitchen, etc. A small hole bored through the lower sash and into the upper at their 
junction and a 6-penny wire nail inserted will serve as a temporary window catch and is one that no 
burglar can pick. If the purse will permit, slightly ornamental hardware on the front door and in the 
parlor will greatly add to the appearance of the house. 

In dormers and wherever hinged windows are used some form of catch by which the windows 
can be fastened while open should be provided. Otherwise a sudden wind storm may result in 
considerable broken glass. 



Slg. 31 



PRACTICAL FARM BUILDINGS. 



Whatever space there is between ceilings and roof should be capable of ventilation, to guard against 
uncomfortable upper rooms in hot weather. 

A loan-to wood shed or a commodious back porch should always be provided. It may not be 
practicable to add it at the time of building, but it should be kept in mind and space provided for its 
ultimate erection. 

A most important consideration in connection with every farm dwelling is the 
Water. water supply. The ideal source is a free flowing spring, with stone or brick 

spring house, provided with tanks for milk cans, a safe for perishable food, etc., 
but such we cannot all have. Next comes a good well. A deep well with large windmill capable of 
pumping sufficient water for family and barn use is a great labor saver and most desirable in every way. 
Small gasoline and hot air engines are coming into use for pumping water, having, as they do, the 
merit that they will perform other work as well, such as sawing wood, grinding feed, etc. The farmer 
who contemplates putting in some power will do well to investigate their merits. 

The most economical system to run and the most inexpensive to install is a small steam 
plant. This can be made to pump all necessary water, heat the hottse, and furnish power for sawing 
wood, grinding feed, cutting silage, etc. 

The Tank. — A tank is almost everywhere a necessity with a windmj.ll or engine, though the latter 
will require a smaller tank than the former, as it can be filled ever}- day. The outside tub tank on its 
own tower, is much to be preferred to one in the house or in the windmill tower. 

A system which has come into use quite recently consists of an airtight underground tank. A 
small hole in the pipe in the well admits some air, so that the tank is filled with compressed air and water, 
the compressed air serving to force the water to the second story of the house, the barn, etc. One we 
have seen in practical use consists of a condemned steam boiler with holes plugged. The water was always 
cool and never froze. 

Cistern. — A good cistern is an adjunct never to be despised. The best form is of brick, with a 
brick partition through the center, through which the water must filter before it can reach the pump. 

Bathroom. — No farm house should be regarded as complete until it contains a bathroom with 
stationary bathtub and a good kitchen sink. Both can be dispensed with at first, but so much do they 
add to the comfort and convenience that tfaey should be supplied at the earliest opportunity. Even 
if there is no running water, they should be put in and waste pipes attached, thus saving an immense 
amount of tiresome work, 





BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



SHED 




N. 




V. 6 LIGHTS 
/0~x/Z~ 

.doObLe: 

STALL 



DOUBLE. 
STALL 



DOUBLE. 
ST^Ll 



o 

p 



PASSAGE. 



staLl 



STALL 



ST^LL 



ST^LL 



3x8' 



Jtl 



DOUBLE. OOOQS-fx/2. £ACH 



The location of the barn and 
other farm buildings is, as heretofore 
stated, one that should receive due 
thought, even before the dwelling is 
erected. While it should not be suffi- 
ciently near the house to cause un- 
pleasant odors or to endanger the one 
should the other take fire, it should 
be as close as possible and yet avoid 
these drawbacks. Anyone who has 
done farm chores in rough weather 
will appreciate the saving of discom- 
fort by not having too long a distance 
to go from house to barn or, in fact, 
to any of the outbuildings. The* 
questions of drainage, exposure, a 
suitable barnyard, and convenience 
to the water source should all be 
considered in locating the barn. 

The idea heretofore advanced 
of building, to begin with, a small 
structure intended in time to become 
a portion of a larger, or capable of 



Figure 15. 
Floor Plan of $450.00 Barn. The location of the four bents are 
indicated by the large square posts. 



being added to, is as applicable to barns 
as to dwellings. 

If possible a scale drawing 
should be made, showing the ultimate 
development of the barn and the loca- 
tion of barnyard, pig pens, corn crib, 
poultry houses, etc. By working to 
such a plan mistakes will be avoided 
and much unnecessary work saved. 

In considering the cost it should 
be remembered that in barn buildings, 
while the interior fixtures constitute a 
very important item of expense, they 
can be dispensed with to a very large 
extent for the time being. 




3x4; 






DOOR, 
3'x8 



B3 



STONE. 

OR 
GROUT (3 



3"x4a 



4X6.1 



DOUBLE D00F{S 
' 5'xi2.' EACH 



■f-'x 6"-^x 



=ZJ 



1 



3x4- <i 



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Figure 16. 



DOOR 
.3x8 



Cf1 GR Q UT r-r~: 



3*4-- 






Showing Construction of End Bents of $450.00 Barn. 

— 483 — 






BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



substantial and solid frame, well covered, providing for a commodious structure, capable of 
housing an abundance of forage and a fair amount of stock, should be the first consideration. 

Designs for two barns are given, both small barns, and intended for the farmer 



Two Plans 
for Barns. 



who is making 
are suscepti- 
ble to more 
or less enlargement, and both can be 
built for a very small outlay. 

A $600.00 Barn.— Bam No. 1 
(Figures 15 to 21, inclusive) is 37 by 
34 feet. The height is 12 feet at the 
eaves and 29J j feet to the peak. The 
loft is supported by sixteen S by 8 
posts, if of sawed lumber, but round 
posts would serve as well, while the 
roof is again supported by eight 6 by 
6 purline posts. 

The first floor provides, as 
shown (Figure 15), for four horse 
stalls and three double cow stalls, 
while a shed with side open and 
intended to open into a small yard 
affords additional room for stock. 
A clear space, 12 by 37 feet, is left 
down the center, which would 
accommodate several vehicles and 
implements and leave room . for a 
considerable amount of forage at the 



a start, or, at least, has but a small capital to expend. Both 




Figure 17. 
Showing Construction of Center Bents of $450.00 Barn. 



rear end. The loft would, as 



tf 







j u 



6»6. 



6*8 



1 




b h h h r=r 



7 



irnr. 








z 



-m 



S 



S 




H H H B -1— T 




Jx+'J 



4*6>~L 



Figure 18. 



7 



KU 



6»« 



6*8. 



S 



9 ! 



1 



^ 




~a~B- 




6*6" 




J X 4- J 



4-'*6^i 



e 



Bide Elevation of $450.00 Barn, Showing Left Side 61 Barn. 

'lifl'-r only in that nailing girts would take the place of post In center of shed. 



m 

The opposite side would 



shown, accommodate, if well 
mowed away, from 20 to 25 
tons of hay. The granary- 
shown is 7}4 by 8% feet. In 
many instances this could be 
profitably 7 cut down. The 
whole interior arrangement 
of the barn is intended to be 
merely suggestive. The frame 
will be found to be an excel- 
lent one, and one that can be 
built for very little money. 
The estimate, figured on a 
cost of lumber of $24.00 per 
1,000 feet, and including 
labor, with interior arrange- 
ments shown, flooring of loft, 
flooring of granary and double 
stalls, etc., places the cost at 
only $608.37. The labor the 
farmer would perform himself 
would materially reduce this 
amount. Far simpler in- 
terior arrangements would 
answer. Rough posts could be 



BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



485 





Figure 20. 



used instead of sawed timbers, etc. The cost given is for rough lumber throughout, except doors and door 
and window casings. Should it be desired to paint the barn, the additional cost of lumber dressed on 
one side can easily be ascertained and added. Cost of painting, two coats, would be about $20.00. 

For a time almost no interior fixtures would be essential. Stalls could be 
gradually built as increase in stock demanded and time and material 
permitted, etc. 

The design contemplates flooring the driveway at a height of 12 feet 
above the' ground, and the side 
Figure 19. spaces over stalls, shed, etc., at a 

height of 8 feet. In the center a space 10 by 12 feet should 
be left for pitching hay, etc., into the loft. The arrangement 
of collar beams makes the/ installation of a hay fork very 
easy. More light could be secured in the loft by the 
addition of shuttered windows in the gable. The timbers 
should be mortised and pinned with hardwood pins, as 
shown. Figure 15 gives the floor plan, Figure 16 the end 
bents, and Figure 18 the side elevation. Figure 16 illus- 
trates the splice to be' used in joining the large timbers as indicated in the elevation, (1) being a pin, 

which should be driven into space (a) . Figure 20 shows 
the perspective view and Figure 21 the front elevation. 
The two windows will give ample light to the 
cow stalls and a small window in the granary lights it. 
The narrow doors are built in two sections, so that the 
upper section can be thrown open and light and air let 
in. The arrangement given affords an opportunity for 
saving in labor, in that all the stock can be fed from the 
central floor. 

"Where the intention is to feed cattle or sheep the 
shed idea can be carried further and the entire left side of 
the barn can be left unsided, affording a shed 37 by 11 
feet with feed racks along the inner side, which may be 
conveniently filled from the center space or loft as desired. 
In a word, this barn affords abundant room at small cost and is capable of an innumerable variety 
of interior arrangements. 




Figure 21. 



BILL OF 

Dimensions, 34x37 feet. Hei^ 

16 pieces, 8x8 inches, 12 feet long 

4 pieces, 6x8 inches, 20 feet long 

8 pieces, 6x8 inches, 18 feet long 

4 pieces, 6x6 inches, 20 feet long 

8 pieces, 6x6 inches, 18 feet long 

9 pieces, 4x6 inches, 12 feet long 
1 piece, 6x8 inches, 8 feet long 
4 pieces, 4x4 inches, 16 feet long 
1 piece, 4x4 inches, 18 feet long 
9 pieces, 4x6 inches, 12 feet long 
1 piece, 4x6 inches, 16 feet long 

20 pieces, 3x4 inches, 16 feet long 
6 pieces, 8x8 inches, 12 feet long 
6 pieces, 6x6 inches, 12 feet long 

40 pieces, 2x6 inches, 25 feet long 



MATERIALS FOR BARN. Design No. I. 

ht at eaves, 12 feet; at center, 293^ feet. 
1,024 feet B. M. for posts. 
320 feet B. M. for plates. 
576 feet B. M. for main girders. 
240 feet B. M. for purline plates. 
432 feet B. M. for purline posts and braces. 
216 feet B. M. for purline post braces and plates. 

32 feet B. M. for post and shed. 

85 feet B. M. for floor posts. 

24 feet B. M. for window posts. 
216 feet B. M. for bottom girts. 

32 feet B. M. for bottom girder, front bent. 
320 feet B. M. for braces and girders. 

384 feet B. M. for bearers for inner ends of joists over stalls, etc. 
2*16 feet B. M. for bearers for outer ends of joists over stalls, etc. 
1,000 feet B. M. for rafters. 






BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



Bill of Materials for Barn, Design No. I . — Continued. 



SO 

30 

6 

10 

1,600 
191 

1,500 

1,200 

1,000 

350 

150 

650 



520 feet B. M. 
160 feet B. M. 
120 feet B. M. 
M. 






pieces, 2kS inches, 12 feet long, 1,280 feet B. M 

for joists over si alls, 
pieces, 2x8 inches, 13 feet long, 

for joists over driveway, 
pieces, 4x4 inches, 20 feet long, 

for stall posts, 
pieces, 2x4 inches, 18 feet long, 

for inside studding, 
sq. ft., 1x3 inches, 16 feet long, 1,600 feet B 

for strips for roof sheathing, 
sq. ft., 1x2 inches, 12 feet long, 191 feet B. M. 

for strips for battens, 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 12 feet long, 1,500 feet B. M. 

for siding, 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 16 feet long, 1,200 feet B. M. 

for siding gables. 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 12 feet long, 1,000 feet B. M, 

for second floor, 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 12 feet long, 350 feet B. M. 

for granary, etc. 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 12 feet long, 150 feet B. M. 

for double stall floors, 
sq. ft., 1x12 inches, 12feetlong, 650 feet B. M. for stalls 







Figure 22. 
Floor Plan of $425.00 Barn. 

partitions, etc. 



r 



LOFT 



DOWN 



to 



Total 13,838 feet, at $24.00 per M $332.11 

250 square feet flooring, 3^x3% 
"> inches, for doors 5.75 

12 pieces, 1x6 inches, 12 feet long, 

dressed two sides, for battens. 1.92 

11 pieces, 1*^x5 in. 8 ft. 6 in. long; 
2 pieces, 13^x5 in., 12 ft. 6 in. 
long; 1 piece, 1^x5 in., 8 ft. 
long; 7 pieces, %x4 i n ; 15 ft. 
long; 2 pieces, %x4 in., 12 ft. 
long; 1 piece, K x 4 in., 10 ft. 
long; 2 pieces, Y^h in., 12 ft. 
long; 2 pieces, J^x4 in., 12 ft. 
long; 1 piece, 1^x8 in., 12 ft. 
long, dressed two sides, for 
inside finish 5.00 

10,000 cypress heart shingles, 5x20 

inches, at $6.50 per M. . 65.00 

2 sash, 6 lights, glass 10x12 inches. 1.60 

1 sash, 4 lights, glass 10x12 inches . - .40 

Hardware, including 200 lbs. 10- 
penny nails, 100 lbs. 20-penny 
nails, 50 lbs. 8-penny nails, 75 
lbs. 5-penny nails, 11 pairs 14- 
inch strap hinges 15.40 

Carpenter work 180.00 

Total $607.18 



\ 


i 


open 













^rea including space 
under roof- j8to cuft, 





Figure 23. Loft Plan of $425.00 Barn 



BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



487 



A $425.00 Barn.— Design No. 2 (Figures 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28) provides for a barn 24 by 24 
feet and 16 feet high at the eaves. It is divided into stable and wagon and carriage room. The stable 

affords room for three head of cattle and two 




4-' * 6" 



$-x4-^r 






—__±_x8 




■U3 >?-• 



£00% 
7**8' 



* 

w 



- J3 — 



DS 
\ 

X 

V 

V 



i V'xfl" 



W*f 



DOOR 
3- 2* <3' 



6x6' 



WINO0W 



4~Kf~S 



Figure 24. 
Construction of Ends of $425.00 Barn. 



horses. The cost of this barn, figured on the 
same basis as design No. 1, and including 
interior arrangements and flooring of second 
floor and under stalls, is estimated at $423.53. 
The interior fixtures are, of course, capable 
of any arrangement that will suit the needs 
of the individual owner. The loft will hold, 
approximately, 10 tons of hay. 

The design admits of the erection of 
sheds on each side of the main building, which 
would increase the capacity of the barn to 
fifteen head of stock, or more; and were an 
outside silo provided, the lack of loft room 
would not be serious. 

If the farmer does not fear the effect 
of throwing down hay or fodder at the heads of his stock, it might be well to move the staircase in 
this design to the extreme front, close the opening, as shown in the second floor, and provide openings 

immediately over the mangers. Such an -f" xt>~-\ 

arrangement would be somewhat more eco- 
nqmical of space and save the second handling 
of long feed. 

Cost of Materials. — Bills of materials 

are given for 
both of these 
designs, in- 
eluding the 
materials nec- 
essary for the 
interior f i x - 
tures shown. 
Of course, 
should it be 
desired to 
change these arrangements the bills of materials should be altered accordingly. 

No cupolas are provided for in either of these designs. Ample ventilation can be secured by 
leaving the rafters unboxed, and cupolas serve mainly to increase the expense. 



m~ 



R\*"<6' 




Figure 26. 
Construction of Two Inside Bents 
of $425.00 Barn. 




■3-x-f-* 



6'x6 




4*4-'- 



s 



i 



^3'f 



6" * 6 "A 



X 



« 



$ 



J 



w><r 



6' ■* <S' 




^ J "xf-" 




6~x6',*S 



% 



.f'/f* 



Figure 25. Construction of Sides of $425.00 Barn. 



Dimensions, 24x24 feet. 



BILL OF MATERIALS FOR BARN. 
Design No. 2. 

Walls, 16 feet. 



4 pieces, 6 

1 piece, 6 
8 pieces, 6 
3 pieces, 6 

2 pieces, 4 
2 pieces, 6 



8 inches, 24 feet long, 
6 inches, 24 feet long, 
6 inches, 16 feet long, 
6 inches, 16 feet long, 
8 inches, 24 feet long, 
8 inches, 24 feet long, 



384 feet B. M.-for main sills. 
72 feet B. M. for inside sills. 
384 feet B. M. for posts. 
144 feet B. M. for joist bearers, A. 
128 feet B. M. for girders, B. 
192 feet B. M. for center girders, C. 



ss 



BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



Bill of Materials 



4 pi 

1 piece, 
7 pieces, 

- V' 

3 pieces, 

9 pieces, 

2 pieces. 
1 piece, 

1 piece, 

2 pieces, 

4 pieces, 
20 pieces, 

2 pieces, 
10 pieces, 

5 pieces, 
200 pieces, 

2 pieces, 
10 pieces, 

2 pieces, 
100 pieces, 
100 pieces, 

7 pieces, 

3 pieces, 



x 6 

x S 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
x 8 
x 6 



8 
6 

8 
8 
x S 
x 3 



x 6 
x 4 
xlO 
xl2 
x 2 
x 4 
1^x12 



inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 
inches, 



24 feet 
24 feet 
1 6 feet 
12 feet 

15 feet 
10 feet 
18 feet 
12 feet 

16 feet 
12 feet 
24 feet 
18 feet 
12 feet 
24 feet 
18 feet 
16 feet- 
18 feet 
18 feet 
16 feet 
16 feet 
16 feet 
16 feet 
16 feet 



long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 

long, 1 

long, 

long, 

long, 



for 

192 

65 

150 

32 

72 

144 

36 

12 

43 

48 

128 

468 

32 

320 

120 

800 

108 

120 

53 

,600 

267 

38 

60 



Barn, 

feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B, 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B, 
feet B, 
feet B 
feet B 
feet B 



Design 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

M. for 

M. for 

. M. for 

. M. for 

M. for 

M. for 

M. for 

M. for 

. M. for 

M. for 

M. for 



M. 
M. 



for 
for 



M. for 

M. for 



No. 2. — Continued. 

plates. 

center joist bearer, D. 
outside girders, posts, etc. 
posts, outside girders, etc. 
outside girders, posts, etc. 
braces, etc. 
braces, etc. 
braces, etc. 
header for stairway, 
long braces, EE. 
hip rafters, 
hip rafters, 
valley rafters, 
second floor joists. 
second floor joists, 
roof sheathing, 
center posts, 
center studding. 
stair horses, 
siding and partitions. 
battens, 
fascia. 
stair steps. 



Total 6,211 feet, at $24.00 per M $149.07 

270 square feet flooring, y&&y 2 inches, for doors • 6.21 

11 pieces, 1x6 inches, 16 feet long, dressed two sides, for battens for doors 1.76 

633 square feet flooring, %-kZ x /> inches, for second floor 14.56 

325 square feet flooring, y^> l A inches, for grain bins 7.48 

2 pieces, 2x8 inches, 16 feet long, dressed two sides, for sills for doors and windows 90 

8 pieces, 1^x5 inches, 16 feet long, dressed two sides, for door jambs 4.00 

3 pieces 1x4 inches, 16 feet long, dressed one side, for window casings . . 32 

5 rim sash, 6 lights, glass 10x12 inches 4.00 

Tin flashings for valleys 2.50 

7,250 cypress heart shingles, 5x20 inches, at $6.50 per M '. . . . 47.13 

Hardware, including 50 pounds 4-penny shingle nails, 100 pounds 20-penny wire nails, 100 pounds 

10-penny wire nails, 100 pounds 8-penny wire nails, 15 pairs 14-inch strap hinges. .*. 10.85 

Carpenter work 100.00 






$348.78 



This bill of materials provides for building the barn of rough boards figured at $24.00 per 1,000 
board feet. If it is desired to paint the barn it will be necessary to figure on siding dressed one side and 
battens dressed three sides. The painting at prevailing prices would cost for two coats about $25.00. 

Possible Improvements. — Floors, stalls, harness rooms, granary, and all solid partitions can come 
.;-, and as time and pocketbook permit. Temporarily a few pine poles, saplings or fence rails will 
serve Jo make the necessary xjartitions, in conjunction with the timbers of the frame. An earth floor 
in a dry, well drained location, while it may occasion some extra labor to keep clean and level, will be 
found fairly satisfactory. While stanchions may prove a convenience, a rope halter and a ring or cieat 
on the wall will hold most milch cows, etc. In a word, it is always a wise plan to put up as commodious 
and comfortable a building as possible at the start, even though it may be necessary to wait for extra 
conveniences until one, perhaps several, crops are raised. 



BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



489 




Figure 27. 
Front Elevation of $450.00 Barn. 



Bank Barns. — In many locations the ground will be found to adapt itself to the building of a 
bank barn, and although there have been many objections raised against this style of barn, we believe 

that the objectionable features can be provided against, 
and that when the lay of the land lends itself to such 
a structure none more convenient nor comfortable can 
be adopted. 

The chief objection to the bank barn lies in the 
fact that it necessitates a basement stable, one that it is 
claimed will prove dark, damp, and generally unhealth- 
ful. But these conditions are by no means essential. 
The ideal location is a hillside sloping to the south. In 
such a location the rising land to the north and the 
fact that the north wall is below the surfac.e both serve 
to protect the stabling from the cold. The southern 
exposure of the stable, which should be provided with 
ample doors, admits an abundance of sunshine, and if 
low windows, such as are commonly known as cellar 
sash, be placed just below the ceiling on each side, they 
will afford satisfactory means of lighting and ventilation. 
In storing forage, teams can be driven in on the main 
floor without climbing a steep ascent and hay and fodder 
put away on the same floor and with a minimum of 
labor. In too many instances the basements of bank 
and other basement barns have been placed too deep in the ground, and when so placed all the objections 
advanced against them are well sustained. The basement should be so placed as to permit of side win- 
dows at least two-thirds of the way back. In building bank barns it is usual to construct the portion 
of the walls below the surface of stdne or brick, but wooden walls coated with hot tar, with tarred felt 
nailed over it, have proved extremely durable. 
Barn Frames. — Barn frames may be varied 
to an almost indefinite extent. In sections where 
timber is plentiful, natural undressed posts, tied 
together with sized stuff bolted into place, will 
generally prove the most economical for the ordi- 
nary farm barn. The girders are let slightly into 
the surfaces of the posts and all siding is nailed to 
the girders. 

Plates like the girders will need to be of sized 
tifnbers, and so will the rafters. When timber is 
scarce and all lumber has to be purchased from 
dealers, the system already referred to in connection 
with dwelling frames, of building up timbers of 
several pieces of plank, will usually be found to be 
more economical, both in labor and money, than 
the use of single heavy timbers, and a strong frame 
will be so obtained. In barns of any considerable 

size provision should be made for the use of a hay fork even if the purchase of the outfit seems 
remote. A little care in planning will save considerable expense and trouble in remodeling when the 
time does come to install one. 

Quarters for the Cows. — In the arrangement the sunniest, warmest corner should be apportioned 
to the milch cows. The winter sun will prove a grateful tonic to them and protection from severe cold or 
wintry blasts will prove a valuable assistance and money saver. Many dairy farmers build their stable 
walls double with chaff between, but such walls have several serious disadvantages. Inflammability 




Figure 28. 
Showing Perspective View of $425.00 Barn. 



490 BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS. 



is not the least . infection by vermin, disease germs, and the difficulty of disinfection in case of 
the latter, all operate against such walls, warm though the}'' may be. Double boarding with a good 
quality of building paper between them, and all cracks carefully battened on the outside will, we 
believe, prove much more advantageous. Above the stable single boarding with cracks well battened 
will prove sufficient. 

Stable Floor. — Undoubtedly the most convenient floor for a stable is cement. The ideal floor is 
made of cement with movable plank floors for the stalls. In localities where the soil is of a clayey nature 
soil will make a very satisfactory floor if the stalls are floored with plank and plank gutters are provided 
for the manure. Such a floor makes an excellent temporary arrangement, and cement can be purchased 
and laid as time and funds will permit. 

When hay, etc., is to be stored above the stock, as is very frequently the case, a tight second floor 
of matched lumber should be provided to prevent seeds and chaff from sifting down, and in any event 
such a floor will go a long way toward conserving warmth in a stable. 

Light in the Stable. — While it pays to provide for plenty of light in the stables, some means should 
be provided for excluding light in fly season. Light frames made of lath and covered with coarse brown 
paper will serve the purpose well, while curtains for the doors, made of old gunny sacks, will exclude 
light and admit air and will brush off the majority of flies as the cattle enter. 

Sanitary Arrangements. — The subject of farm buildings can hardly be considered closed without 
some reference to the subject of sanitation, particularly as it concerns the disposal of sewage. 

The farm house which is supplied with abundant water, either running or so stored as to give a 
sufficient force, can easily be further provided with a flush out water closet and a sewer constructed of 
vitrified sewer pipe of sufficient length to carry sewage beyond the possibility of land or water contam- 
ination. But the farm dwelling with these advantages is, unfortunately, the exception rather than the 
rule, and therefore some other means for sewage disposal must be provided. 

The most common form, and, when properly constructed, probably the cheapest and best, is 
the privy. As commonly constructed, with a vault of more or less, depth, this useful contrivance is not 
only extremely obnoxious, but is a menace to health. The supposition that because the privy stands 
on slightly lower ground than the top of the well, and that because the well cannot become infected by 
surface drainage there is no danger to be apprehended from the privy, is all too common. It is practically 
impossible to judge by the surface of the ground of the various strata of soil below, some of them being 
capable of conveying sewage contamination several hundred feet. The very fact that the liquid in a privy 
vault seeps away is sufficient evidence that it has struck some porous strata and is going somewhere, 
and the frequent cases of typhoid and diphtheria on what should be thoroughly healthful farms are ample 
proof that it too frequently finds its way to the source of drinking water. Another fact that should not 
be lost sight of is that wells are usually fed by underground courses, and one of these may pass directly 
beneath the privy vault. 

The cleanest, safest, and in every way least objectionable privy is the form known as earth closet; 
In such a one a quantity of fine, dry earth is kept handy for constant use, while beneath is a receptacle 
for the excreta. Every time the privy is used a small quantity of earth is emptied into this receptacle, 
and at frequent intervals the night soil, made as little offensive as possible by the admixture of dry earth, 
is hauled away, to be applied to some portion of the farm where there can be no possible danger of infecting 
the water supply. 

The most convenient form of receptacle is a stout box provided with runners and a hook, to 
which can be attached a singletree. With such an arrangement it requires but a few minutes' work, 
when through plowing or cultivating, to hook on a horse, drive to the proper place, invert the box 
and drive it back again empty. 

Care must also be taken that the drainage of the barnyard shall not reach the drinking water. 



CONSTRUCTION OF GOOD COUNTRY ROADS. 

As "the road is a type of civilized society," it becomes the duty of every enlight- 

Introduction. ened nation to solve the great questions of road construction and maintenance 

to its own satisfaction and good. Rome's greatness marked an era in road 

construction which was never before surpassed, and which has been equaled only in the present century 

and in the most civilized countries. 

The condition of the public roads in the United States is probably worse than in any other civilized 
country in the world. This condition is due largely not only to the undeveloped condition of the country 
and to the allowance of local circumstances to determine location, etc., but to the lack of knowledge 
on the part of many road officials as to the primary principles of road construction, resulting in the 
injudicious use of millions of dollars of the public money annually. 

Quoting an eminent authority: "The increased cost of haulage actually done is by no means the 
only loss resulting from bad roads. The loss of perishable products for want of access to the market, 
the failure to reach markets when the prices are good, and the failure to cultivate products which would 
be marketable if the markets were always accessible, add many millions to the tax of bad roads," not to 
speak of the detriment to social communication, education and .religion. In fact the movement for 
good roads deeply concerns every commercial, financial, and social interest in the land. "We are handi- 
capped in all the markets of the world by an enormous waste of labor in the primary transportation of 
our products and manufactures, while our home markets are restricted by difficulties in rural distribution 
which not infrequently clog all the channels of transportation, trade, and finance." 

Present Work to be Conducted with a View to Future Improvement. — All the important roads in the 
United States can be and probably will be macadamized or otherwise improved in the not distant future. 
This expectation should govern the present management of roads everywhere; no labor or expense should 
be expended upon them other than that which leads to their ultimate improvement as hard roads. 

Many roads of this country were originally laid out without any attention to general topography, 
and in most cases followed the settler's path from cabin to cabin, the pig's trail from his favorite nut 
producing trees to his wallow in the mud and water of the swamps, or the boundary lines of farms, regard- 
less of grades or direction. Most of them remain today where they were originally located, and where 
untold energy, expense and labor have been wasted in trying to haul over them and in endeavoring to 
improve their deplorable condition. It is a great error to continue to follow these primitive paths with 
public highways. The proper thing to do is to call in a good road engineer and have the location so 
changed as to throw the roads around the ends or along the sides of the steep hills and ridges instead of 
continuing to go over them, or in raising the roads up on dry solid ground, instead of splashing through 
the mud and water of the bayous and creeks in the lowlands. 

If a road goes over a hill when it might go around, the labor and expense put upon 

Location. it are absolutely wasted, and the sooner its direction is changed the better. If a 

road is not rounded up and surface drained, it should be, not only for present use as 

an earth road, but as a preliminary to macadamizing. If it is not underdrained in all wet spots this should 

be the first work done. Nothing, indeed, will pay better for present use than putting in tile or stone drains. 

Good roads should wind around hills instead of running over them; and in 
Grades. many cases this would not increase their length, as it is no farther around some 

hills than over them. Moreover, as a general rule, the horizontal length of a road 
may be advantageously increased, to avoid any ascent, by at least twenty times the perpendicular height 
thus saved ; for instance, to escape a hill 100 feet high it would be better for the road to make such a circuit 
as would increase its length 2,000 feet. The reasons for this are manifold, the principal one being that a 
horse can pull only four-fifths as much on a grade of 2 feet in 100, and gradually less as the grade 
increases until with ^grade of 10 feet in 100 he can draw but one-fourth as much as he can on a level road. 

— 491— 



CONSTRUCTION OF GOOD COUNTRY ROADS. 



As a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, just«o the greatest load which can be hauled oyer 
a road is the load which c hauled up the steepest hill on the road. The cost of haulage is therefore 

rily increased in proportion to the grade, as it costs one and one-half times as much to haul over 
a road having a ■"> per cent grade, and three times- as much over one having a 10 per cent grade as on 
a level road. As a perfectly level road can seldom be had, it is well to know the steepest allowable grade. 
If the hill be one of great length, it is best to have the lowest part steepest, upon which the horse is capable 
of exerting its full strength, and to make the slope more gentle toward the summit to correspond with 
the continually decreasing strength of the fatigued animal. 

It has been estimated that a horse can pull better where the road is slightly undulating; say, 
where it has a level stretch, then a slight grade not steeper than 1 foot in 125 feet, and following this 
a decline of the same steepness, etc. In this way three different sets of muscles are brought into action, 
and while the one is being used the other is being rested. It is hardly necessary to recommend the con- 
struction of roads according to this principle at present, as we are a long way from even comparatively 
level ones. That the principle is a true one, however, is proved by the fact that a bicyclist finds it easier 
and more restful to ride over slightly undulating roads than over absolutely level ones. 

All things being considered," the horizontal grade of a road should never be greater than 3 feet 
to the 100, nor less than 1 foot in 125 feet. 

Inasmuch as all things are governed by nature's laws, and nothing by chance, 

Drainage. we can only expect to secure economy by a strict observation and application 

of those principles which act in perfect harmony with that law. Water will 
not flow uphill, neither will it flow into ditches made for it to flow into ; on the contrary, water flows 
in that direction where the least resistance to the laws of gravity exists; if that is down the middle of 
the road then you will find after each heavy rain the telltale gully. Water being the greatest enemy 
of the road, it should flow freely off the surface. This is accomplished by preparing the bed so that 
there may be a fall from the 'center to the sides of 6 inches, never exceeding 9 inches, on a road 30 feet 
wide; for a road 18 to 20 feet wide, from 3 to 4 inches is enough. A ditch should be constructed on 
either side of the road to carry away easily and quickly all water from the road and vicinity. These 
ditches should have a continuous fall throughout their entire length, and their size should depend upon the 
amount of water they are expected to carry. Water should never be allowed to flow across a roadway; 
culverts, tile drains, or, if nothing better can be had, a hollow log should be provided for that purpose. 

In order to have good roads, it is just as necessary that water should not be allowed to attack the 
substructure from below as that it should not be permitted to percolate through it from above. Especially 
is the former provision essential in cold climates, where, if water is allowed to remain in the substructure, 
the whole roadway is liable to be broken up by frosts or destroyed by the wheels of vehicles. Where roads 
run over low, wet lands or over certain kinds of clayey soils, surface drainage is not all that is necessary. 

Underdrains are easily and cheaply made, and when properly constructed with the best tools 
and materials available, will last for ages. They should be about 4 feet deep and carefully graded at 
the bottom so as to have a fall throughout their entire length of at least 6 inches for each 100 feet in 
length. Tile drains should be used if possible, but if they cannot be secured, large, flat stones can be 
carefully placed so as to form an open channel at the bottom. Slim fagots of wood or brush bound together 
in bundles and laid lengthwise at the bottom will answer fairly well. The ditch should then be filled 
with field stones, small stones or gravel, or, if none of these can be had, with soil? The drains should 
be protected by straw, sod, or brush, so as to prevent the soil from washing in and clogging them. 

A great difference in roads lies in the nature of their surface. On a well made 

The Surface gravel road one horse can draw twice as much as he can on a well made earth 

of Roads. road, while on a hard and smooth stone road he can pull four times as much. 

Consequently, where we have' good gravel roads, instead of earth ones, it is 

possible to make one horse do the work of two, while on stone roads one horse will do the work of four. 

On a level steel road one horse can do the work of twenty or more horses over a level common road. 

After a road has been properly located, graded and drained, the important qualities of hardness 
and smoothness should by all means be secured. The various surfaces for good country roads will be 
considered in the following order: Earth, gravel, and stone. % 



CONSTRUCTION OF G OOD C OUNTRY ROA DS. 493 

Earth Roads. — For earth roads, as commonly built, there is little to be said. They should be 
tolerated only in a new country or where there is absolutely nothing but earth of which to make them. 
Yet, with earth alone, a passable road can be made and maintained, if sufficient care is taken to have it 
thoroughly rolled and drained and the surface kept in proper condition. 

Whenever the subgrade soil is found unsuitable, it should be removed and replaced with good 
material rolled to a bearing. On the prepared subgrade the earth should be spread, harrowed, if 
necessary and then rolled to a bearing. 

With narrow roads, enough material may be excavated to raise the roadway above the subgrade in 
forming the side ditches by means of road machines. If material cannot be secured as indicated, the required 
earth should be obtained by widening the excavations, or from cuttings on the line of the new roadway, or 
from borrow pits close by. When the earth is brought up to the final height it is again harrowed, then 
trimmed by means of road levelers or road machines, and ultimately rolled to a hard and smooth surface. 

Gravel Roads. — Where good packing gravel is easily obtained, a satisfactory road can be made by 
covering the prepared surface for a greater or less depth with this material. Blue gravel or hardpan 
and clean bank gravel, when properly mixed and placed, give a surface almost like concrete in hardness. 

The most excellent gravel for road building stands perpendicular in the bank, compact and firm, 
and cannot be dislodged except by use of the pick, and when it is dislodged falls in great, solid chunks. 
Such material contains just enough cementing properties to enable it to readily pack and consolidate, 
and when properly placed on the prepared roadbed makes a surface which possessesmost all the qualities 
of a good stone road. Rounded or water worn gravel should never be used for the surfacing of roads, 
as such gravels remain loose and shifting, like materials in a shaken sieve. For the wearing surface gravel 
should be comparatively clean, hard, angular and tough. Such gravel is easily consolidated, and will not 
readily pulverize into dust and mud. 

The foundations for stone and gravel roads are too often neglected. It is well to remember that 
without a durable foundation there is no durable road. The cross section of the foundation should con- 
form to that of the finished road, and should be so thoroughly rolled that wagons passing over it make 
no perceptible impression. 

A layer of gravel, no less than 4 inches nor more than 6 inches in thickness, should then be spread 
on, sprinkled thoroughly, and rolled until very compact and firm. Next, spread another layer of the 
best gravel available over the surface to a depth of not exceeding 4 inches. All inequalities, together 
with stone and gravels exceeding ^ inch in diameter, should then be raked out. It is again sprinkled 
and rolled until the desired hardness and smoothness are obtained. The roller is doubtless the most 
important piece of machinery connected with the building and maintaining of roads, and it is well 
to remember that it cannot be used too often, especially in the spring when the frosts and rains are 
so destructive. 

Stone Roads. — The advantages to be derived from good stone roads are so manifold that all other 
material should be discarded where tough stone road is available for their construction and maintenance. 
But it is a greater economy to use earth and gravel than to go to the expense of macadamizing roads 
with too soft, too brittle, or rotten material. Many use this because it is more easily prepared. A road 
should never be surfaced with anything short of trap rock or serpentine. Inferior material may often 
be used with impunity for the first layer or foundation, but even this should be selected with great care. 

The evils resulting from improper construction of stone roads are even greater than those from 
improper material. John L. Macadam never intended that heterogenous conglomerations of stone 
and mud should be called a macadam road. Neither did he intend that the name should be applied to 
roads constructed of large and small stones, which work to the surface, and which are knocked hither 
and thither by the wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. Such methods of construction cannot be 
too severely condemned. 

Broken stone roads may be properly divided into two classes — macadam and 
Proper Construe- telford. The principal difference between these two constructions is as to the 
tion of Roads, propriety or necessity of a paved foundation beneath the coating of broken 

stone. Macadam denied the advantage of this, while Telford supported and 
practiced it. This point will not be argued here, but it is suggested that good judgment should be used 



CONSTRUCTION OF GOOD COUNTRY ROAD S. 

in the selection of one or t he other of these two systems. The macadam system is the best under some 

conditions, while the telford is more advantageous under others. The latter system seems to have the 

npy, wet places, or where the soil is in strata varying in hardness, or where the founda- 

e to get soft in spots. Under most other circumstances experienced road builders prefer 

the macadam construction. 

The earth foundation for either system is identical. It should have the same slopes from center 
he finished road, with sufficient shouldering to hold the stone in place at the sides. All vege- 
table matter should be removed and the earth made perfectly smooth and of uniform quality. It should 
then be thoroughly rolled until hard and dry. 

Macadam. — The first course of foundation of the macadam road can be made of the coarsest 
stones from the crusher, provided that they are of uniform size, and that each stone shall weigh not 
over 6 ounces, and will pass through a 2^-inch ring. Where the road is to be 8 inches thick this founda- 
tion should be -4 inches after rolling. If the road is to be of greater thickness than 8 .inches, the 
foundation should be composed of 'two courses, separately rolled. 

After having thoroughly rolled this foundation apply enough ground stone or coarse sand to fill the 
interstices. This should be wetted and thoroughly rolled until a hard and uniform surface is obtained. Upon 
this foundation the surface material should be placed, wetted and thoroughly rolled. The stones of which 
this surface material is composed should be, if possible, crushed to a size of 1 inch in diameter, but if that 
is not possible they should never be larger in diameter than. 1 Y^ inches. Ground stone screenings should 
then be spread upon the surface, wetted and rolled as before, until a hard, smooth surface is .obtained. 

Telford. — The telford foundation is composed of stones of various sizes, not exceeding 10 inches 
in length and 6 inches in breadth on the broadest side, nor 3 inches in thickness on the narrow side. These 
stones are placed lengthwise across the road, breaking joints as near as possible; the interstices are filled 
with stone chips, all projecting points are broken off, and the whole structure is wedged, consolidated, 
and made as firm as possible. , 

In case the finished road is to be 10 inches in thickness, this foundation should not exceed 6 inches 
in depth. If large stones are used, so as to necessitate a greater thickness than 6 inches, there should 
always be an allowance made for a 4-inch broken stone surface. 

This foundation should be covered with coarse sanct or stone screenings, or if neither of these can 
be obtained, fine loam may be vised, so that all voids may be filled and the whole brought to a hard and 
uniform surface by thoroughly rolling. A layer of broken stone is then added and treated as in the 
macadam system. Where the funds will permit and the traffic requires it, a regular two-course macadam 
surface may be placed upon the telford foundation with good result. 

Without proper care the most expensive road may go to ruin in two or three 
Road Maintenance, years, and the initial expense of constructing it be nearly lost. It is ef greatest 

importance, therefore, that all good roads should have daily care. ■They not 
only wear out but wash out and freeze out. Water is the greatest road destroyer. 

It is necessary to the proper maintenance of a road that it should crown or be higher in the middle 
than at the sides. If it is flat in the center it soon becomes concave, and its middle becomes a pool or 
mud hole if on a level, or a water course if on an incline. 

A hollow rut or puddle should never be allowed to remain, but should be evenly filled and tamped 
with the same material of which the surface was originally constructed. A rake should be used freely, 
especially in removing stones, lumps, or ridges. Ruts may be avoided by using wide tires on all wagons 
which carry heavy loads. If this is not always possible the horses should be hitched so that they will 
walk directly in front of the wheels. A horse will not walk in a rut unless compelled to do so, and, 
consequently, if all horses were hitched in this way ruts would eventually disappear from stone roads. 

If stones are cracked on a road with a hammer a smooth surface is out of the question. Use stone 
chips for repairing stone roads, and remember that all foreign material and rubbish will ruin the best 
road, and that dust and mud will double the cost of maintenance. 

Ordinarily the chief work done by country people on highways is repairing the damage resulting 
from neglect. Why this negligence? The adage, "A stitch in time saves nine," can never be applied 
'-. appropriately than to the maintenance and repair of all kinds of roads. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 495 



The foregoing comprises the general principle of road construction and mainte- 
Conclusion. nance, in conformity with which the art of road making depends essentially 

for its success. The proper conception and fulfillment of these principles will 
result in rapidity, safety, and economy of transportation. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 

Serious Obstacles to be Overcome. — When a farmer enters a new country where 
Introduction. irrigation is necessary he must determine (1) how he may best deliver water 

to his land, and (2) what crops are adapted to the soil and for local uses. 
• Everything with him is tentative. Unless he is fortified by an income outside of th^t obtained from his 
farm, the first few years he has a struggle for existence. That the pioneer is often overcome in this 
unequal fight is evidenced by many deserted homes and unfinished irrigation works. Owing to his 
inexperience in irrigation, he may lose his crops by not using the proper volume of water or by using it 
at the wrong time. One failure often means the abandonment of everything and a retreat to a region 
where conditions seem more favorable. In a new country where the rainfall is ample for the growth 
of crops serious obstacles must be overcome before returns are received for the labor expended. If, 
in addition to these difficulties, water must be brought to the land for irrigation and domestic purposes, 
the problems become much more complicated, and correspondingly greater credit is due when success 
rewards the attempt. 

To the eastern farmer, whose cultivated lands are rolling and broken, the problem of spreading 
water over the surface of the ground from ditches has some serious phases. Often the stream passing 
his farm is bordered by steep bluffs, and its fall seldom exceeds 3 or 4 feet per mile. In his judgment 
the cost of raising water from such a source in sufficient quantities for irrigation would not be justified 
by the slight increase in yields or the saving of an occasional crop. 

The western irrigator would arrive at the same conclusion if he had to deal with similar conditions. 
His agricultural land is nearly always smooth, and usually has a gentle slope with and toward some natural 
drainage channel, and would bear no crops without irrigation. The stream from which he proposes 
to draw his supply of water has a large fall, so that a ditch taken from it with a moderate giade can recede 
rapidly, and hence cover a large area in a short distance. A combination of these features makes it 
possible for individuals to construct irrigation works on the smaller streams. This chapter will deal 
with the kind of ditch a settler with limited means should build in a region with abundant water supply. 

The pioneer irrigator knew but little regarding the measurement of water, 
Small Ditches with the carrying capacity of ditches, or the volume demanded by various crops. 
Varying Grades The experience of the first few years often convinced him that his ditch was 
and Cross Sec- too small, and he was compelled to enlarge it to provide an ample supply of 
tional Areas, water. The volume one man could handle he called an irrigating head. This 

was his first unit of measurement, and his ditch carried one, two, or three irri- 
gating heads, according to his estimate. Crude measurements were afterward adopted to aid his judg- 
ment. He found it comparatively easy to measure the cross sectional area of a stream. His first 
gaugings were made in this manner, usually disregarding the velocity of the current. Experience in 
building ditches taught him in a few years how to adjust the size and grade of his ditch so as to furnish 
an adequate supply of water for the area to be irrigated. Some of the following considerations have 
been suggested by his experience. 

Proper Grade of Ditch. — Many things affect the ease with which ditches can be built and water 
distributed from them. The length of ditch necessary to cover any piece of land depends on its fall 
compared with that oi the stream and upon the elevation of the land to be irrigated. The smaller the 
grade of the ditch and the greater the fall of the stream, other things being equal, the shorter the ditch. 
However, the grade of the ditch should not be too light ; otherwise its section must be greatly increased 






L96 HOW TO BUlbD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



the desired volume of water. The grade must not be excessive or the increased velocil 

the current will result in the erosion of the ditch banks. Therefore, the range of grade which the di 

have is limited, and its length largely depends on the fall of the stream. 

On the quality oi the soils through which the ditch must be constructed depend the permanency 

of its channel, the rate of velocity at which water can safely be carried, the cost of first construction, 

and the economic value of the ditch as a Avater carrier. As cheapness is a requisite for the construction 

the class of ditches to be dealt with in this chapter, rock work or expensive flumes and other 

structures will not be considered. 

Difficulties to be Met and Overcome. — In order to more clearly show the difficulties to be met and 

overcome, a practical case will be considered. Assume that it is desired to irrigate an area of 40 acres 

lying near a creek furnishing a sufficient supply of water; assume, also, that the creek has a I ill oi 20 

feet per mile, and that the highest point of the land to be irrigated is 15 feet above the bottom of the creek 

at the nearest point. It will be seen that a point on the creek % mile above is on the same level with 

the highest point of the 40 acres. It is evident that the head gate of the ditch must be above this point 

if we expect the water of the creek to flow to the farm, unless a dam be built in the creek to raise the water 

higher than its usual level. 

Comparison of Possible Lines Upon Which a Ditch Might be Built. — It may be interesting as 

well as profitable to compare a few of the possible lines upon which the ditch might be built. That 

water tends to seek its own level is a principle that needs no demonstration, and it might be supposed 

that the least grade would cause the water to flow through the ditch. While 

it is true, it does not entirely answer the purpose, for the ditch must not only 

be one in which water will flow, but it must allow the water to run fast enough 

to deliver at the place where used a definite volume in a given time. 

The accompanying diagram (Figure 1) shows the relation between the 

grades of the ditches and the fall of the stream. The line to 3 represents a 

Figure i. level line through the bottom of the creek at the farm and running upstream 

Diagram Showing Lengths of , , , ,. . , r . , . . . , , , . „, , . , • r , , 

Ditches with Different from the farm. A to 15 is a level line through the highest point of the 

farm. The line to E is the grade of the stream, 20 feet per mile. The 

numbers 0, 1, 2 and 3, at the bottom of the diagram, indicate miles upstream from the farm, and the 

numbers 15, 20, 30, 40 and 60, at the right, show the elevation in feet above the bottom of the creek 

at the farm. A to B, A to C, A to D and A to E are the lines of ditches built on the corresponding 

grades. As above stated, the grade of the stream is 20 feet per mile. If the grade of the ditch is 15 

feet per mile, the two lines would approach each other at the rate of 5 feet per mile, and would 

come together at the point E to 3 to the base of the diagram, it is seen that the length of the ditch is 3 

miles. If the minimum grade is taken at y 2 foot per mile, the length is about Y 2 mile. The 

corresponding length of the' ditches having grades of 5 and 10. feet per mile are 1 and 1% miles, 

respectively. 

To illustrate how the length of the ditch depends upon the fall of the stream, let the line to 30 
represent the grade line of a stream having a fall of 10 feet per mile. A to C reduced to 30 shows that 
a ditch having a fall of 5 feet per mile is 3 miles long. 

• Two and one-half cubic feet of water per second is delivered by a ditch 3 feet wide on the top, 2 
feet wide on the bottom, and 1 foot deep, with a grade of 4 feet per mile. Practically the same volume 
of water is carried by a ditch 4*/£ feet wide on top, 3 feet wide on the bottom, and iy 2 f eet deep, with 
a grade of inches per mile. It may be instructive as well as interesting to compare these two ditches 
to determine which is the more economical to construct and to use. 

If built to convey water to the farm located as before described, the larger ditch would be about 
M mile long and would require the removal of 825 cubic yards of earth. The smaller ditch would be 
about 1 mile long, and 489 cubic yards„pf earth would be removed in its construction, a saving in the 
volume of earth of 4 J per cent. . The losses from seepage and evaporation in the two ditches would be 
in proportion to the surface exposed to the soil and to the air, and on this bas^s the loss in the larger 
ditch would be 12.5 per cent greater than that in the smaller. This comparison shows that the cost of 
construction of the smaller ditch is less, and that it is a more economical water carrier than the larger one. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



497 



A Large Head of Water More Economical Than a Small One. — In watering most crops the experi- 
enced irrigator knows that it is more economical to use a large head of water than a small one. A person 
can irrigate a given area in less than one-half the time with 2 cubic feet per second, and it might be utterly 
impossible to irrigate the land with ^ cubic foot per second, for the reason that the stream would likely 
be absorbed by the ground and sink into the subsoil instead of flowing over the surface. 

In the irrigation of most crops a man can handle 2 or 2y 2 cubic feet of water per second with little 
difficulty. Assuming that 2}/ 2 cubic feet of water per second is the largest volume that will be required 
at any one time, the problem is to construct a ditch that will deliver this volume to the land. The 
size of the ditch and the grade upon which it is to be built are questions which should be decided 
approximately before the trial line is run. 

The grades for many of the early ditches were established by plowing a furrow 
Methods of Run- or digging a trench from the creek to the land to be irrigated and permitting 
ning Grade Lines the water to flow as the channel was opened. If the water flowed too rapidly 
for Small Ditches, the furrow was turned toward higher ground, and in case the water failed to 

follow the trench lower ground was sought. After running the preliminary 
furrow the final adjustment in the grade was made by plowing a second one, which eliminated the 
depressions and deviations in the first. 

Accuracy in Running Grade Lines. — The degree of accuracy which may be attained in grade 
lines run in this manner varies with the care taken in running the first and second furrows and in estima- 
ting the velocity of water flowing in them. If the banks of the ditch are high enough to prevent the water 
from overflowing them, time will usually even up the little inequalities in grade. Especially will this be 
true of those ditches that carry an appreciable quantity of silt, which is deposited wherever the current 
is slow. In this way depressions are filled up and the ditch is made even and uniform. This leveling 
up process in not confined to the ditch laid out in any particular way but is constantly going on in all 
waterways where inequalities of grade exist. One advantage conferred by this method is that no mis- 
takes are made in the location; that is, there are no stretches in the ditch where no grade is allowed, 
nor does the grade run in the wrong, direction. Wherever water flows in a small trench or furrow it will 
flow more readily in the completed ditch. 

One of the most common forms of leveling devices is the triangle or "A." It 

Triangle with has probably been used to run the grades for a greater number of ditches than 

Plumb Bob. any other except the engineer's level. The ease with which it can be constructed 

and the simplicity of its adjustment and use are the points that have appealed 

strongly to the pioneer ditch builder. The usual form is that of a triangle whose base or longest side 

is from 10 to 16J^ feet in length. The different lengths which may conveniently be used are given in 

the following table: 

Number of Triangles of Different Lengths Used in One Mile and the Amounts Which Should be Allowed 

for Various Grades. 



Length of Base 


Number of . 

Times 

Triangle 

must be 

Applied 

in a Mile 


Amount to be Allowed in the Length of the Triangle for Different Grades 


of Triangle 


4 Feet 
per 
Mile 


5 Feet 
pei- 
Mile 


6 Feet 
per 

Mile 


7 Feet 
per 
Mile 


8 Feet 
pet- 
Mile 


9 Feet 
per 
Mile 


10 Feet 
per 
Mile 


Feet 

10 

11 

12 
15 
16 
16^ 


528 
480 
440 
352 
330 
320 


Inch 

1-16 

% 

Vs • 
Vs 

X 

X 


Inch 

X 

X 

X 
3-16 
3-16 
3-16 


Inch 

X 

X 
3-16 
3-16 
3-16 

X 


Inch 

3-16 
3-16 
3-16 

X 
X 
X 


Inch 

3-16 
3-16 
3-16 

x 

5-16 
5-16 


Inch 

3-16 
X 

X 

5-16 
5-16 
5-16 


Inch 

X 
X 

X 

5-16 

% 

Vs 



498 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 




Figure 2. 
Triangle with Plumb Bob. 



The headings, 4 feet, etc., over the last seven columns of the preceding table are the number of 
feet of fall in the ditches per mile of length; the fractions in these columns give in inches the fall which 
must be allowed in the length of the triangle. 

These are correct to the nearest 1-16 inch, which is as close as the instrument can be read. The 
table shows that if the triangle be 12 feet long and a fall of 3-16 inch be allowed, the grade of the ditch 
will vaiy between 5 . 5 and 5 . 8 per mile. 

Figure 2 shows a triangle with a base of 11 feet. Its construction requires a 6-inch board, AC, 
11 feet long, for the base; for the other long side, BC, a 4-inch board 11 feet 
long, and for the short side, AB, a 4-inch board 63^ feet long. The 4-inch 
board, BD, along which the plumb line hangs, is 5 feet and 3 inches long. 
Two or three wide staples should be driven into this board over the plumb 
line to limit its swing. The plumb line is of such length that the point of 
the plumb bob just clears the upper edge of the base, AC. The plumb bob 
for this device should have a long, slender point, so that its position can be 
more easily seen. A mark may be made on BD just above the plumb 
bob to indicate the center of its swing. The line is then read instead of the 
point of the plumb bob. 

Manner of Adjusting Triangle. — The adjustment of the triangle consists in locating and marking 
the place where the point of the bob or line comes when the base is level. This is done in the following 
manner: Drive tv/o stakes in the ground making the distance between them equal to the length of the 
base of the triangle. The stakes should be driven so their tops will be as nearly level as can be estimated. 
Place the triangle with the ends of its base resting on the stakes; hold the triangle in a vertical plane and 
notice if the plumb swings clear of the staples; if it does not, drive the higher stake until it does. The 
plumb bob is allowed to settle, and a mark is made on the base directly under its point or back of the line 
on BD. The triangle is then reversed upon the stakes and another mark is made on the base or on the 
upright, BD. A permanent line is then drawn across the top of the base midway between the two marks 
already made or between those on BD. When the triangle is held in such a position that the point 
of the plumb bob or the line comes to the last marks made, the base of the triangle is level. A leg shown, 
E, 6 inches long, may be fastened to the forward end of the triangle. 

To Use the instrument for the location of a ditch line, begin at the lower end of the ditch and 
proceed as follows: Drive a stake at the starting point, leaving its top 6 inches above the surface of the 
ground. Place the end, A, of the triangle on this stake and put E on the ground, along the line of the 
proposed ditch, and move the higher or lower ground as necessary in order to bring the point of the plumb 
bob or the line to the mark that serves to indicate when the base is level. Two points on the same level 
are thus fixed. It is desired instead to find a point near E higher than the' surface of the ground, at A, 
by an amount equal to the grade of the ditch in that distance. Shortening the leg, E,by this amount 
and moving it to higher ground, keeping the base, AC, level, the desired point is found. This point is 
marked by driving a stake in the ground, the top of which is 6 inches above the surface. The proper 
amount to be cut from the leg, E, may be determined in this manner: Divide 5,280, the number of feet 
in a mile, by 11, the length of the base, AC, of the triangle. The quotient, 480, is the number of times 
the'triangle must be applied to the ground in laying out a mile of ditch. Divide the number of inches 
in the fall of the ditch per mile by 480 and the result will be the amount in fractional parts of an inch 
by which the leg, E, must be shortened. In a ditch having a fall of 5 feet, or 60 inches, per mile, this 
is 60 divided by 480, or % inch. 

Method of Running Grade Lines. The following method of running grade lines with this device 
is probably more commonly employed: The leg, E, is dispensed with, and after the point locating the 
center of the swing of the plumb bob has been located, a piece of wood of such thickness as to allow for 
the grade in the length of the base is tacked under one of the ends, as at C. The work of laying out 
the line can begin either at the head gate or at the farm. If a suitable location for the head gate is 
found, it may be desirable to commence there. In this case, a stake, having its top 10 or 12 inches above 
the surface of the ground, is driven at the point selected for the head gate and the end, A, of the triangle 
is placed upon it. The end, C, is turned in the direction the ditch is to be run, and when the plumb bob 




HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 499 

comes to rest at the mark indicating that the base is level, a stake is driven so that its top is even with 
the lower face of the piece of wood fastened under C. The tops of the stakes will then have the 
proper grade, "and the triangle can be moved forward with the end, A, on the stake just located and another 
stake driven as before. This operation is repeated until the entire line is run. The line so located need 
not follow the contour of the country, but can be made fairly direct. Knowing that the tops of the 
stakes are on grade, the cut at any place can easily be found. If the top of the first stake is 15 inches 
above the grade line at the bottom of the ditch, to locate the bottom at any other station it is only 
necessaryto measure down 15 inches from the top of the stake there. 

The plumb bob is placed near the rear of the frame, because its position can be more easily seen 
by a person holding that end upon a stake, and the motion communicated to it by the movement 
of the end, C, is less. 

How to Make the Frame. — The triangle is frequently used in connection 
Triangle with with the carpenter's level, as shown in Figure 3. This device can be used in 
Carpenter's Level, windy weather, when it would be almost impossible to run a line with a plumb 

bob. The frame may be made of two 3-inch boards, AB and AC, about 8 
feet long, and a 2x4-inch piece, DE, about 6 feet long. The two pieces, 
AB and AC, are crossed at A and fastened with one nail; make the length of 
AB exactly equal to AC, say 8 feet, and make marks at B and C on the 
center line of the pieces. BC is a straight ed?e about 12 feet long, used 
temporarily in the construction of the frame. Mark upon its upper edge two 
points 11 feet apart. Brin^ the marks at B and C to the points on the 

lighl edge, which is temporarily fastened with nails in this position. AD 

ow laid off equal to AE. say about 4 feet, and the two points, D and E, Triangle with cwpenter'sLevei. 
marked. The 2x4 piece, DE. is now laid across the frame, placing the upper 

edge on the points. D and E. It is to be fitted and permanently fastened in this position. The 3-inch 
boards, BE and DC, are next put in place and nailed there. They hold the ends of the legs securely in 

;tion. The amount of fall of 11 feet is then calculated. It is laid off and marked on AB, measuring 
from the upper end of BC The piece of BC is now loosened at B and the upper edge brought to this 
mark. The legs of the triangle are cut along the straight edge of BC. The leg of AB should be 
marked, in some way to indicate that it is to be used on the upstream end of the triangle. 

To Adjust the Leveling Device. — This method of constructing the leveling device assumes that the 

'enter's level is in adjustment. If it needs adjusting, remove the level from the frame and proceed 

ollows: Drive two stakes, A and B, in»the ground until their tops are nearly on the same level. 
Place one end, A. of the carpenter's level on the stake. A, and the other end, B, on the stake B. Drive 
one of the stakes until the bubble comes to the center of the tube. Place the end, A, of the level on the 
stake, B, and the end, B. on the stake, A, and note the position of the bubble. Reverse the ends of the 
level to their former position and see if the bubble returns to the center of the tube ; if not, repeat the oper- 
ation. If this cannot be brought about, the level should not be considered trustworthy and should not 

used. After finding that the bubble returns to the center satisfactorily, place the end, A, upon the 
stake, B, and the end, B. on the stake, A, and correct one-half of the apparent error by the set -screw which 
fastens the spirit level to the wood of the carpenter's level. Reverse the ends of the level and drive one 
of the stakes until the bubble comes again to the center. Repeat this operation until the bubble is in 
the center hi both positions. The level is then in adjustment, and the tops of the stakes are at the 
same elevation. 

Replace the carpenter's level on the frame and the device is ready for use. It should be tested 
each time before being used. This can be done as follows: The carpenter's level is in adjustment and 
the upper edge of BC (Figure 3) is a straight line. Place the level on this line and drive two stakes, 
one at B and the other at C, so that their tops are even with the upper edge of BC, when the bubble 
is in the center of the tube. The tops of the stakes should then be nearly level. By reversing the 
straight edge several times they can be more accurately driven, and any error of the carpenter's level 
can be eliminated. When the tops of the stakes are on the same level replace the carpenter's level 
on the frame and make its legs the same length by adding a piece of wood to the shorter one, BC. When 






HOW TO lU'ILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



Selection of a Site 
for the Head Gate 
and the Choice of 
Ditch Lines. 







Jill 



Figure 4. 
Sketch Showing Location of Farmland Possible 
Ditch Lines. 



. : on the stakes the bubble should come to the center of the tube and should not change 
when the ends of the frame are reversed. 

In use. whenever the bubble is in the center of the tube the leg, B, will stand on the ground as 
much higher than the leg, C, as will give the proper grade to 
the ditch. The leg, C, is placed on a hub, a small stake driven 
flush with the surface of the ground at the lower end of the 
ditch line. A point 11 feet above on the ditch line is then 
found where B touches the surface of the ground when the 
bubble is in the center of the tube. This point is also marked 
by a hub. These two points mark the grade line of the 
ditch. The frame is then carried forward, placing the leg, C, 
upon the last hub, and this operation is repeated until the 
ditch line is entirely located. In order that the hubs may 
be more easily found, a small stake is driven beside each. 

Figure 4 shows the farm, the creek, 
and the ground over which the ditch 
is to be built. The grade assumed for 
the ditch, AB, is 5 feet per mile, or 
one-fourth the fall of the creek. 
Therefore, the creek rises in going upstream, four times as much as the ditch 
in going the same distance; hence, the line of the ditch will gradually approach the creek. The line 
and the creek will intersect at a point about 1 mile above the farm or about- i/g mile above B. 

Best Location for Head Gate. — It frequently occurs, as shown in Figure 4, that the point where 
the preliminary line intersects the creek is not a suitable one for the location of the head gate. The 
banks of the creek are high, thus making a deep cut necessary, and owing to a bend in its channel the 
current is thrown toward the opposite side of the stream. If for any such reasons the ditch cannot be 
cheaply or conveniently taken out, the banks of the creek above should be carefully examined to see if 
there is not a more desirable location. Suppose a point, D, is found a quarter of a mile above, where 
the banks are not high and where an outer curve directs the current toward the head gate. If the 

stream is subject to sudden and heavy floods, it might be. better 
for the head gate to be located on a straight portion of the channel 
rather than upon the curve. 

Selection of Ditch Line. — After deciding that the head gate 
should be located at D, it is necessary to determine how to carry 
the water from there to the farm. The head gate, D, can either be 
connected with some point of the preliminary line, as B, or a new 
line can be run leading directly to the farm, as shown by the 
upper dotted line, DA. 

There are a number of questions to be taken into considera- 
tion before a choice between the two lines should be decided Upon. 
Usually the higher the ditch line the rougher the country. Often 
rock is encountered, and the upper line is generally much more 
crooked if it follows the surface of the ground. A line run directly 
from the head gate to the farm has a grade of about 7 feet per mile. 
However, if this country is more broken than that along the prelim- 
inary line, the upper ditch will be crooked, and hence be longer than 
it has been estimated. This increased length will reduce the 
grade. Suppose in this case that, after examining the country 
along the upper line, it is found that a large quantity of rocks would be encountered in the construction 
of the ditch. It i isary then to go back to the head gate and examine the country between that 

point and the preliminary line. It is found that a short ditch, DCB, running from the head gate to 
* with the preliminary line can be built. A uniform grade can be maintained by constructing a 



r^> 




Figure 5. 
Detail! of Timber Drop in Ditch. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



501 




Figure 6. 
Plank Scraper. 



drop, located as shown in Figure 4. This compromise between the two lines is therefore decided upon. The 
fall of water over the drop is 3 J^ feet, thus allowing a grade of 6 feet per mile in the short distance. If this 
precaution were not taken its channel would be worn away in a short time, and the materials thus 
washed out would be deposited in the lower ditch, from which place it would have to be removed. The drop 
(Figure 5) consists of a short flume, D, with a flaring approach and submerged platform, A. The floor, C, 
on the grade of the ditch below the drop", breaks the force of the falling water. The flaring wings and 
submerged platform at B protect the ditch at that point. The dimensions are also shown in Figure 5. 
Methods of Marking Ditch Line. — To mark the line of the ditch with a furrow after it has been 
properly .located, let one man guide the team, walking between the heads of the horses and holding a 
bit in each, hand, while another holds the plow. If the surface of the ground will permit a. wagon to 
be driven over the line, the plow may be attached to the rear axle, the driver directing the team from 

the seat of the wagon. The team is driven in such a direction 
as to turn the furrow to the lower side of the ditch. If the 
surface of the ground is comparatively level across the line 
of the ditch it is not necessary to follow the stakes closely 
in the bends. The ditch will be better for being straightened 
a little, which may be done by going above the stakes to locate 
the bends nearest the creek and a little below the stakes that 
locate the bends farthest away. If the ground slopes very 
much across the ditch line the stakes must be followed closely. After the line is marked, two or three 
furrows are plowed turning them to the lower side. A ditch of this size may be built wholly with an 
ordinary plow, by going over the line a number of times. The loose earth in the bottom of the ditch 
may be removed with a plank scraper, shown in Figure 6. The tongue should be long enough to allow 
the team to work below the bank. The scraper is lifted over the loose earth as the team backs, and 
the load is dragged out as the team moves forward. A ditch of the size contemplated is rather too 
small to admit of using the ordinary scraper to advantage. 

A small ditch of the kind described might be used for years without a head gate. 

Head Gate. It will, however, be much better to have one, so the water can be shut off 

when it is not needed for irrigation. 

Figure 7 shows a common type of small head gate. It consists of a box or flume 6 feet long, 

3 feet wide and 3 feet deep, with a gate, D, at the end nearest the creek. At both ends the sides flare 

at an angle of 30 degrees. Under them, \}4, feet below the floor of the structure, C, platforms A and 

B are built. Both of these platforms are covered with earth 

to the level of the floor, C. Earth also is carefully tamped 

around the outside of the gate. 

All precautions should be taken to prevent water from 
working along the outside of the head gate. The structure may 
be undermined in a short time if only a small stream finds its 
way between the planks and the earth. The flaring wings and 
submerged platform are built to prevent this action, and also 
to make the structure secure in case of high water. 

Location and Grade. — The location 

Laying Out of the laterals furnishes an oppor- 

Field Laterals. tunity for the irrigator to show his 

, . skill. While the land is new, spreading 

water over it will be a difficult matter. It may be impossible 

to properly locate the main laterals at first, and supplemental 

laterals and dikes may have to be constructed. Before the 

crops can be harvested these temporary channels must be 

filled in and the ground leveled. Theoretically they should 

be given such a grade as will result in a moderate velocity for the water, but not sufficient to 

wash the earth along the sides and the bottom of the ditch. One irrigator of considerable experience 




Figure 7. 
Details of Head Gate. 






HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



hat the field laterals should have a fall of at least 10 feet per mile. The laterals should 

irly at right angles with the direction of the greatest slope of the land so that wa 

will flow front rather than along them. Mistakes can be made in constructing them parallel with the 

When the water is turned from these it tends to follow rather than to flow away from 

thus adding greatly to the work of irrigation. If the surface of the ground is somewhat uneven 

the problem of locating the permanent laterals becomes correspondingly more difficult, often rendering 

the use of the engineer's level necessary. It may be possible to cover all the ground by locating the 

laterals along the ridges, or there may be high points entirely surrounded by lower grounds making it 

try to build bridges on artificial ridges, or dikes, to carry the water to them. 

The inexperienced irrigator often considers that the ground occupied by the laterals is wasted 
land, because it hears no crop! Accordingly he makes them far apart, so that the water must flow a 
long distance to cover the surface between any two. This usually results in the overirrigation of that 
portion of the crop near the lateral in use, as the water must be kept flowing there until the entire surface 
to the next lateral is irrigated. 

Preparation of Surface. — It will usually pay to do some work in smoothing off the little irregularities 
in the surface of the farm. This may be done with a plank scraper, or drag, after the ground has been 

plowed. The drag cuts away the higher points and leaves the dirt in the 
hollows. This preparation of the surface is quite important, as it reduces 
the time and labor required in irrigating. A more uniform distribution of 
water is often obtained, which increases its efficiency. Theoretically, the 
surface of the ground should be a plain surface, with just slope enough to 
allow the water, when delivered at the highest point, to flow in a thin, 
uniform sheet. 

We will assume that the farm is planted to such crops as are ordi- 
narily found in the arid region, say 10 acres of alfalfa, 10 acres of grain, 5 
acres of potatoes, 5 acres of garden, 5 acres of small fruits, and 5 acres of 
orchard, as shown on the plat of the farm (Figure 8). 

If it be assumed that there is a fall of 4 feet across the farm from 
north to south and 2 feet from east to west, the water can be made to flow either west or south from 
any point. The greatest slope of the land is a little south of southwest, and this is the direction the water 
takes if left to itself. If laterals are run south from the main ditch they will make an angle of about 
7') degrees with this line. Such an arrangement permits the water 
to flow away from rather than along the laterals. The main ditch 
divides at A, as shown in Figure 8; one branch runs south to L, 
while a second runs west to D, the middle of the north line of the 
farm, where it turns and flows south to M. The field laterals 
ive their supply of water directly from these ditches. 

Flooding. — Alfalfa is irrigated by the 
Method of Apply- method known as flooding, which may be 
ing Water to Crops, described as follows: Nearly parallel 

ditches, BC, EF, etc., are made 100 to 150 
feet apart through the field. In the present case ditches are made 
110 feet apart, dividing the field into six strips. As these laterals 
will remain as long as the field is in alfalfa, we may put division 

Figure 9) at B, E, G, etc., where the laterals are taken from the main ditch. This will 

-id cutting through the ditch bank and refilling with earth when the water is changed from one 

■ er. The division box is simply a short flume, placed in the ditch with a channel 

tally at right angles. Vertical cleats are provided for holding flash boards in place or 

These hoards may be placed either in the branch or the main ditch, as desired. 



* 


ft 


minus 3 m*i> 




\- 










CMSIM J ACM} 


6**1* '0 *£A/S 








? 


e 

B 


1HAU 'JtU/fJ ACAIS 


- 






At f At ft 




«(«« „' ACM} 










L 



Figure 8. 
Plat of Farm Showing Laterals 




Figure 9.« 
Details of Division Box. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 503 

The division box at A (Figure 8) is set so that water will flow to B. At this point the division 
box is so adjusted that water runs into the lateral, BC, and the lower bank of the lateral is cut a few 
feet from B. Just below the cut a canvas dam is thrown across the ditch to force the water over the 
surface of the ground. The canvas dam is a piece of heavy cloth, 5 or 6 feet long and 3 or 4 feet wide, 
one edge of which is tacked to a pole long enough to rest on the banks as it is thrown across the ditch. 
The cloth rests against the bottom and sides of the ditch above the pole, where two or three shovelfuls 
of dirt are placed to hold it in position. When the water from lateral BC flowing over the surface reaches 
the lateral EF, entirely covering the intermediate area, another cut is made in BC, 100 to 150 feet farther 
from B. The canvas dam is again used to check the water, which is allowed to flow out as before. This 
alteration is repeated till the entire surface of the first strip has been covered. "The division box at B 
is then set to shut the water from the lateral BC and allow it to flow to E, where it runs into the lateral 
EF, and from it over the surface of the next strip. In this manner strip after strip is irrigated "till the 
entire field is covered. The field laterals are not so large as the main ditch, and it may be necessary 
to divide the water between two or more of them. 

Assuming that it will require a quantity of water sufficient to cover the field to a depth of six inches, 
in order to give it a thorough irrigation, it will take about 24 hours to irrigate the entire field. The 
ditch must carry 2% cubic feet of water per second to accomplish this. 

The grain crop is irrigated in the same manner. The laterals in the grain field may be about the 
same distance apart as those in the alfalfa field. They may be built with an ordinary plow by turning 
two furrows away from each other, or may be made with a special plow having two moldboards. This 
tube throws the dirt out of the ditch on both sides and completes the lateral in one operation. These 
laterals are used only for the one crop, and are filled with the plow just before the harvest, so that the 
binder may cross them in cutting the grain. If the grain is sown with a drill running east and west the 
small furrows made by it form miniature ditches, which the water follows. The irrigator must see 
that the water reaches those places where, on account of elevations or obstructions, it does not run readily. 

Furrow Irrigation. — For the irrigation of the crops on the south half of the farm, furrow irriga- 
tion is employed. The potatoes are planted in rows and are furrowed out before being irrigated. This 
is done by running a shovel plow between the rows, making small ditches, into which the water is turned 
and allowed to flow until it has reached the other end of the field. The water is set on a certain num- 
ber of rows, allowing only a small stream to flow in each. - The surface is not flooded but the water is 
confined to the furrows and percolates laterally into the soil. The water is taken out of the permanent 
lateral, DM, at the corner of the field and carried along in a temporary ditch parallel to it. After a strip 
100 to 150 feet wide, containing forty or fifty rows, has been irrigated from the first opening, the main 
lateral is cut further down, and the process is repeated. The garden ma3 T be irrigated in a manner similar 
to that described for the potatoes. 

The small fruits and the orchard are crops of a more permanent character, and will occupy the 
same ground for a number of years. For these reasons division boxes are placed in the main lateral 
where it is desired to take out water. Ordinarily small fruits are irrigated by the furrow method. It 
is thought better practice by some irrigators to allow a small stream of water to flow between- the rows 
for a considerable time than to allow a large stream to run for a short period. This gives more 
opportunity for the water to soak into the soil, leaving it in the same condition as does a heavy rain. 

The orchard is irrigated either by flooding or by furrows. Of the two, the furrow system is perhaps 
more often used. Parallel furrows, 3 to 6 feet apart, are made and small streams of water are allowed to 
flow in them until the ground is thoroughly saturated. 

In some localities the best results are obtained from the orchards when the entire surface of the 
ground is flooded. Care is taken, however, to keep the water away from the trees, as it is found that 
they thrive better when the water does not touch them, but percolates into the soil and reaches the 
roots. When all the ground between the trees is moistened the roots spread uniformly. When furrows 
are used for irrigating orchards they are often plowed in after water has been applied. The ground is 
then leveled and the surface finely pulverized. So long as the surface of the ground remains in this 
condition evaporation is greatly reduced. This method requires considerable work, as the laterals have 
to be made some time prior to the irrigation of the orchard. 



HOW TO BUILD SMALL IRRIGATION DITCHES. 



There are other mot hods of applying water to crops, but all of them require a more elaborate 

ation of the surface of the ground, and need not be described here. 

Cultivation Should Follow Irrigation. — When it is possible, cultivation should follow each irriga- 
tion :i as the ground is dry enough to be worked. If all crops could be cultivated in this way 
the amount of water which would 'nave to be applied would be greatly reduced. The duty of water is 
uniformly small for corn, pot aloes, orchards, and other crops which can be easily cultivated. If the 
and cannot be cultivated after it has been irrigated, the surface will often bake. This is injurious to 
some kinds of plant growth, and evaporation is thereby greatly increased, making another irrigation 
necessary much sooner than it would otherwise be. 

~ In order to determine just when crops need water and when to apply it so that 
When to Irrigate, they will not suffer from drought, nor be injured by too frequent or too 

generous applications, requires a knowledge and experience that can be gained 
onlv by practice and a close observation of various crops under irrigation. It is the experience of many 
practical irrigators that if an unlimited supply 6f water is available, crops more frequently suffer from 
overirrigation than from drought. It is difficult to determine when the development of the crop if 
first arrested on account of a lack of moisture to the soil. Some experimenters maintain that this porn* 
can be more definitely decided by an examination of the soil than by the appearance of the plant, as 
the latter shows evidence of the check in its growth some days after it has occurred. Usually it is then 
too late to prevent serious loss, as the crop rarely recovers from such treatment^and seldom reaches the 
development it would have attained if it had been irrigated at the proper time. 

Plants will usually indicate by a change in color or by their general appearance whether they 
need water or when they have been overirrigated. Most field crops turn a darker green when in need 
of water, and the leaves and stems show a tendency to droop and curl. The lower leaves assume a pale 
yellow. A crisp or a dead appearance in the lower leaves is one of the best indications that a plant needs 
water. Grain which has suffered from drought may mature, but the straw will be small and short and the 
kernels will be shrunken and inferior in quality. Alfalfa and similar crops have the appearance of cured 
hay. Where field crops are overirrigated, the color of the foliage becomes a yellowish green and the plants 
have a sickly appearance. These indications vary with the quality of the soil, so that it is impossible 
to lay down fixed rules to govern the number or frequency of. irrigations. Only close observation for a 
number of years on the same farm will enable a person to tell by the appearance of plants whether 
they need water or not. 

The amount of moisture in the soil may be determined with sufficient accuracy or the needs of the 
plant by examining a sample taken a few inches from the surface of the ground. If it clings together 
when molded in a ball and shows the print of the fingers, there is moisture enough present. If the earth 
falls apart when the hands are opened irrigation is needed. As stated above, this point is passed some 
days before the plant shows indications of suffering. 

The cost of a small system of irrigation, similar to that already described, may 
Cost of Building properly be considered here. The ditch is 134 miles long, and the main laterals 
and Maintain- on the farm are of the same cross sectional dimensions, and are h /% mile long. 
ing a Ditch. The laterals in the alfalfa and grain fields have a total length of 134 miles and 

are slightly smaller. A short calculation shows that nearly 1,250 cubic yards 
will have to be moved in the construction of these ditches. This volume at 5 cents per cubic yard 
makes the cost of the work $62.50. The head gate requires 360 feet B. M. of 2-inch planks and 
2x4-inch scantling, at a cost of $15.00 to $18.00 per M. The thirty division boxes are made of 2-inch 
lumber and require nearly 4,000 feet B. M. The head gate, drop, and division boxes will cost, in place, 
hot far from $125.00. This will make an investment of about $200.00 in the complete ditches. 

Quantity of Water Required for Ordinary Field Crops. — It has been demonstrated by experiment 
that it requires a volume of water sufficient to cover the area to a depth of 2 or 3 feet to mature ordinary 

ops. Hasing the calculation on these figures, and assuming that there is no rainfall during the 
irrigation season, it will require an aggregate of from sixteen to twenty-four days to complete the w^ork 

ation if the ditch delivers 2]/ 2 cubic feet of water per second and the work is carried on night and 
that twenty days is a mean period for this work, the cost of irrigation, therefore 



THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 505 



approximates $1.00 per acre. Since some crops require that the water be watched continually during the 
irrigation, the cost per acre is increased somewhat, owing to the necessity of employing a man to work 
at night. The average cost probably does not exceed $1.20 per acre. 

After the first year the cost of repairs will amount to something like 10 per cent of the original 
outlay in building the ditch, or about $20.00. 

The following summarizes the original cost of the ditch and the laterals and the yearly outlay 
for repairs and labor: 

Cost of Ditch and Laterals. 

Making level and running the line .' $ 12.00 

Cost of excavation of ditches and laterals 62.50 

Cost of head gate, drop, division boxes, etc 125.00 

Total ' $199.50 

Yearly Cost of Irrigation and Maintenance of Ditches. 

Labor in irrigating . . " $48.00 

Repairs to ditches 20.00 



Total , $68.00 

In above estimate the labor has been included at average prices for such work. If the farmer 
has time to do the work himself, his only cash outlay will be for lumber. 



THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 

We know of no good reason why the American farmer or stockman, who is 
Facts that constantly besieged to invest his good money in this and that brand of stock 
Every Farmer food, should not know the full truth about that article. 

and Stockman He not only should know, but he is entitled to know, not only for the 

Should Know. satisfaction of knowing what he is getting for his money, but in self defense, 
that he may know what kind of stuff he is feeding his animals, the latter 
perhaps the most important reason of all. . You would never think of buying a biood mare, a Jersey 
bull, a Berkshire sow, or a pen of thoroughbred Wyandottes, without knowing the pedigree of tliat stock. 
You want to know its history, its performance in the past. In other words, what it is made of and what 
it will do; so, why should anyone expect you to buy a "pig in a poke" in the shape of a stock food, some- 
thing about which you know absolutely nothing, except glittering generalities claimed by the makers? 
Perhaps you can afford to experiment with old Brindle, or with that bunch of mongrel hens, 
or old Bill, the plow horse, who has seen his best days. They can probably stand it, and at any rate 
you are not apt to lose so heavily if anything goes wrong. But when it comes to that fine litter of Berk- 
shix-es, those Jersey butter makers, or that pen of young Leghorns, that you bought at a fancy price, 
well, you would like to know just where you are at before you begin to dope that kind of stock with 
a strange mixture. Wouldn't you? 

But if a stock food has any merits at all, if it will help you to get more profit out of common 
stock, you should be able to feed it to even thoroughbred stock with implicit confidence and get larger 
proportionate returns. 

But, first of all. why give stock food at all — just because the manufacturer said so? That's a 
mighty poor reason, isn't it ? If your stock is doing well, perhaps it might be best to let well enough alone, 
rather than take chances. If there is serious trouble, perhaps a veterinarian is needed, rather than 
stock food. 

So, before the stockman can intelligently feed stock food, he' must Jcnow the philosophy of the 
thing, why he is doing it and what specific object he expects to gain. 



506 THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 

The first important thing about stock food that the stockman should know is that he knows 

ally nothing about the stock foods on the market today, for the simple reason that nothing has 
boon told him. He doesn't really know what the package contains, what it is made of, what the ingre- 
dients are supposed to be, or what they are for; neither does he know whether he is paying a reasonable 
or an exorbitant price for the goods or for the results he expects to gain. He is asked to feed the article 
blindly and assume that the makers know more about the feeding of his particular stock than he does 
himself. What the stockman wants is facts. He is not simply actuated by a desire to achieve some of 
the wonderful results painted in such glowing colors by the makers. He does not care to go into the freak 
business for the dime museums, but what he does want to do is to improve the general health and feeding 
qualities of his domestic animals. What is there then in these various preparations to give these returns? 

And yet, when the stockman does invest in such goods, nine times out of ten it is because of the 
urgency of the appeal, rather than of his own free will. He makes the venture against his better judg- 
ment, in the hope that his fellow man is as honest as he is himself and will give him a square deal. He 
also hopes in a measure for the results that the literature indicates. Surely a worthy reason, but, under 
the circumstances, a mere speculation, and in these days of progress, when everything else about the 
farm, the live stock business, breeding, feeding, etc., has been reduced to such a definite, scientific basis, 
the stockman should not be asked nor expected' to buy stock food upon speculation. 

Another thing that the stockman should know is that when he does invest in stock foods that 
are now upon the market, however sure he may feel of his gain in results, he will certainly get the short 
end of the bargain as long as he continues to buy something about which he knows absolutely nothing, 
with only the manufacturer's word for it that it cannot do any harm and will prove useful. Again, 
legitimate stock foods have suffered more or less on account of the innumerable cheap and worthless 
preparations put out under the guise of stock foods by unscrupulous manufacturers. 

The stockman well knows that any stock food must contain some percentage of some article as 
a filler to provide a vehicle for the convenient carrying of the proper drugs, facilitating the measuring 
and the administering of the medicinal agents contained therein. 

We must not assume that on account of questionable, and in some cases unscrupulous, methods 
which have and do exist in the making of stock foods, that the whole idea of stock foods is a delusion 
and a snare, without any legitimate purpose than the mere waste of money. That would be an insult 
to the intelligence of thousands of the best breeders and feeders in this country, as well as in foreign 
countries, who have used stock foods, condition powders and condiments for ages. Stock raisers in 
this country, during the past decade, have demonstrated beyond all possibility of a doubt that stock 
foods may safely be accepted as a suitable and valuable adjunct to economic and profitable stock raising, 
breeding 'and feeding. 

England and Scotland, pioneers in improved stock breeding, share the honor of first recommending 
the value of condiments. They have used them in some form or another for centuries. Breeders and 
feeders of those countries would as soon think of raising stock without good stock food as they would 
attempting to fatten without grain. 

There is only one logical and legitimate purpose of a stock food, and that is 
The Philosophy to assist nature in keeping stock in prime condition by Joning and invigorating 
of Stock Food. the system, by keeping the blood pure and the bowels regular, and by so aiding 
Its Purpose and and assisting the digestive organs that they will be able to obtain all the 
Possibilities. nourishment from the food that you give them, thus more than paying for the 

stock foods used. 

The actions of an ideal stock food are threefold: First, stomachic; second, digestive; third, tonic. 
The first, stomachic, means that it is a digestant, for it stimulates the flow of the saliva and the gastric 
juices of the stomach and intestines, and increases the muscular action of the Dowels, thus assisting 
peristalsis, and guarding against constipation. In accomplishing these results the ideal stock food 
materially assists in the assimilation of the digestible nutrients by the lymphatic villi and the capillaries. 

It is a tonic. It nourishes and tones the nervous system, both directly and indirectly. It purifies 
the blood, both by < ontact and by so invigorating the various organs of the body that they are able to 
properly perform their functions. 



THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 507 

The foregoing are the general purposes of a stock food, and the accomplishment of these ends 
means much in dollars and cents and in additional service and profit to the stock raiser. 

Stock food is not a patent medicine for animals. It is not, never was intended to be, and should not 
be called or advertised as a cure all, or a remedy in specific diseases. It should be and is a great preventive 
of disease, but accomplishes its end only by assisting nature, by helping to keep the system in a healthy, 
vigorous condition, so that it is able to withstand the attacks of germs and diseases that would find an 
animal in poor condition a ready victim. Take, for instance, worms, perhaps the most prevalent and 
insidious foe to the animal world. The consumption of worms in the shape of eggs and larvae cannot 
be avoided by the animal in feeding, for. these pests are omnipresent. A good stock food should contain 
an anthelminthic, and in performing its regular functions, by assisting and increasing the secretion 
of the various digestive juices, assist nature in disposing of these incipient worms before they have a 
chance to develop and breed in the intestines. But once they get past the stomach and are allowed 
to develop in the intestines, they ofttimes work irreparable injury and require more heroic treatment 
than a stock food to get rid of them. Should they be allowed to develop thus far, we strongly advise 
a specific remedy, administered either by a veterinarian or yourself, in the shape of a good, reliable 
vermifuge or worm powder. Stock food cannot accomplish impossibilities. It cannot take the place 
of clean housing and bedding, pure water, kind treatment and plenty of good feed, intelligently fed, 
although in a measure it may atone for some shortcomings in the foregoing. 

This is the philosophy of stock food. Any claims beyond these are likely to be misleading and 
overdrawn, and yet the possibilities of increased service and profit resulting from the faithful, judicious 
use of a good stock food, along the simple lines indicated, are truly wonderful and so pronounced in some 
cases as to seem greatly exaggerated. 

But some argue and very plausibly that they believe that right feeding and 
A Common Prej- right treatment is the best medicine. Let nature do the rest. This argument 
U d ic e Against might be sound if your animals were living under natural conditions, and if 
Stock Foods, you were equipped to take care of them as they should be. But this is not 

the case. They are no longer nature's subjects in the animal kingdom. 
They are man's subjects. Under modern conditions they are machines. 

For instance, the horse.* The original wild horse in his natural state roamed the plains at will 
in warm, temperate climates, cropping the sweet grasses to his heart's content, nibbling an herb here 
and there as instinct prompted him (herbs, roots, -and bark were nature's stock foods). He had at all 
times just enough feed of the right kind, regardless of market prices, to supply his daily needs; he had 
just enough pleasant exercise to keep his blood in active circulation, with plenty of rest whenever 
nature prompted it to soothe and refresh his nerves. The reproductive organs were regularly called into 
action at appointed times, both male and female lived as nature intended. 

But now the horse is a machine, a great power plant, driven hard and ruthlessly day b)-- day, 
to furnish power for man's uses, and only a favored few of either sex may exercise the functions of repro- 
duction. In the male, nature is tampered with; in the female, nature is thwarted. They lack, therefore, 
the natural action and instinct of the original horse. The modern dairy cow is a milking machine, a 
butter and cheese maker, while in the natural state she was called upon only to produce enough milk 
to nourish her young up to a feeding point, and spend the balance of her time with the herd. 

The original jungle fowl exercised both wing and feet, with plenty of grain and plenty of meat 
at hand whenever she wanted it. She laid eggs enough in season to reproduce her kind and quit. 
Today the hen is an egg machine, constantly driven to the limit, being speeded up to' 200 eggs a year 
limit, as fast as man knows how to speed her. Her forage ground is a small tract and often a damp, 
filthy coop, a small gravel run, a manure heap, and, if she is fortunate, a little grass. She depends almost 
entirely for sustenance upon what man sees fit to give her, and even her natural functions of motherhood 
are denied her, the incubator and brooder taking her place. 

Are these natural conditions? Hardly. They are machine shop conditions. Man is the super- 
intendent of this factory, and must not only see to the furnishing of the fuel that furnishes the steam 
and power, but also that the machine is properly geared and that all the wheels and points of friction are 






THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 



,1. In other words, he must give nature that assistance which he himself has rendered necessary 
his own interference with nature's plans. 

We nine, then, that the intelligent and judicious use of stock food for the purpose 

outlined is just as necessary and natural as the continued use of condiments to the human family. 
How many of us, for instance, could get along without our spices, our salt, our pepper, our spring tonics, 
. our laxatives to keep the bowels open, and similar aids to nature, adopted by modern humanity. 
All of these things, while seemingly unnecessary and contrary to nature, are yet rendered indispensable 
by the unnatural pace at which we live today. 

Abusing nature,' as we do, therefore, both in the human and in the animal world, let us not lay 
on to mother nature all the burden of the responsibility of keeping things going right. Let us render 
what help we can toward repairing the damage which our interference with nature's methods has caused. 
We must help nature in keeping this vast animal machine shop in constant and smooth running order. 
Stock food has its legitimate place in the world's work today. 



We realize that we are blazing away along a new path, that we are pioneers in the policy of taking 
the purchaser into our fullest confidence, giving him the same degree of our confidence that we ask 
of him. We are willing to rest our case with the sound judgment of the American stock raiser, and 
we confidently believe that when the sincerity of our methods and our policy is once fully realized by 
the American buyer of stock food that our returns in sales will fully justify our efforts to return confi- 
dence for confidence, to meet the buyers half way in solving the much vexed stock food problem. 

They belong to the purchaser. We are simply his supply agents,' if he sees 
Our Formulas fit to use us, and we believe he will after he has investigated to his entire 
Are Public. satisfaction, and finds what we can do for him as compared with what he can 

do for himself. We want our stock foods to practically sell themselves, by 
appealing to the good judgment of the buyer, rather than to have them forced on him by long winded 
arguments. With this end in view, instead of offering you a mixture of mysterious and rare 
ingredients, you will find in Davis Stock Food only such simple and time tried ingredients as have 
been proved by long experience to be the best fitted for their respective purposes, well known drugs 
and condiments, which have the official endorsement of the leading authorities and practitioners of 
the United States. 

The ingredients are published openly on every package of stock food sold. There is no buying a 
"pig in a poke" when you buy a package of Davis Stock Food — you know exactly what you are getting 
and what you are paying for it. Nothing is left in doubt; nothing left to your imagination. 




mm 



Our Guarantee 



jN? 



We hereby guarantee the contents of this package to be composed of the 
ingredients as printed on this package; that ail the drugs are absolutely 
pure and conform to the standard of the United States Pharmacopea. 
Furthermore, use the entire contents of this package as directed, 
and if you are not entirely satisfied, return this certificate telling 
us why you are not satisfied, and we will cheerfully refund every 
cent you have paid us. 

The foregoing applies to all preparations manufactured by us. 



Signed, 



CHICAGO. ILLINOIS. U. $. A. 



5 &pnri^ <ptoxAcJ&cc{/ for. 







" THE TRUTH ABOUT STOCK FOODS. 509 

Read the guarantee of the Davis Stock Food Company that is reproduced on the 
Our Guarantee. preceding page. It is a facsimile of the certificate appearing on every label, on 

every package of the products manufactured by the Davis Stock Food Com- 
pany. It is a guarantee that guarantees. This is not merely an advertisement; it is part and parcel of 
the contract covering every purchase of Davis Stock Food Company products, no matter where, 
when or how you buy them. 

The list of ingredients is not only published openly, but you are given a bona fide written guar- 
antee, right on the package, to the effect that the contents are exactly what they are claimed to be, 
that and nothing else. You are at liberty to subject these goods to the examination and analysis of any 
chemist in the country, to your agricultural college or to the Department of Animal Industry, at any 
time ; in fact, we invite you to do this ; we have nothing to fear, nothing to lose and everything to gain by 
the test, for the results will only serve to strengthen our position in the esteem and confidence of the 
stock food buyer. 

With every package of the Davis goods you buy, whether for horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, or poultiy, 
you get the same frank statement of facts, the same open formulas, the same ironclad guarantee, as part 
and parcel of the contract; the same degree of protection. This does not refer to your first or your 
second order, but to each and every order, whether you buy this month, next month, next year, or 
five years from now. 

Davis Stock Food Always Maintains the Same Uniform Quality. — This policy insures continued 
uniformity in the quality of our goods from month to month, from year to year. 

If at any time, in any place, under any circumstances, you find a package of 

Money Back if Davis Stock Food the contents of which are not exactly as represented in every 

Not Satisfied. particular and detail, or if the results are not absolutely satisfactory when used 

according to directions, you can do us no greater favor than to communicate 

with the parties from whom it was purchased, they are authorized to refund your money. If they do 

not, write us immediately and we will. 

How can we introduce Davis Stock Food to you on any more honest and equitable basis? Can 
you suggest a fairer plan? Can you discover any flaws or weak spots in our proposed plan of doing 
business? If you can, or if 3-ou feel that you can detect any note of insincerity in our proposition, we 
would consider it a favor if you will write us frankly and tell us about it, for the entire success of our 
business, along the new lines that we propose to run it, depends upon the soundness of our policy and 

the degree of confidence and favor with which it is received by the stock food buyer. 

• 

Upon this guarantee, upon the published formula and upon the quality of the material which 
these two features naturally insure you, are based the fundamental principles in conformity with which 
we expect to build the largest legitimate stock food business in the world. 

The guarantee certificate means exactly what it says. It is a legal contract 
A Legal which will be recognized by any court of law or equity in this broad land. It 

Contract. protects you fully in your purchase and use of Davis Stock Food. You take 

no possible chance. 

TELL US: Is there any other stock food manufacturer who dares to pursue a policy like this? 
If there is, 'why doesn't he do it? 

As our business grows, Davis will, no doubt, be imitated and copied by other makers as closely 
as the honesty of their methods, quality of their goods and legitimateness of their margins of profit 
will allow. We are blazing a new path of honesty and legitimate business methods in the stock food 
business, and before we are through we expect the American stock raiser to be with us, and the opinion 
of the American stock raiser will compel all other legitimate stock food companies to do likewise. Davis 
and his products will undoubtedly be bitterly assailed, but just remember this, legitimate manufacturers 
who put out legitimate preparations will be only too glad to do as Davis is doing. It is they who see danger 
in publicity to their business that will make the bitterest fight, and when an attack on Davis' methods 
and Davis Stock Food is brought to your attention, just remember this, and ask yourself why. 






DAVIS POULTRY FOOD. 



DAVIS POULTRY FOOD. 

You Never Had Anything Like It. — Davis Poultry Food is condimental, 
A New Departure digestive and corrective. The ingredients of which it is composed axe printed 
in Poultry Food, in plain letters on every package. A great many of them have been used 

by other manufacturers separately, but never in the combination in which they 
found in Davis Poultry Food. They are 
appetizers, first making the feed 
more palatable. They 
stomachic and di- 

ive, assist- 
ing and in- 
suring the 
proper 
diges- 
tion of 
the feed. 
They 
are ant i- 
seo t i c \v 
in the 
a lim en- 
tan,' canal. 
They stim- 
ulate and 
t on e up 
the entire 
system, giv- 
ing the fowl 
life and en- 
ergy . They 
assist ma- 
terially in 
that com- 
plex and 
compara- 
tively little 
understood 
f u nction of 
the fowl, 
namely, the 
production of 
i, the one 
function which 
the American 
poultry raiser 
is vital! 

in. When we stop 
and consider v/hat 
the American fowl 
, as corn- 
pa: t«ter of past generations, we must marvel at the change man has wrought. The 




Send all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, 111. 
Sears, Roebuck tt, Co. Catalogue No. 65F140, 25-lb. pall Davis Poultry Food, $3.00. 



DAVIS POULTRY FOOD. 



511 




POULTRY FOOD 




fowl of nature was called upon to lay only sufficient eggs to 
reproduce her kind. After laying these' eggs it became her 
duty to hatch them, which she did, and laid no more eggs for 
another season. All this has changed. The American hen of 
today is a machine for the production of eggs, highly de- 
veloped and run to her maximum capacity. In this devia- 
tion from the natural order of things, man has materially 
interfered with nature; and, having done so, has introduced 
conditions that must of necessity be taken care of. Going at 
the pace she is today, the American hen must be main- 
tained in perfect strength and health at all times. 
Her system must be supplied with the proper nutri- 
ments; she must have the proper housing, the proper 
care, and a sufficient amount of exercise, in order to 
keep her wonderful mechanism in perfect working order. 
And it is in accomplishing this that Davis Poultry 
Food performs its mission. We do not ask you to 
take our word for it; in fact, you would be foolish 
to take any person's word for it, without having an 

I opportunity to use your, own judgment. There is 

nothing like knowing it for yourself, and this is exactly 
what we want you to do. Your money will be cheer- 
fully refunded if you are not fully satisfied. 

Davis Poultry Food is composed of the following 
standard ingredients, specially ground, prepared and 
mixed in our own factory: 

Pv. Ferri Oxide, 
Pv. Capsicum, 
Pv. Gentian, 
Pv. Ginger, 
Pv. Carbo Ligni, 
Pv. Sodium Sulphate, 
Tv. Sodium Chloride, 
Pv. Acid Phosphate, 
Pv ; Ground Bone, 
Pv. Oxide Iron. 

The full descriptions of these drugs which 
will be found on the following pages are taken 
from the United States Dispensatory, an official 
publication of the United States Government. 

SEND ALL ORDERS TO SEARS, ROE- 
BUCK & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI30, ^^ ~ « 
Davis Poultry Food, 2-lb. package.** Price . . 2|>iJ.&0 



Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI3I, 
Davis Poultry Food, 4-lb. package. Price . . 

Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI32, 
Davis Poultry Food, 8-lb. package. Price . . 

Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI40, 
Davis Poultry Food, 25-lb. pail. Price . . . . 



.50 
1.00 
3.00 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



Why You Should 
Use Davis 
Stock Food. 



First, let us explain that like Davis Poultry Food, Davis Stock Food is not a 
food in any sense of the v/ord, and the word "food" is, in reality, a misnomer. 
You naturally ask, then, if such is the case, why we call it stock food. This is 
our explanation: Years, and almost centuries ago, there originated in England 
certain condiments 




and preparations which were put up and sold 
to raisers of live stock under the name of 
stock foods and poultry foods. Their value 
was soon recognized and their manufacture 
became one of the important industries of 
that country. They became known every- 
where as stock foods and poultry foods, as 
the case might be. The custom of so calling 
them was ultimately adopted in America, and, 
from that day to this, condimiental, digestive 
and corrective preparations have been sold 
by the manufacturers and purchased by the 
consumers under the name of stock food or 
ponltry food. Inasmuch as this custom 
became so widely spread, we can see no 
benefit in trying to introduce a new name, 
and have preferred to follow the custom of 
years, instead of attempting to coin a new 
name for these time honored preparations. 

Instead of being a 
Not a Food. food, Davis Stock 

Food is a mixture 
of herbs, roots, barks and seeds, purely 
medicinal in character, having condimental, 
digestive and corrective properties and it 
has no intrinsic value of itself from a 
nutritive standpoint. 

At this time we would also like to call 
your attention to the fact that Davis Stock 
Food is not to be confused with the numerous other preparations offered under the guise or name of 
stock food. The original English stock foods, while perhaps more or less crude, gave such splendid results 
that as soon as they were introduced into this country numerous companies were formed for the manu- 
facture of stock foods. The American stock raiser, ever willing and ready to improve his stock, was 
an easy prey for unscrupulous persons and companies who manufactured and put out under the name 
of stock food cheap and absolutely worthless mixtures, getting an outrageous price for them, and as a 
result of this there are thousands upon thousands of farmers in the United States today who have been 
victimized by the purchase of these worthless preparations, and the legitimate stock food industry has 
suffered as a result. Not that the American farmer who has a prejudice against stock foods can be blamed, 
for he has every reason for such prejudice. He had no way of knowing whether or not the article 
he was purchasing was one of merit other than to try it, and, trying it, he found it worthless. It is 
into such a field and under such conditions that Davis Stock Food comes. Just because there are one 

or a thousand worthless preparations is no reason for condemning the good ones. We know that 

—512— 



Send all orders 
Davis 



rders to Sears, Roebuck & Co. 25-lb. pail, <D r» f\t\ 
Stock Food, Catalogue No. 65F120. Price, mJO.VJVF 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD-. 



513 




Davis Stock Food is honest all the way through; we know that 
it carries from three to ten times as much medication as any- 
thing offered the American farmer; we know that it is even 
superior to the stock foods of England and Scotland ; and it is 
right that it should be, because this world is progressing every 
day. The knowledge of feeds and feeding, of drugs, of roots, 
herbs, barks, seeds and their action on the digestive and other 
organs of animals, is much better understood now than it Was 
even a decade ago, and all this, together with modern and up to 
date machinery, has made it possible to manufacture and place 
upon the market Davis Stock Food. 

One thing that we do ask, however, is a fair and impartial 
trial. Davis Stock Food cannot accomplish its mission un- 
less it is used with religious regularity. It cannot do the 
impossible. It cannot take the place of clean bedding, good 
housing and pure water, although it may in a measure 
correct the lack of the foregoing. The world was not 
made in a day, neither can Davis Stock Food transform 
an unhealthy and unthrifty animal into a perfectly 
healthy animal in a day. You would not expect your 
horse, your cow, or your hogs to thrive very long if they 
were but fed grain occasionally, and you, as a fair minded 
man, would not expect Davis Stock Food to do what we 
claim for it unless it is given an opportunity. Grant 
Davis Stock Food the same attention and privilege that 
you do your grain, and then watch for the results. It is 
for this reason that we would urge you to purchase 100 
pounds of Davis Stock Food, so that you may 
have an opportunity of thoroughly testing it. 
One 2-pound package of Davis Stock Food con- 
tains approximately sixty-four feeds, or enough 
to feed one horse for twenty-one days. In a 
great many cases you will see a decided improve- 
ment within that period, in others it will take 
longer. A digestive system that has been dis- 
ordered and working in an improper condition 
for years cannot be corrected in a day. A change 
is wrought slowly, and time is as necessary as 
medication. As a matter of fact, Davis Stock 
Food will not attain its highest efficiency with any 
animal until at the expiration of sixty to ninety 
days, and after that time it will do more than we 
claim for it. 



SEND ALL ORDERS TO SEARS, ROEBUCK 
& CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 



Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI00, 
Davis Stock Food, 2-lb. package. Price . . . > 

Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI05, 
Davis Stock Food, 4-lb. package. Price 

Sears, Roebuck & Co., Catalogue No. 65FI 10, .. nft 
Davis Stock Food, 8-lb. package. Price. . . l.UU 



>.25 
.50 



Sig. 33 



514 DAVIS STOCK FOOD 



It is a well ki and indisputable fact that the average digestibility of the American feed 

ween 55 and 60 per cent, providing the animal eating that grain is able to extract it; but it is 

a well known fact that 80 to 90 per cent of the domestic animals today are incapable of extracting 

he nutriment of the feed. Their digestive organs arc in a deranged condition, and it is to correct 

this condition that Davis Stock Food came into existence. It is composed of roots, barks, herbs, and 

Kvhased by us in the crude form, and we import them in this shape from Spain, France, Italy, 

Austria, Germany, Russia, India, Africa and South America. Our reason for importing the majority 

hem is because of the fact that the American grown product is inferior in the majority of cases to the 

foreign article, and, although the foreign article costs several times as much, we consider it economy in 

the end. 

Fennel is one of the best stomachics, digestants and carminatives known. Anise seed has a similar 
action and its value is recognized the world over. Gentian is without a peer as a bitter tonic and a digestant. 
Xux Vomica is one of the best of tonics and nerve stimulants. Santonica is unequaled and used the 
world over. as a vermifuge and to kill worms. Podophyllum is a cholagogue cathartic, having a special 
action upon the liver. Acid phosphate is an article that we are having manufactured especially for us. 
It stimulates first the salivary glands and induces the flow of saliva, passing into the stomach it excites 
the secretion of the digestive juices. It is also one of the best intestinal antiseptics, and once absorbed 
exerts, a specific action on the digestive organs and glands. Sulphur is a well known intestinal antiseptic 
and blood purifier. Sodium chloride is essential to the system. Charcoal, or carbo ligni, is an antiacid 
and an intestinal antiseptic. Ferri Sulphus builds and strengthens the entire system, and is essential 
in the production of good, rich, red blood. 

There is no other stock food upon the market that can compare with Davis Stock Food; there 
ar~ no other stock food manufacturers that would dare tell you their formulas. It is your right to 
know. It is within the power of the American stock raiser to compel all stock food manufacturers to 
print their formula. Why should you buy a "pig in a poke?" The manufacturer of an honest stock food 
has nothing to fear from printing his formula. If he refuses to do it you may draw your own conclusions. 
While Davis Stock Food is primarily an appetizer, tonic, digestant, it will, in a great majority 
of cases, not only prevent, but cure, a great many of the diseases that the domestic animals are heir 
to. Its uses for the cure of diseases are thoroughly covered in this book. • 

Davis Stock Food is composed of the following ingredients, properly ground, mixed and prepared 
in our own factory 

Pv. Fennel Seed, 
Pv. Anise Seed, 
Pv. Gentian, 
Pv. Nux Vomica, 
Pv. Santonica, 
Pv. Podophyllum, 
Pv. Acid Phosphate, 
Pv. Sulphur, 
Pv. Sodium Chloride,.. 
Pv. Carbo Ligni, 
Pv. Ferri Sulphus. 

All of the foregoing ingredients are official in the United States Dispensatory, and the fol- 
lowing descriptions of them are taken from the United States Dispensatory. Read them, study them, 
and then tell us if you do not think that no more ideal combination of roots, herbs, barks, and seeds 
than Davis Stock Food could be found. 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



515 




Gentiana Plant. 



GENTIANA, U. S. GENTIAN, BR. 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Gentian possesses in a high degree 
the tonic powers of the simple bitters. It excites the appetite and invigo- 
rates digestion. In very large doses, however, it is apt to oppress the 
stomach, to irritate the bowels, and even to occasion nausea and 
vomiting. It has been known from the highest antiquity, and is said to 
have derived its name from Gentius, a king of Illyria. Many of the 
complex preparations handed down from the Greeks and Arabians contain 
it among their ingredients; and it enters into most of the stomachic 
combinations employed in modern practice. It may be used in all cases 
of pure debility of the digestive organs, or where a general tonic impression 
is required. Dyspepsia, atonic gout, amenorrhea, hysteria, scrofula, and 
intermittent fever are among the many affections in which it has proved 
useful; but it is the condition of the stomach and of the system generally, 
not the name of the disease, which must be taken into consideration 
when prescribing it ; and there is scarcely a complaint in which it cannot 
be advantageotisly given under all circumstances. It should be adminis- 
tered only in the form of preparation. A syrup may be prepared by 
forming a saccharated infusion by means of percolation, and incorporating 
this at a boiling heat with simple syrup ; or, perhaps, more eligibly, by dissolving 
2 drams of the extract of gentian, and afterward 15 ounces of sugar in 3^ pint of 
water. The porous property of the root causes it to expand with moisture, and it 
has been employed as a substitute for sponge tent in the enlargement of 
strictured passages. 

"The root of Gentiana lutea, Linne (nat. ord. Gentianneae)." U. S. "The dried root of 
Gentiana lutea." Br. 

Gentianae Radix, Br. ; Gentian Root; Radix Gentianae, P. G ; Radix Gentianae Rubrae 
(vel Luteae vel Majoris) ; Racine de Gentiane (de Gentiane jaune), Gentiane jaune, Fr. ; Enzian. 
Enzianwurzel, Bitterwurzel, Rother Enzian, G. ; Genziana, It.; Genciana, Sp. 

Gtn. Ch. Corolla one-petaled. Capsule two-valved, one-celled, with two longitudinal 
receptacles. Willd. 

Gentiana Lutea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1331; Ooodv. Med. Bot. p. 273, 95; Carson, 
Must, of Med. Bot. ii. 12, pi. 60. Yellow Gentian is among the most remarkable of the 
species which compose this genus, both for its beauty and great comparative size. From its 
thick, long, branching, perennial root, an erect, round stem rises to the height of 3 or 4 feet, 
bearing opposite, sessile, ovate, acute, five-nerved leaves of a bright green color, and somewhat 
glaucous. The lower leaves, which spring from the root, are narrowed at their base into the 
form of a petiole. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a yellow color, peduncled, and placed 
in whorls at the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is monophyllous, membranous, yellowish, 
and semi-transparent, splitting when the flower opens, and reflected when it is fully expanded ; 
the corolla is rotate, and deeply divided into five or six lanceolate, acute segments; the stamens 
are five or six, and shorter than the corolla. This plant grows among the Apenines, the Alps, 
the Pyrenees, and in other mountainous or elevated regions of Europe. The root is the only 
part employed. 

Several other species possess analogous virtues, and are used for similar purposes. The 
roots of G. purpurea and G. punctata, inhabiting the same regions as G. lutea, and of G. 
pannonica, growing in Austria, are said to be often mingled with the official, from which they 

are scarcely distinguishable. The G. macrophylla of Pallas is used in Siberia; one indigenous species, G. catesbaei,* 
growing in the southern states, formerly had a place in the secondary catalogue of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and is 
reputed to be but little inferior to the official species. G. quinqueflora, growing throughout the Northern and North- 
western States, is said to be much used in domestic practice. 

*Gentiana Catesbaei. The blue gentian has a perennial, branching, somewhat flfeshy root, and a simple, erect, 
rough stern, rising 8 or 10 inches in height, and bearing opposite leaves, which are ovate-lanceolate, acute, and rough 
on their margin. The flowers are of a palish blue color crowded, nearly sessile, and axillary or terminal. The divisions 
of the calyx are linear-lanceolate, and longer than the tube. The corolla is large, ventricose, plaited, and divided at 
its border into ten segments, of which the five outer are more or less acute, the five inner bifid and fringed. The number 
of stamens is five, and the two stigmas are seated on the germ. The capsule is oblong, acuminate, with two valves, 
and a single cell. G. catesbaei grows in the grassy swamps of North and South Carolina, where it flowers from 
September to December. It was named by Walter and Elliot in honor of Catesby, by whom it was delineated nearly a 
century ago The dried root is said to have at first a mucilaginous and sweetish taste, which is soon succeeded by an 
intense bitterness, approaching nearly to that of the official gentian. Alcohol and boiling water extract the virtues, 
and the tincture and decoction are even more bitter than the root in substance. It may be given in powder in the 
dose of 15 to 30 grains, or in the form of extract, infusion, wine, or tincture, which may be prepared in the manner 
directed for the similar preparations of foreign gentian. 




Gentian Eoot. 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



Properties. — As n commerce, gentian is in pieces of various dimensions and shape, usually of considerable 

metimes of longitudinal slices, sometimes of the root cut transversely, twisted, wrinkled externally, 

red with close transverse rings of a grayish brown color on the outside, yellowish or reddish within, 

toagy texture, it is officially described as Occurring "in nearly cylindrical pieces of longitudinal slices, 

upper portion closely annulate, the lower portion longitudinally wrinkled; externally deep 

ifown; internally lighter; somewhat flexible and tough when damp; rather brittle when dry; fracture 

bark rather thick, separated from the somewhat spongy meditullium by a black cambium line; odor 

faint, more prominent when moistened; taste sweetish and persistently bitter." U. S. There are no distinct 

: .!s, starch granules, or raphides. (For further details, see P. J. Tr., July, 1872, p. 42.) The odor is feeble, 

iecided and peculiar. The taste is slightly sweetish and intensely bitter, without being nauseous. The powder 

is yellowish. Water and alcohol extract the virtues and taste of the root. 

Kromayer, in 1S02, first obtained the bitter principle of gentian in a state of purity, and gave it, the name of 
gentiopicrin, and the formula C, H ao O„. It is a neutral body, crystallizing in colorless needles, which readily dissolve 
in water. It is soluble in spirit of wine, but in absolute alcohol when aided by heat; it does not dissolve in ether. A 
solution of caustic soda forms with a yellow solution. Under the influence of dilute acids, gentiopicrin is resolved into 
glucose and an amorphous yellowish brown neutral substance named gentiogenin. Fresh gentian roots yield about 
1-10 per cent of gentiopicrin. Another constituent is gentianin or gentisin, C 14 H t0 O„. It forms tasteless, yellowish 
prisms, subliming with partial decomposition at a temperature over 300 degrees C, sparingly soluble in alcohol, and 
with alkalies yields intensely yellow, crystallizable compounds, easily decomposed by carbonic acid. Von Kostanecki 
- 'I, p. 192), by boiling gentisin with hydriodic acid, succeeded in demethylating it, and so obtained gentisein, 
C :J H 9 0,, which crystallizes with 2H a O in fine straw colored needles; these become anhydrous at 100 degrees C. A 
triacetyl derivative was then formed from this gentisein. Gentisin is therefore the methyl ether of gentisein, and 
can be written 

C„H 6 0,iOCH, 

- OH 

( OH. Hlasiwetz and Habermann showed, in 1875, that when gentianin was melted with caustic potash 
it yielded phloroglucin, C 6 H 3 (OH) 3 , and oxysalicylic acid, C H :i .(OH,)COOH. The latter was at first called gentianic 
or gentisinic acid. Prof. Maisch believes that tannin is absent from gentian root, and states that the dark olive green 
coloration observed when ferric chloride is added to its preparations is due to gentisic acid (A. J. P., 1876). Ville 
I. P., 1877) and Davies (P. J. Tr., 1879) maintain that there is a small quantity of tannin in gentian root. Prof. 
Patch (A. J. P., 1876) found that an alcoholic solution of an ethereal extract of gentian yielded a dark green coloration 
with ferric salts, but if the alcoholic solution was diluted with water it yielded no precipitate with gelatin. . Subsequently 
(Proc. A. 'P. A., 1881) he showed there was a principle associated with the resinous matter in gentian (but which was 
not isolated in a state of purity) that produced the reactions of a tannin, viz., a greenish black color with ferric chloride, 
and precipitates with tartar emetic, cinchonidine sulphate, and gelatin. M. Louis Magnes found in the root, when 
perfectly dried at 100 degrees C (212 -degrees F.), 15 per cent of glucose, and 12 per cent in the root in its ordinary 
state. vA. J. P., pp. 333-4.) When gentian is maccerated in cold water, it undergoes the vinous fermentation, in con- 
sequence of the presence of this saccharine principle. From the fermented infusion a spirituous. liquor is obtained by 
distillation, which, though bitter and unpleasant to the smell, is said to be relished by the Swiss and Tyrolese. A. Meyer 
(rtiarm. Centralb., 1882, May) obtained a sweet principle, which he called gentianose, C 16 H 66 31 , by precipitating 

the filtered juice with alcohol, treatment with ether, and crystallization from 
alcohol. It does not reduce Fehling's solution. Infusion of gentian is pre- 
cipitated by tannic acid and the soluble salts of lead, but is compatible with 
the salts of iron. 

FOENICULUM, U. S. (BR.) FENNEL. 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Fennel seed was used by the 
ancients. It is one of our most grateful aromatics, and in this country 
is much employed as a carminative, and as a corrigent of other less 
pleasant medicines, particularly senna and rhubarb. It is recom- 
mended for these purposes by the absence of any highly excitant 
property. An infusion may be prepared by introducing 2 or 3 drams 
of the seeds into 1 pint of boiling water. The dose of the bruised 
or powdered seeds is from 1 scruple to 3^2 dram. (1. 3-1.95 Gm.) 
In infants the infusion is frequently employed as an enema for the 
expulsion of flatus. 

"The fruit of Foeniculum capillaceum, Gilbert (nat. ord. Umbelliferae)." 
U. S. "The dried fruit of cultivated plants of Foeniculum capillaceum, Gillib. 
(Foeniculum vulgare, Gaert)." Br. 

Foeniculi Fructus, Br.; Fructus Foeniculi, P. G. ; Fennel Fruit (Seed), 
Sweet Fennel Fruit; Fenouil, Fruits (Semences) de Fenouil, Fr.; Fenchel, 
Fenchelsamen, G. ; Finnochio, It.; Hinojo, Sp. 

Fennel Plant and Seed. The plant producing fennel seed was attached by Linnaeus to'the genus 

Anethum, but was separated from it by De Candolle, and placed, with three 

or four others, in a new genus styled Foeniculum, which has been generally adopted by botanists. The Anethum 

.iculum of Linnaeus embraced two varieties, the common or wild fennel, and the sweet fennel; the latter 

:*lant usually cultivated in the gardens of Europe. These are considered by De Candolle as distinct 

. ; named respectively Foeniculum vulgare and Foeniculum dulce, but the correctness of the opinion of 

the great Swedish botanist is now generally admitted. 




DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



517 



Gen. Ch. Calyx a tumid obsolete rim. Petals roundish, entire, involute, with a squarish blunt lobe. Fruit 
nearly taper. Half fruits with five prominent bluntly keeled ridges, of which the lateral are on the edge, and rather 
broadest. Vittae single in the channels, two on the commissure. Involucre none. Lindley. 

Foeniculum capillaceum. Gillib. Fl. Lithuan., iv. 1782. Foeniculum vulgare. De Cand. Prodrom., iv. 
142. Anethum Foeniculum. Linn. Common Fennel has a biennial or perennial tapering root, and an annual, erect, 
round, striated, smooth, green, and copiously branching stem, which usually rises 3 or 4 feet in height. The leaves, 
which stand alternately at the joints of the stem, upon membranous striated sheaths, are many times pinnate, with 
long, linear, pointed, smooth, deep green leaflets. The flowers are in large, flat, terminal umbels, with from thirteen 
to twenty rays, and. destitute both of general and partial involucres. The corolla consists of five petals, which, as well 
as the stamens, are golden yellow. The fruit is ovate, rather less than two lines in length by about a line in.breadth 
and of a dark color, especially in the channels. The plant is a native of Europe, growing wild upon sandy and chalky 
ground throughout the continent, and is also abundant in Asia, extending, possibly, as far as China. The variety F. 
officinale of Merat and De Lens is chiefly characterized by its fruit being twice as long as that of the ordinary plant, 
and also a little curved, of a less dark color, with prominent ridges, and a persistent peduncle. It is sweeter and more 
aromatic than common fennel seed. 

F. dulce. De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 142. Sweet Fe*nel bears a general resemblance to F. vulgare, but differs 
in having its stem somewhat compressed at the base, its radical leaves somewhat distichous, and the number of rays 
in the umbel only from six to eight. It is also a much smaller plant, being only about a foot high; its flowers appear 
earlier; and its young shoots or turiones are sweeter and edible. In Italy it is cultivated as a garden vegetable, the 
shoots being eaten boiled or as a salad. 

The roots of fennel were formerly employed in medicine, but are generally inferior in virtues to the fruit, which 
is now the only official portion. It is stated that the manufacturers of the oil usually distil the whole plant. Commerce 
is partly supplied from the product of our own gardens; but much the larger portions of the medicine is imported from 
Europe, and chiefly, we have been informed, from Germany. During the winter of 1879 much of the seed in the German 
market was adulterated with fennel seed partially deprived of its oil. The fennel seed cultivated here is sweeter 
and more aromatic than that from abroad, probably in consequence of its greater freshness. Fennel seeds (half fruits) 
are oblong oval, from one to three or four lines in length, flat on one side, convex on the other, not unfrequently con- 
nected by their flat surfaces, straight or slightly curved, brownish or of a dark grayish green color, with five prominent, 
obtuse, yellowish ribs or ridges on the convex surface. On inspection the vittae, or oil tubes, are seen to be very well 
developed and are situated one between each pair of ridges and two upon the flat face of each mericarp. There are 
two varieties of fennel seed — one, which is probably the product of the wild fennel growing in the south of France, is 
from one to two lines long, dark colored, rather flat, almost always separate, and without footstalks; the other is from 
three to five lines in length, lighter colored, with much more prominent ridges, often conjoined by their flat surface, 
and very frequently provided with a footstalk. They do not differ essentially in aromatic properties. The odor of 
fennel seed is fragrant, its taste warm, sweet, and agreeably aromatic. It yields its virtues to hot water, but more 
frequently to alcohol. The essential oil may be separated by distillation with water. (See Oleum Foeniculi.) From 
960 parts of the seed Neumann obtained 20 parts of volatile and 126 of fixed oil. 

ANISUM, U. S. (BR.) ANISE. 



Medical Properties and Uses. — Anise is a grateful aromatic carminative, 
and is supposed to have the property of increasing the secretion of milk. It 

has been in use from the earliest times. Tn Europe it is much employed in 
flatulent colic, and as a corrigent of griping or unpleasant medicines; but in this 
country fennel seed is preferred. Anise may be given bruised, or in powder, 
in the dose of 20 or 30 grains (1.3-1.95 Gm.) or more. The infusion is less 
efficient. The volatile oil may be substituted for the seeds in substance. 
Much use is made of this aromatic for imparting flavors to liquors. 

"The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum, Linne (nat. ord. Umbelliferae)." U. S. "The dried 
fruit of Pimpinella Anisum. Linn." Br. 

Anisi Fructus, Br. ; Fructus (Semen) Anisi, s. Anisi vulgaris ; Aniseed, E.; Anis, 
Anis vert, Graines d Anis, Fr. ; Anissame, Anis, G.; Semi d'Aniso, It.; Simiente de Anis, 
Sp.; Anison, Ar. 

Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate-oblong. Petals inferior. Stigma nearly globular. Willd. 

Pimpinella anisum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1473; B, and T. 122. This is an annual 
plant, about a foot in height, with an erect, smooth, and branching stem. The leaves are 
petiolate, the lower roundish cordate, lobed, incised serrate, the middle pinnate lobed with 
cuneate or lanceolate lobes, the upper trifid, undivided, linear. The flowers are white, 
and in terminal compound umbels, destitute of involucres. 

The anise plant is a native of Egypt and the Levant, but has been introduced into 
the south of , Europe and is cultivated in various parts of that continent. It is also 
cultivated occasionally in the gardens of this country. The fruit is abundantly produced 
in Malta and Spain ; in Romagna, in Italy, whence it is largely exported through Leghorn, 
and in Central and Southern Russia. The Spanish is smaller than the German or 
French, and is usually preferred; the Russian fruit is very short. It is said also to be 
extensively cultivated in India and South America, although we are not aware that the product - ever comes into 
American commerce. 

It is one of the oldest aromatics, having been spoken of by Theophrastus and cultivated in the imperial German 
farms of Charlemagne. In 1305, Edward I. granted a patent giving the right to levy tolls upon it at the Bridge of London 
for the purpose of repairing the bridge. 




Anise Plant and Seed. 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



ha ptanically, fruit) are about a Line in length, oval, striated, somewhat downy, attached to their 

ad of a light greenish brown color, with a shade of yellow. "About 4 to 5 mm. long, ovate, compressed 

Ay hairy, and consisting of two mericarps, each with a flat face, and five light brownish, filiform 

i oil tubes, which can be seen in a transverse section by the microscope." U. S. Their odor 

•it. and increased by friction; their taste, warm, sweet, and aromatic. These properties, which depend upon 

.:■ volatile oil, arc imparted sparingly to boiling water, freely to alcohol. The volatile oil exists in the envelope 

and is obtained separate by distillation. (See Oleum Anisi.) Their internal substance contains a bland 

I oil. By expression, a greenish oil is obtained, which is a mixture of the two. The seeds are sometimes adul- 

vith small fragments of argillaceous earth, which resembles them in color; and their aromatic qualities are 

ally impaired by a slight fermentation, which they are apt to undergo in the mass, when collected before maturity. 

When examined by the microscope, anise is seen to contain a very great but variable number of small oil tubes, which 

are well represented in the accompanying figure, from fifteen to thirty to each mericarp. The epidermis is supplied 

b short, simple hairs, easily detached in making a section, and not represented in the cut. 

A case of poisoning is on record from the accidental admixture of the fruits of Conium maculatum, which bear 

some resemblance to those of anise, but may be distinguished by their crcnate or notched ridges and the absence of oil 

tubes; by their mericarps being smooth, grooved upon the„face, and having crenate or notched ridges with wrinkles 

een then.:; and especially by the. absence Of oil tubes. The conium fruits are, moreover, broader in proportion 

:eir length, and are generally separated into half fruits (or single mericarps), while those of anise are whole (double 

mericarps) . 

Star aniseed, the Cardamomum Siberiense or Annis de Siberie of the Seventeenth Century and the badiane of 
the French writers, is the product of the Illicium anisatum, and is fully described under the heading Illicium. They 
contain about 4 per cent of a volatile oil very closely resembling that of anise. There are no known chemical differences 
between these oils, although dealers distinguish them by their smell and taste. 

Dr. Ruschenberger, U. S. N., has shown that oil of anise has a remarkable power of deodorizing potassium sul- 
phide; a drop of the oil having entirely deprived of offensive odor a dram of lard with which 5 grains of the sulphide 
had been incorporated. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S. xlviii. 419.) 

FERRI SULPHAS, U. S. BR. FERROUS SULPHATE. 

Fe S0 4 .7H c O; 277.42. Fe S0 4 .7H 2 0; 277.9. 

General Therapeutic Effects of Iron. — The preparations of iron are preeminently tonic, and pecu- 
liarly well fitted to improve the quality of the blood when impoverished from any cause. Hence they are 
useful in diseases characterized by debility, especially when the consequence of inordinate discharges. 
The diseases in which they are usually employed are chronic anemia, chlorosis, hysteria, scrofula, rickets, 
passive hemorrhages, and neuralgia. They are contra-indicated, in all inflammatory diseases, producing, 
when injudiciously employed, heat, thirst, headache, difficulty of breathing, and other symptoms of an 
excited circulation. In order to understand their effort in improving the blood, it must be borne in 
mind that this fluid always contains iron, as an essential constituent of the red corpuscles. The amount 
in ten thousand parts of blood, according to different authorities, is 2.3 parts. (La Canu), 2.4 (Denis), 
5.5 (Becquerel and Rodier), 8.7 (Poggiala), mean 4.7. In anemia, the blood is deficient in iron, not 
because the red corpuscles contain less of the metal, for they, individually considered, always contain 
the normal quantity, but because there are fewer of them. (Becquerel and Rodier.) The questions here 
arise, which are the preparations of iron best adapted to promote the formation of the red constituent 
of the blood, and what are the conditions of their administration most favorable to their efficient action? 
According to M. Bouchardat, the preparations most easily assimilated are metallic iron and the ferrous 
oxide, and when the latter is in saline combination it should be united either with carbonic acid or with 
some organic acid. He holds that when the iron is combined with a mineral acid, such as the sulphuric 
or phosphoric, the preparation acts solely as an astringent. Quevenne did not go so far ahead as this, 
but believed that the mineral acid salts were' not well adapted for assimilation, and that they were less 
so in proportion to their astringent power. Quevenne laid it down as a rule, that when the iron prep-, 
arations are given with the view of improving the blood, they should be taken with the meals, and not 
on an empty stomach. The juice during digestion is acid and has been shown by the experiments of 
Quevenne to be in a favorable state for dissolving iron. The ferruginous preparations, it is true, were 
found to be unequally soluble; for, "while iron filings were freely soluble, ferric subcarbonate was but 
slightly attacked. It was observed that the acidity of the gastric juice was but little diminished by the 
'ion of the' iron; which fact can be explained only by supposing that the presence of the metal caused 
a nearly proportional increase of the acid secretion. Assuming these observations to be accurate, it 
is easy to perceive why the ferruginous preparations should be taken with the feed, selecting, of course, 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 519 



those most soluble in the gastric juice. The digested iron, being intimately blended with the digested 
feed, is in a favorable state for secondary assimilation. In the use of ferruginous preparations it is nec- 
essary to persevere for several months in order to reap the fullest benefit. Even after the cure appears 
to be accomplished, it is safest to continue them, in diminishing doses, for a time. 

Sulphate of Iron, Green Vitriol ; Ferrum Sulfuricum Pun.im, P. G. ; Sulfas Ferrosus, Ferrum Vitriolatum Purum, 
Vitriolum Martis Purum. Ferrous Sulphate ; Sulfate (Protosulfate) de Fer, Sulfate Ferreux, Fr. ; Schwefelsaures 
Eisenoxydul, G. 

"Ferrous Sulphate should be kept in well stoppered bottles." U. S. "Take of Iron Wire 4 ounces (avoirdupois) • 
Sulphuric Acid 4 fluid ounces (Imperial measure) ; Distilled Water 1J^ pints (Imp. meas.). Pour the water on the iron 
placed in a porcelain dish, add the Sulphuric Acid, and, when the disengagement of gas has nearly ceased, boil for ten 
minutes. Filter now through paper, and, after the lapse of twenty-four hours, separate the crystals which have been 
deposited from the solution. Let these be dried on filtering paper placed on porous bricks, and preserved in a stoppered 
bottle." Br. 

The object of this process is to make a pure ferrous sulphate by direct combination. Sulphuric acid, in a concen- 
trated state, acts but imperfectly on iron;„but when diluted, a vigorous action takes place, the oxygen of the water 
converts the metal into an oxide, with which the sulphuric acid unites, and hydrogen is evolved. The theoretical 
quantities for mutual reaction are fifty-six of iron and ninety-eight of acid. This proportion is one part of iron to 
one and three-quarters of acid. The British Council uses an excess of acid, the weight of acid taken being 7 . 38 avoir- 
dupois ounces, instead of 7. An excess of iron, however, is desirable, as it tends to secure the production of a perfect 
ferrous sulphate. A process for this salt was given in the U. S. P. 1870, which was based upon the method of 
Bonsdorff. This chemist found that when a perfect ferrous sulphate was formed in solution by heating dilute 
sulphuric acid with an excess of iron, it might be crystallized free from sesquioxide, provided a little excess of sulphuri 
acid were added to the liquid before filtration, in order to prevent the formation of an) 7 sesquioxide during the process, 
at the same time avoiding, as much as possible, the contact of the air. Hence the directions in the former U. S. 
formula to acidulate with sulphuric acid, tb cause the funnel to touch the bottom of the receiving vessel, which 
avoids the dropping of the liquid through the air, and to cover the vessel containing the concentrated liquid when it 
is set aside to crystallize. 

Properties. — Ferrous sulphate is in the form of "large, pale bluish green, monoclinic prisms, without odor, and 
having a saline, styptic taste." Efflorescent in dry air, and, on exposure to a moist atmosphere, rapidly absorbing 
oxygen, and becoming coated with brownish yellow, basic, ferric sulphate. Soluble in y% part of water at 15 degrees 
C. (59 degrees F.), and in 0.3 parts of boiling water; insoluble in alcohol. When slowly heated to 115 degrees C. (239 
degrees F.), the crystals fall to powder, and lose 38.84 per cent of their weight (6 molecules of water of crystalization) . 
The aqueous solution of the salt has an acid reaction, and, even when highly diluted, gives with potassmm ferricyanide 
test solution a blue color or precipitate, and with barium chloride test solution a white precipitate insoluble in hydro- 
chloric acid. If 1 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in about 25 C.c. of water, the solution heated to boiling, oxidized with 
nitric acid, and then mixed with a slight excess of ammonia water, the filtrate from the reddish brown precipitate should 
be colorless, and should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test solution (absence of copper, zinc, etc.). If another 
portion of the filtrate be evaporated to dryness, and then ignited, it should not leave more than a trace of residue (limit 
of salts of the fixed alkalies). If 1 . 39 (1 . 3871) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in about 25 C.c. of water, and the solution 
acidulated with sulphuric acid, not less than 50 C.c. of potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution should 
be required to impart to the liquid a permanent pink color (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 2 per cent 
of crystallized Ferrous Sulphate)." U. S. As prepared by Bonsdorff 's method, ferrous sulphate is blue verging to green. 
When it becomes more green than blue, or entirely green, an indication is afforded that it contains some sesquioxide. 
By exposure to the air the crystals absorb oxygen, and become first green, and ultimately covered with a yellow efflores- 
cence of subsulphate, insoluble in water. Sometimes the crystals are quite permanent when made by Bonsdorff's 
method, owing to the slight excess of acid which they contain. The aqueous solution is bluish green; but by standing 
it attracts oxygen, and becomes first green and then reddish, depositing, in the meantime, a portion of sesquisulphate, 
having the composition Fe,(SOj),+Fe I 3 +8H I 0. (Wittstein, Chem. Gaz., May 15, 1849; from Buchner's Report.) 
At a red heat it loses its acid, and is converted into the anhydrous ferric oxide called colcothar. It is incompatible 
with the alkalies and their carbonates, soaps, lime water, calcium and barium chlorides, sodium borate and phosphate, 
silver nitrate, and lead acetate and subacetate-. It is decomposed also by astringent vegetable infusions, the tannic 
and gallic acids of which form, if any sesquioxide be present, a black compound of the nature of ink. The extent to 
which this change lessens the activity of the salt is not well ascertained. Ferrous sulphate, as found in commerce, 
is often the impure commercial sulphate, which is not fit for medicinal use. The perfectly pure salt is precipitated 
white by potassium ferrocyanide ; but that of ordinary purity gives a greenish precipitate, more or less deep, with 
this test, owing to the presence of some ferric oxide. Copper may be detected by immersing in the solution a bright 
piece of iron, on which a cupreous film will be deposited. Both copper and zinc may be discovered by oxidizing the 
iron by boiling the solution of the salt with nitric acid and then precipitating the iron by an excess of ammonia. If 
the filtered solution be blue, copper is present; and if it contains zinc, this will be separated in flakes of white oxide 
on expelling the excess of ammonia by ebullition. 

It is often desirable to protect ferrous sulphate against the oxidation to which it is liable on exposure. Sugar 
acts as a preservative in the case of this salt, as in that of ferrous iodide. It may be added to the solution, or incorpor- 
ated with the sulphate in substance. M. E. Latour has given a formula for crystallizing the salt with sugar. Mr. 
Geo. Welbourn has found a small lump of camphor, wrapped in tissue paper and placed in the bottle with the sulphate, 
to prevent its oxidation. (P. J. Tr., May, 1868, p. 537.) M. Pavesi, of Mortara, effects the same object by incorpor- 
ating it with an equal weight of gum arabic, by evaporating a joint solution of the two substances with a gentle heat. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., iii. 49.) 



X20 



DAVIS STOCK POOD. 



NUX VOMICA, U. S. (BR.) NUX VOMICA. 

Medical Properties. — On account of its stimulant effect upon the gastric mucous membrane, and 
of its tendency to excite the vaso-motor and motor centers of the spinal cord, and thereby increase the 
activity of the circulation and the general systemic tone, nux vomica is a very valuable tonic, which may 
be given along with iron and simple bitters. 

As a respiratory stimulant nux vomica is very valuable in both subacute and chronic bronchitis, 
especially in old and feeble subjects, in advanced pneumonia, in narcotic poisoning. 

Owing to its tendency to increase the activity of the muscular fibers, it is a valuable addition to 
laxative medicines where there is reason to suspect relaxation of the muscular coat of the bowels. 

"The seed of Strychnos Nux Vomica, Linne (nat. 
ord. Loganiaceae)." "The seeds of Strychnos Nux Vomica, 
Linne." Br. 

Semen Strychni, P. G.; Semen Nucis Vomicae; Poison 
Nut, Quaker Buttons; Noix Vomique, Fr. ; Krahenaugen, 
Brechnusse, G. ; Noce Vomica, It.; Nuez Vomica, Sp. 

Gen. Ch. Corolla five cleft. Berry one-celled, with a 
ligneous rind. Willd. 

Strychnos nux vomica. Willd. Sp. Plan};, i. 1052; 
B. & T. 178. ' This tree is of a moderate size, with numerous 
strong branches, covered with a smooth, dark gray bark. 
The young branches are long, flexuous, smooth, and dark 
green, with opposite, roundish oval, entire, smooth, and 
shining leaves, having three or five ribs, and short footstalks. 
The flowers are small, white, funnel shaped and in terminal 
corymbs. The fruit is a round berry, about as large as an 
orange, with a smooth, yellow or orange colored, hard, fragile 
rind, and many seeds in a juicy pulp. It has frequently 
been asserted. that the pulp is innocuous; but the experiments 
and analyses of Fluckiger and Hanbury, and of Dunstan 
and Short (P. J. Tr., xv. 1), prove that it contains strych- 
nine. The latter have also proved by chemical examination 
that of the commercial varieties of nux vomica Bombay seed 
stands first, then Cochin, and lastly Madras. (P. J. Tr., 
1883, p. 1053.) 

The tree is a native of the East Indies, growing in 
Bengal, Malabar, on the Coromandel Coast, in Ceylon, in 
many islands of the Indian Archipelago, in Cochin-China, 
and in other neighboring countries. The wood and root 
are very bitter, and are employed in the East Indies for the 
cure of intermittents. The radices colubrinae and lignum 
colubrinum of the older writers, long known in Europe 
as narcotic poisons, have been ascribed to this species 
of Strychnos, under the impression that it is identical with 
Strychnos colubrina, to which Linnaeus refers them. They 
have been ascertained by Pelletier and Caventou to contain 
a large quantity of strychnine. The bark is said by Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy to answer exactly to the description given 
by authors of the false Angustura, and, like that, to contain 
a large quantity of brucine. The identity of the two barks 
has been confirmed by Dr. Pereira, from a comparison of 
specimens. (See Cuspariae Cortex.) 
The seeds are circular, about % inch in diameter, and two lines in thickness, flat or slightly convex on one side, 
and concave on the other, with a slight ridge extending from the center of one side to the edge. They are thickly 
covered with fine, silky, shining, ash colored or yellowish gray hairs, springing from, and indeed composed of elongated 
cells of a thin fragile coating of testa, which close v ly invests the interior nucleus or kernel. This is very hard, horny, 
usually whitish and semi-transparent, sometimes dark colored and opaque, and very difficult of pulverization. It is 
composed chiefly of a hard, horny albumen, which on section is seen to be formed of numerous small parenchymatous 
In a fissure in the center lies the embryo. It is about x />, i ncn l°ng, with a club shaped radicle and two cordate, 
five to seven nerved cotyledons. The p'ov/der is yellowish gray, and has a faint sweetish odor. The seeds are destitute 
of odor, but have an acrid, very bitter taste, which is much stronger in the kernel than in the investing membrane. They 
impart their virtues to water, but more readily to diluted alcohol. 

SANTONICA, U. S. (BR.) SANTONICA. (LEVANT WORMSEED.) 

Actions and Uses. — Santonin is an effectual vermicide, particularly destructive to round and thread 
worms. Santonin is excreted by the kidneys as an obscure product of its oxidation in the system, and 
causes slight diuresis. It colors acid urine greenish yellow, and alkaline urine red or purple. 

"The unexpanded flower heads of Artemisia pauciflora, Weber (nat. ord. Compositae)." U. S. "The dried 
or capitula of Artemisia maritima, var. Stechmanniana (A. pauciflora, Weber)." Br. 




Nux Vomica Plant and Beny. 






DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 521 



European Wormseed; Santonici Semen, Semen Cynae, Semen Contra; Flores Cinae, P. G. ; Semne Sanctum; 
Barbotine, Semencine, Fr. ; Wurmsamen, Zittwersamen, G. 

Artemisia maritima* is a small, semi-shrubby perennial, from whose oblique, knotted rootstalks arise numerous 
leafy shoots and flowering stems. The glabrous and woody stems bear on their many branches numerous small (1 
inch long) bi-to multipinnatifid leaves, whilst the leaves of the flowering stems are very minute, the upper ones simple. 
The flower heads are small, numerous, 1-10 inch long, with twelve to eighteen involucral scales, and from three to five 
flowers. The plant varies very greatly, and several species have been made out of its varieties. The form whose 
floral buds are said to resemble most closely the commercial drug has been named A. cina by Berg and Schmidt (t. 29, c), 
and A. pauciflora by Weber. Following Bentley and Trimen, 157, the revisers of the recent U. S. P. have recognized 
the specific distinctness of the variety and adopted the name given by Weber; but the propriety of this seems doubtful, 
since the researches of the Russian botanists Besser and Ledebour indicate that the forms are not specifically distinct, 
but are merely varieties of one plant, which has an extremely wide distrib ution in the Northern Hemisphere ; from 
the old marshes of the British Islands it has spread along the coasts of the Baltic and the Mediterranean and eastward 
over the saline soils in Hungary, through Southern Russia and Central Siberia, to Chinese Mongolia. In European 
commerce there are two kinds of wormseed, one called Aleppo, Alexandria, or Levant wormseed, the other Barbary 
wormseed. The Barbary wormseed is thought by some to be derived from Artemisia judaica, by others from A. sie- 
berif of Besser (A. glomerata of Sieber), and from A. ramosa (C. Smith), all of which grow in Palestine and Arabia. 
It consists of broken peduncles, having the calyx sometimes attached to their extremity. The calyx is also sometimes 
separate, consisting of very small linear obtuse leaflets. The flowers are wanting, or are in the shape of minute globular 
buds. All these parts are covered with a whitish brown, which serves to distinguish this variety from the wormseed 
of the Levant. It is, moreover, lighter and more colored than the latter. Its smell and taste are the same. The 
Levant wormseed is the santonica of the two Pharmacopoeias. It is officially described as "from 2 to 4 mm. long, 
oblong-ovate, obtuse, smooth, somewhat glossy, grayish green, after exposure to light, brownish green, consisting of 
an involucre of about twelve to eighteen closely imbricated, glandular scales with a broad midrib, enclosing four or five 
rudimentary florets; odor strong, peculiar, somewhat camphoraceous; taste aromatic and bitter." U. S. 

Of late years most of the wormseed of commerce has come from the steppes of the northern portion of Turkestan 
to the great Niznee- Novgorod fair, whence it finds its way to Moscow and Western Europe. The export from this 
region is said to have reached 1,600 tons annually, but has largely declined, because the conquest of Turkestan by 
Russia led to the establishment in Orenburg of large factories for the manufacture of santonin, which is now sent thence 
into^ommerce. The yearly consumption of santonin throughout the world is estimated at about twenty- five tons, and of 
this at least 12 tons are produced in the factories just spoken of. The santonin in the plants is said to reach its maximum 
proportion in July and August, and to disappear immediately after the flowering. 

Wormseed contains a volatile oil, but it owes its efficiency to santoninj. (See Santoninum.) The essent al 
oil of wormseed, according to Wallach (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm., 225, p, 314, and p. 227, 277), is mostly made up of 
cineol, C^ H IB 0, which is isomeric with burneol, and seems to be identical with the cajuputol of cajuput oil, and which 
on proper treatment yields a terpene, C rn H TB , cinene, identical with cajuputene. "Wormseed is rarely used in this country 
in substance. The dose is from 10 to 30 grains (0.65-1.95 Gm.). 

SULPHUR PRAECIPITATUM, U. S. BR. PRECIPITATED SULPHUR. 

S; 31.98. S; 32. 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Sulphur is a laxative, diaphoretic, and resolvent. It is supposed 
to be rendered soluble by the soda of the bile. M. Mialhe teaches that it is carried into the circulation 
by the fatty matters in the alimentary canal, which dissolve it. (Med. Times and Gaz., June, 1868, p. 642.) 
It evidently passes off by the pores of the skin, as is shown by the fact that silver worn in the pockets 
of patients under a course of it becomes blackened with a coating of sulphide. The stools which it occa- 
sions are usually semi-solid, and it is gentle in its operation, unless it contains a good deal of acid, when 
it may cause griping; the liability of the sublimed sulphur to contain acid renders it less eligible for exhi- 
bition than the washed sulphur, from which all acidity is removed. The diseases in which sulphur is 
principally used are hemorrhoids, atonic gout, chronic rheumatism, chronic catarrh and asthma. It has 
also been given as an antiperiodic, being considered particularly applicable to cases in which the 
apyrexia is incomplete. Applied locally it is a specific in scabies. It is sometimes applied as an air 



*Messrs. Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen (Comptes-Rendus, 804) find that Artemisia gallica contains santonin, 
essential oil, and probably an alkaloid. 

tA. sieberi is in all probability, however, but a variety of the very variable A herba-alba, which is used by the 
Arabs under the name of "chili" as a vermifuge, and in which M. Battandier found two resins and a large quantity 
of essential oil, but no santonin. * 

JEhlinger's Process for valuing Santonica. Five parts of santonica and one part of milk of lime were bottled 
for two hours in a considerable quantity of dilute alcohol and the liquid poured off after cooling; this treatment was 
repeated at least twice more, and the alcohol was then distilled off from the united extracts. The residual liquid was 
then saturated in the cold with carbonic acid, filtered off from the precipitate after standing some hours, and the filtrate 
evaporated to dryness. The residue was triturated with animal charcoal and alcohol of specific gravity 0. 935, and the 
paste rinsed into a retort, where it was digested with a measured quantity of alcohol. After boiling, the contents of 
the retort were thrown on a filter, washed with hot alcohol, and the alcohol driven off from the filtrate, from which, 
•after some hours, crystals of santonin separated. (P. J. Tr., 1886, p. 449.) 



:,_•_> DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



bath, in the form of sulphurous acid gas, the head being protected from its effects. It has been used to 
wnsiderable extent in diphtheria, the flowers being blown by means of a tube, or a little cone of paper 
like a lamp lighter, upon' the fauces from four to six times a day. The external use of sulphur is strongly 
•n mended by Dr. O'Connor, of London, in sciatica and chronic articular rheumatism. The limb 
affected is covered with sulphur, and bandaged with new flannel, over which sheets of wadding are 
wrapped. The dressing should not be taken off for several -days, as its earlier removal would interfere 
with the absorption of the sulphur, on which its curative effect depends. (Lancet, Am. ed., June, 1857, 
p. 507.) The dose of sulphur is from 1 to 3 drams (3.9-11.65 Gm.), mixed with syrup- or molasses, or 
taken in milk. It is often combined with potassium bitartrate, or with magnesia. 

According to M. Harmon, of Brussels, soft sulphur, recently prepared, possesses valuable thera- 
peutic properties, not as a laxative, but as a stimulant to the circulation, lungs, and skin, far more active 
than ordinary sulphur. The dose of soft sulphur is from 20 to 50 grains (1.3-3.25 Gm.), given in the form 
of a pill. It has also been successfully employed for filling the hollows of carious teeth. (P. J. Tr., xvii.330.) 

Lac Sulphuris; Milk of Sulphur; Magisterium Sulphuris; Souffre precipite, Lait de Souffre, Fr. ; Schwefelmilch, G. 

"Sublimed Sulphur, 100 grammes (or 3 ounces ay., 231 grains) ; Lime, 50 grammes (or 1 ounce av., 334 grains) ; 
Hydrochloric Acid, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Slake the Lime, and mix it uniformly with 500 cubic centimeters 
(or 16 fluid ounces, 435 minims) of Water. Add the Sublimed Sulphur, previously sifted, and, after thorough mixing, 
add 1,000 cubic centimeters (or 33 fluid ounces, 390 minims) of Water, and boil the mixture during one hour, stirring 
constantly, and replacing the Water lost by evaporation. Then cover the vessel, and permit the contents to cool and 
become clear by subsidence. Carefully draw off the clear solution, and filter the remainder. To the united liquids 
add gradually, and with constant stirring, Hydrochloric Acid, previously diluted with an equal volume of Water, until 
the liquid is nearly neutralized, still retaining, however, an alkaline reaction and a yellow color. Collect the precipitate 
on a strainer, and wash it, until the washings are tasteless and cease to give an acid reaction with litmus paper. Then 
dry the product rapidly, at a moderate heat, and keep it in well stopped bottles." U. S. 

"Take of Sublimed Sulphur, 5 ounces (avoirdupois); Slaked Lime, 3 ounces (av.) ; Hydrochloric Acid, 8 fluid 
ounces, or a sufficiency; Distilled Water, a sufficiency. Heat the Sulphur and Lime, previously well mixed, in a pint 
(Imperial measure) of the Water, stirring diligently with a wooden spatula; boil for fifteen minutes, and filter. Boil 
the residue again in % pint (Imp. meas.) of the Water, and filter.; Let the united filtrates cool, dilute with 2 pints 
(Imp. meas.) of the Water, and, in an open place or under a chimney, add in successive quantities the Hydrochloric 
Acid previously diluted with 1 pint (Imp. meas.) of the Water, until effervescence ceases and the mixture acquires a 
slight acid reaction. Allow the precipitate to settle, decant the supernatant liquid, pour on fresh distilled Water, and 
continue the purification by affusion of Distilled Water and subsidence, until the fluid ceases to have an acid reaction 
and to precipitate with oxalate of ammonium. Collect the precipitated sulphur on a calico filter, wash it once with 
Distilled Water, and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 120 degrees F. (48 . 9 degrees C.) ." Br. 

The process for precipitated sulphur has not been much changed in the last revision ; the quantity of lime has 
however, been diminished, which is an improvement, as the excess of lime caused loss in filtration unless great eare 
was taken to wash the precipitate well. 

In the U. S. process three molecules of calcium oxide react with six atoms of sulphur to form two mols. of calcium 
disulphide and one of calcium thiosulphate (hyposulphite) : 3CaO+(S I )3=2CaS I +CaS I 3 . On the addition of the hydro- 
chloric acid, six atoms of sulphur are precipitated (four from the two mols. of calcium disulphide and two from the 
one mol. of calcium hyposulphite), and the calcium and oxygen unite with the hydrochloric acid, so as to form calcium 
chloride and water, according to the reaction 2CaS 2 +Cab I U 3 +6HCI=3CaCl s +3H ? 0+(Sj) 3 . This rationale is not exactly 
applicable to the British process, in which the proportion of the sulphur to the lime employed is greater than in that 
or the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and on account of this greater excess of sulphur the reaction takes place as follows: 3Ca- 
Cl,+3H 2 0-r(S.,),, a calcium pentasulphide being formed. Hydrochloric acid is the most eligible precipitant for the sulphur, 
as it gives rise to calcium chloride, which is a very soluble salt and is easily washed away. Sulphuric acid is wholly 
inadmissible, as it generates calcium sulphate, which, from its sparing solubility, become^ necessarily intermingled 
with the precipitated sulphur. According to Schweitzer, the best material from which to precipitate the sulphur is 
potassium sulphide, formed by boiling sulphur with caustic potassa. Dr. Otto, of Brunswick, finds that potassium 
sulphide is apt to contain copper sulphide, and therefore he prefers calcium sulphide. 

Properties. — Precipitated sulphur is in friable lumps, of a white color, with a pale yellowish green tint, and con- 
sisting of finely divided particles slightly cohering, or, as officially described, "is a fine, amorphous powder, of a pale 
yellow color, without odor or taste. Insoluble in water; very slightly soluble in absolute alcohol; readily soluble in 
carbon disulphide; also in benzine, benzol, oil of turpentine, and many other oils; also in ether, in chloroform, and in 
boiling, aqueous solutions of alkaline hydrates. At 115 degrees C. (239 degrees F.) Precipitated Sulphur melts, and at 
a higher temperature it volatilizes, or, if air be admitted, burns to sulphur dioxide, leaving no residue. If 0.5 Gm. of 
:pitated Sulphur be boiled fvith 10 C.c. of sodium hydrate test solution, it should be completely dissolved, leaving 
no residue (absence of earthy or metallic impurities). If 1 Gm. of Precipitated Sulphur be digested for several hours 
with 10 C.c. of ammonia water, a portion of the clear filtrate should not leave any residue on evaporation; nor should 
another portion be colored yellow, or rendered turbid, by acidulation with hydrochloric acid, even after the addition 
of an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide test solution (absence of arsenic). If 5 C.c. of water be agitated with 2 Gm. 
of Precipitated Sulphur, the liquid should not change the color of blue or red litmus paper (absence of acid or alkali) ; 
nor should it leave any residue on evaporation (absence of soluble impurities). If 0.5 Gm. of Precipitated Sulphur 
be boiled with a solution of 0.5 Gm. of potassium cyanide in 5 C.c. of water, and, after filtration, the clear liquid be 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid.it should not assume a reddish color, even after standing for an hour (absence of 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 523 



selenium)." U. S. It is entirely dissipated by heat. Water boiled with it should not redden litmus. When recently 
prepared, it is devoid of taste, but possesses a peculiar smell. When long exposed, in a moist state, to the air, it becomes 
strongly contaminated with sulphuric acid From its color it was formerly lac sulphuris, or milk of sulphur. It is 
insoluble in water, but dissolves in a boiling solution of caustic potassa, and in oil of turpentine by the aid of heat. 
When of a brilliant white color, the presence of calcium sulphate may be suspected; in which case the preparation 
will not be wholly volatilized by heat. If pure, it communicates a harsh feel when rubbed between the fingers, owing 
to the friction of the particles. (Dr. Bridges.) We have seen a sample of so called precipitated sulphur, which consisted 
almost entirely of calcium sulphate. Precipitated sulphur differs from sublimed sulphur in being in a state of more 
minute division, and in presenting, after fusion, a softer and less brittle mass. Its peculiarities are supposed to depend 
upon the presence of water, which; however, is found in too small a quantity to constitute a regular hydrate. 'According 
to Rose, its white color is occasioned by the presence of a small proportion of hydrogen sulphide. Soubeiran states 
that it always contains some hydrogen sulphide, which causes it to differ as a therapeutic agent from sublimed sulphur. 

PODOPHYLLUM, U. S. (BR.) PODOPHYLLUM. (MAY-APPLE.) 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Podophyllum is a slow but active and certain cathartic, producing 
copious liquid discharges, often with much griping. It is generally thought by the profession to be an 
efficient cholagogue, and the experiments of Prof. Rutherford upon dogs certainly confirm this belief. 
It is very much employed in various parts of the country in bilious fevers and hepatic congestions, and 
as a general cathartic. In minute doses, frequently repeated, podophyllum has been thought to dimin- 
ish the frequency of the pulse and to relieve cough, and for theseeffects has been given in hemoptysis 
and catarrh, but this employment of it is of doubtful advantage. In overdoses podophyllum acts as 
an. irritant poison; an amount estimated at 5 grains of the resin caused death in a woman sixty years 
old (N. Y. Med. Rec, April, 1890) ; the symptoms were vomiting and purging, followed some hours after 
their cessation by coma, full soft pulse, slight elevation of temperature, and hemoglobinuria. 

"The rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum, -Xinne (nat. ord. Berberideae)." U. S. "The dried 
rhizome and rootlets of Podophyllum peltatum, Linn." Br. 

Podophylli Rhizoma, Br.; Podophyllum Root, Mandrake Root; Rhizome de Podophyllum, Fr. ; 
Fussblattwurzel, G. 

Gen. Ch. Calyx three leaved. Corolla nine-petaled. Berry one-celled, crowned with the stigma. Willd. 

Podophyllum peltatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1141; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 9; Carson, Must, of Med. Bot., 
i. 18, pi. 11; B. & T. 17. The may-apple, sometimes also called mandrake, is an indigenous herbaceous plant, 
and the only species of the genus. The root (rhizome) is perennial, creeping, usually several feet in length about J4 
inch thick, brown externally smooth, jointed, and furnished with radicles at the joints. The stem is about a foot 
high, erect, round, smooth, divided at top into two petioles, and supporting at the fork a solitary one-flowered 
peduncle. Each petiole bears a large, peltate, palmate leaf, with six or seven wedge shaped lobes, irregularly incised 
•at the extremity, yellowish green on their upper surface, paler and slightly pubescent beneath. The flower is nod- 
ding. The calyx is composed of three oval, obtuse, concave, decidious leaves. The corolla has from six to nine 
white, fragrant petals, which are ' obovate, obtuse, concave, with delicate transparent veins. The stamens are from 
thirteen to twenty, shorter than the petals, with oblong, yellow anthers, of twice the length of the filaments. The 
stigma is sessile, and rendered irregular on its surface by numerous folds or convolutions. The fruit is a large oval 
berry, crowned with the persistent stigma, and containing a sweetish fleshy pulp, in which about three ovate seeds are 
embedded. It is, when ripe, of a lemon yellow color, diversified by round brownish spots. 

The plant has been found on Mount Togakushi, in Japan, and is extensively diffused through the United States, 
growing luxuriantly in moist shady woods and in low marshy grounds. It is propagated by its creeping root, and is 
often found in large patches. The flowers appear about the end of May and the beginning of June ; and the fruit ripens 
in the latter part of September. The leaves are said to be poisonous. The fruit has a subacid, sweetish, peculiar 
taste, agreeable to some palates, and may be eaten freely with impunity. From its color and shape, it is sometimes 
called wild lemon. The root is the official portion, and is said to be most efficient when collected after the falling of 
the leaves. It shrinks considerably in drying. 

The rhizome of the Himalayan species, Podophyllum emodi, is an active cathartic, which has been found by 
Dymock and Hooper to yield 12 per cent of resin. As this resin contains over 56 per cent of podophyllotoxin, the Indian 
plant should be much more active than the American, which ordinarily yields only about 5 per cent of resin, containing 
40 to 45 per cent of podophyllotoxin. 

Properties. — The dried root is much wrinkled lengthwise, is yellowish or reddish brown externally, and furnished 
with fibers of a similar but somewhat paler color. It was determined, by an experiment of Mr. William Saunders, 
that these fibers contain as much active matter as the rhizome itself. The fracture is short and irregular, and the internal 
color whitish. The microscopic examination of the section shows the rhizome to be composed of loose parenchymatous 
tissue, with sixteen or more yellowish vascular bundles arranged in a circle, and a cortical layer of a double row of 
thick walled yellowish cells surmounted by the epidermis. It is officially described as "of horizontal growth, consisting 
of joints about 5 gm. long, flatfish cylindrical, about 5 mm. thick, but somewhat enlarged at the end, which has a 



524 DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



circular scar on the upper side, a tuft of about ten, nearly simple, fragile roots on the lower side, and is sometimes branched 
.Uv , smooth or somewhat wrinkled, orange brown, internally white and mealy, with a circle of small wood 
bundles; pith targe; nearly inodorous; taste sweetish, somewhat bitter ami acrid." U.S. The powder is light yellowish, 
gray, resembling that of a jalap. The root in its aggregate state is nearly inodorous, but iii powder has a sweetish 
not unpleasant smell. The taste is at first sweetish,, afterward bitter, nauseous, and slightly acrid. Both the decoction 
and the tincture are bitter; but alcohol is said to be the best solvent of the active matter. Analyzed by Mr. 
John R. Lewis, podophyllum yielded albumen, gum, starch, extractive, lignin, gallic acid, fixed oil, traces of volatile 
oil, salts of potassa and lime, and two resinous principles, one soluble in alcohol and ether, and the other soluble in 
alcohol only. Both resins were found to possess the actual properties of the root. Six grains operated as a drastic 
cathartic, with some emetic effect. (A- J. P., xix. 165.) The resin is a light brownish yellow powder, of greenish tint, 
devoid of crystalline appearance, becoming darker if heated above 32 degrees C, and having an acrid, bitter ta 
Dr. V. Podwyssotzki, 1SS2 (Pharm. Zeitschrift fur Russland, vol. xx., p. 777), made a careful examination of the 
root and resin, and announced the active principle to be solely a neutral crystalline principle, picropodophyllin. This 
principle is associated with an inactive resin acid, picropodophyllic acid, and the combination of the two names 
podophyllotoxin. Picropodqphyllin is in colorless, silky, extremely delicate needles, very soluble in chloroform, readily 
soluble in 95 per cent alcohol, but very slightly in 75 percent alcohol. It is soluble in ether, and crystallizes from a 
warm saturated solution on cooling. It is insoluble in water, turpentine, or benzine. Podophyllotoxin is a bitter, 
white, resinous powder, soluble in weak alcohol and hot water. It may be precipitated from its alcoholic solution 
by water in large quantities. (P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 1011.) He also obtained podophylloquercetin, the coloring 
principle, which is closely allied to quercetin and is the cause of the varying color of resin of podophyllum. 
Podwyssotzki's results have since been corrected and supplemented by R. Kursten (A. J. P., 1891, p. 485), who 
has obtained the several principles in a purer state. His results are summarized in the footnote. Dr. Manlius Smith 
recommends that the resin should be prepared by forming an alcoholic tincture of the root, evaporating the tincture 
till most of the alcohol is driven off, and throwing the residue into water, by which the resin is precipitated. The 
concentration should not be carried too far, as otherwise the resin separates in clots, which cannot be easily washed. 
According to Dr. Smith, the resin, when pure, is white, and purges actively. It is called podophyllin. (A. J. P., 
xxiv. 306.) For a more complete account of what is known of the resins of podophyllum the reader is referred to the 
article on Resina Podophylli. 

The leaves of Podophyllum peltatum were chemically examined by Mr. Thomas J. Husband, Jr., who obtained 
from them a resinous matter and a portion of the alkaloid berberine, which is found in the root. This resinous 
matter consisted of two distinct resins, one soluble in ether and alcohol, the other in alcohol, and both in caustic 
alkalies and chloroform. Mr. Husband states that the resin obtained from the leaves is similar in its chemical 
relations to podophyllin, but proved when taken internally to be without its purgative properties, 8 grains being 
taken without other effect than slight headache. (A. J. P., 1869, p. 200.) 

B. F. Carter (A. J. P., 1886, p. 449) has since examined the leaves. He finds tannin, uncrystallizable sugar 
coloring matter, and 6 per cent of resin. This latter seems to be of twofold character, ether dissolving the soft resin, 
while the hard resin remains behind. The resin has a bitter taste and a much milder action than that of the rhizome. 
Fused with caustic potash a small amount of protocatechuic acid seems to be formed. 



SODII CHLORIDUM, U. S. (BR.) SODIUM CHLORIDE. 

NaCl; 58.37. NaCl; 58.4. 

Medical Properties. — Sodium chloride, in small doses, acts as a stomachic tonic and anthelmintic,- 

in larger doses as a purgative and emetic. From the experiments of Prof. Buchheim, it appears that 
common salt quickly passes into the blood, and is thrown off in greater part, in six hours, by the kidneys. 
The portion not found in the urine and feces is probably appropriated to the uses of the economy. M. 
Plouviez, as the result of experiments made upon himself, came to the conclusion that the use of a saline 
regimen has the effect of increasing the number of the red blood corpuscles as well as the weight and 
strength of the body. This is, however, contradicted by the more recent experiments of Dr. Munch, 
and the common experience of mankind seems to show that, while the habitual use of a certain amount 
of the salt is necessary for health, overuse of it has no effect in producing plethora. 

Common salt has been used with good effect by a number of practitioners as a remedy for inter- 
mittent fever. It is not alleged to be equal to quinine. The dose is from 8 to 12 drams (31.1-46.6 Gm.), 
given in divided doses during the apyrexia. It is best administered in mucilage of slippery elm, or 
in coffee. In hemoptysis, common salt, in the dose of 1 teaspoonful (3.9 Gm.), taken dry, often proves 
successful in stopping the flow of blood. Externally applied in solution it is stimulant, and may be used 
either locally or generally. Locally it is sometimes employed as a fomentation in sprains and bruises; 
and as a general external application it forms the salt water bath, a valuable remedy as a tonic and 
excitant in depraved conditions of the system, especially when occurring in children. A pound of salt 
dissolved in 4 gallons of water forms a solution of about the strength of sea water, and suitable for a 
bath. Dose, as a cathartic, from 2 drams to x / 2 ounce (7.8-15.5 Gm.); as an emetic, from J^ ounce 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 525. 



to 1 ounce (15.5.-31.1 Gm.), dissolved in four or five times its weight of water. It is frequently used as 
a clyster, 2 tablespoonfuls in 1 pint of water. 

The uses of common salt in domestic economy as a condiment and an antiseptic are well known. 

In pharmacy it is employed to prepare chlorine, hydrochloric acid, ammonium chloride, calomel, and 
corrosive sublimate. It is also used to form sodium sulphate with a view to its conversion into sodium 

carbonate. 

Natrium Chloratum Purum, P. G. ; Chloruretum Sodicum, Sal Commune, s. Culinare; Table Salt; Sodium 
Chloride, Muriate of Soda, Sea Salt, Common Salt; Chlorure de Sodium, Hydrochlorate de Soude, Sel commun, Sel 
de Cuisine, Sel Marin, Fr, ; Chlornatrium, Kochsalz, G. ; Salt, Dan., Sw. ; Chloruro di Sodio, Sal commune, It.; Sal, Sp. 

This mineral production, so necessary to mankind, is universally distributed over the globe, and is the most 
abundant of the native soluble salts. Most animals have an instinctive relish for it; and, from its frequent presence 
in the solids and fluids of the animal economy, it may be supposed to perform an important part in assimilation and 
nutrition. 

Natural State. — Common salt exists in nature either in the solid state or in solution. In the solid state, called 
rock salt, fossil salt, and sal gemmae, it is often found forming extensive beds, and even entire mountains, from which 
it is extracted in blocks or masses by mining operations. Its geological position is very constant, it occurring almost 
invariably in secondary formations, associated with clay and gypsum. In solution it exists in certain springs and 
lakes, and in the waters of the ocean. The principal salt mines are found in Poland, Hungary and Russia; in various 
parts of Germany and Austria, particularly the Tyrol; in Cheshire, England; in Spain; in various parts of Asia and 
Africa; in the island of St. Domingo; and in Peru and other countries of South America. With the exception of a 
remarkable bed of rock salt in the island of Petite Anse, in Vermilion Bay, on the coast of Louisiana, there are in the 
United States no salt mines east of the Rocky Mountains ; but there are numerous salt springs, which either flow naturally 
or are produced artificially by sinking wells to various depths in places where salt is known to exist. These are found 
principally in Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and New York. 
In the last mentioned state the springs are the most productive, the chief ones being situated at Salina, Montezuma, 
and Galen. In West Virginia an important salt region exists, extending fifteen miles on both sides of the Great Kenawha 
River, and in Michigan in the counties of Huron, Bay and Saginaw, extensive salt wells are worked. The production 
of salt in 1890 was as follows: Michigan, 3,837,632 barrels (barrels of 280 pounds); New York, 2,532,036 barrels; 
other states, 2,407,323 barrels; total, 8,776,991 barrels; 1891, Michigan, 3,927,671 barrels; New York, 3,532,600 
barrels; other states, 2,773,430 barrels; total, 10,233,701 barrels; 1892, Michigan, 3,812,054 barrels; New York, 
4,400,000 barrels; other states, 3,373,700 barrels; total, 11,585,754 barrels. Rock salt is always transparent or trans- 
lucent; but it often exhibits various colors, such as red, yellow, brown, violet, blue, etc., which are supposed to be 
derived from iron and manganese. 

Extraction. — Mines of salt are worked in two ways. When the salt is pure, it is merely dug out in blocks and 
thrown into commerce. * When impure, it is dissolved in water, and extracted afterward from the solution by evapora- 
tion. When salt is naturally in solution, the mode of extraction depends upon the strength of the brine and the tem- 
perature of the place where it is found. When the water contains from 14 to 15 per cent of the salt, it is extracted 
by evaporation in large iron boilers. If, however, it contains only 2, 3, 4, or 5 per cent, the salt is obtained in a different 
manner. If the climate be warm, it may be procured by spontaneous evaporation, effected by the heat of the sun; 
if temperate, by a peculiar mode of evaporation, to be mentioned presently, and the subsequent application of 
artificial heat. 

Sea water is a weak saline solution, containing 2.7 per cent of common salt, which is extracted by the agency of 
soEir heat in warm countries. Salt thus obtained is called bay salt. The extraction is conducted in Europe principally 
on the shores of the Mediterranean, the waters of which are saltier than those of the open ocean. The mode in which 
it is performed is by letting the sea water into shallow dikes, lined with clay, and capable, after having been filled, of 
being shut off from the sea. In this situation the heat of the sun gradually concentrates the water, and the salt is depos- 
ited. About 30,000 tons a year are thus made at Alameda, California, the only place in the United States where solar 
evaporation is carried out. In temperate climates, weak brines are first concentrated in buildings called graduation 
houses. These are rough wooden structures, open on the sides, ten or eleven yards high, five or six wide, and three 
or four hundred long, and containing an oblong pile of brushwood somewhat smaller than the building itself. The 
brine is pumped up into troughs full of holes, placed above the brushwood, upon which it is allowed to fall, and in its 
descent it becomes minutely divided. This operation, by greatly increasing the surface of the brine, promotes its 
evaporation; and, being repeated several times, the solution is at last brought to the requisite degree of strength to 
permit of its final concentration in iron boilers by artificial heat. 

Properties. — Sodium chloride is white, without odor, and of a peculiar taste called saline. It usually crystal- 
lizes in cubes; but by hasty evaporation it often assumes the form of hollow quadrangular pyramids, or hopper shaped 
crystals, consisting of -an aggregation of cubes. It is officially described as in "colorless, transparent, cubical crystals, 
or a white, crystalline powder, odorless, and.having a purely saline taste. Permanent in dry air. Soluble in 2.8 parts 
of water, at 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.), and in 2.5 parts of boiling water; almost insoluble in alcohol; insoluble in 
ether or chloroform. When heated, the salt decrepitates. At a red heat it fuses, and at a white heat it is slowly vola- 
tilized and partly decomposed. To a nonluminous flame it imparts an intense, yellow color. The aqueous solution 
of the salt is neutral to litmus paper. With silver nitrate test solution, the solution yields a white, curdy precipitate, 
insoluble in nitric acid. No turbidity could be produced in 5 C.c. of the aqueous solution (1 in 20) by the addition 
of 0.5 C.c. of sodium cobaltic nitrate test solution (limit of potassium). The aqueous solution, slightly acidulated 
with acetic acid, should not be rendered turbid by ammonium oxalate test solution (absence of calcium) ; nor by barium 
chloride test solution, either before or after addition of ammonia water in slight excess (absence of arsenic, lead, zinc, 
iron, aluminum, etc.). No turbidity should be produced in the aqueous solution by the addition of sodium phosphate 
test solution and a few drops of ammonia water (absence of magnesium, etc.). If 2 Gm. of the finely powdered salt 
be removed by filtration, then the filtrate evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved in 1 C.c. of water and mixed 
with a few drops of starch test solution, the addition of chlorine water, drop by drop, should produce neither a blue 
nor a yellow tint (absence of iodide or bromide). If 0.195 Gm. of* well dried Sodium Chloride be dissolved in 10 C.c. 
of water, and the solution mixed with a few drops of potassium chromate test solution, it should require not less than 
33.4 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solution to produce a permanent red color (corresponding to at least 
99.9 per cent of the pure salt.)" U. S. When pure, it undergoes no change in the air; but when contaminated with 
magnesium chloride, as not unfrequently happens, it is deliquescent. Exposed to a gradually increasing heat, it first 



526 DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



a the presence of interstitial moisture, next melts, and finally volatilizes in white fumes with but partial 
imposition. (Mulder, Journ. de Pharm. et de Chun, le ed., lii.) It is decomposed byseveral of the acids partic 
sulphuric and nitric, which disengage vapors of hydrochloric acid; by potassium carbonate with the assistance 
ol heat; and by silver nitrate and tnercurous nitrate. In contact with iron, in the presence of air and moisture it 
undergoes decomposition. (Chem. News, June, 1869.) It is decomposed by steam excessively heated with the escape 
ydrochlonc acid and an alkaline residue. (Chem. News, June 4, 1875.) Several varieties of common salt are 
inguished in commerce, as stoved salt, fishery salt, bay salt, etc.; but they are "characterized by the size and com- 
pactness ot the grains and not by any difference in composition. 

Composition.— Common salt, in its pure state, consists of one atom of chlorine and one of sodium. It contains 
no water oi crystallisation. The common salt of commerce, besides pure sodium chloride, contains generally speakine 
insoluble matter, and, usually more or less of calcium and magnesium sulphates and calcium and magnesium chlorides 
W hen pure, it is not precipitated by sodium carbonate, barium chloride, or potassium ferrocyanide. Calcium chloride 
is generally present in very small amount ; but the magnesium chloride sometimes amounts to 28 parts in 1 000 Calcium 
sulphate is usually present, constituting variously from 1 to 2iy 2 parts in 1,000; and magnesium sulphate is sometimes 
present and sometimes absent. To separate the earths, a boiling solution of sodium carbonate must be added as lone 
as any precipitate is formed. The earths will form as carbonates, and must be separated by filtration, and the sodium 
sulphate and sodium chloride resulting from the double decomposition will remain in solution. The sodium sulphate 
may then -be decomposed by the cautious addition of barium chloride, which will generate sodium chloride and insoluble 
barium sulphate. x 

CARBO LIGNI, U. S. (BR.) CHARCOAL. 

Medical Properties, Etc.— Powdered Charcoal is Disinfectant and Absorbent. It is employed with 
advantage in diarrhea as an absorbent, and in dyspepsia with fetid breath and eructations. It is also 
useful in the form of injections, in putrid discharges from the uterus'. M. Belloc recommends it strongly 
in gastralgia, and especially pyrosis, in which, if it fails to remove the disease, it abates the pain, nausea, 
and vomiting; and his observations have been confirmed by a committee of the French Academy of 
Medicine. As a remedy in obstinate constipation, Dr. Daniels of Savannah, speaks of it in high terms. 
He also found it useful in nausea and constipation of pregnancy. On the other hand some practitioners 
have found charcoal to confine the bowels. Dr. Wilson, of New Zealand, speaks highly of it in the 
diarrhea of measles, and in epidemic cholera. Dr. Newman recommends it as a dressing to wounds 
and ulcers. Mr. Wormald, of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, has made a useful application of the disin- 
fecting power of dry charcoal, in what he calls the charcoal quilt. This consists of two sheets of cotton 
wadding, quilted together in small segments, with a tolerably thick layer of powdered charcoal between 
them. The quilts thus prepared may be of any size, so as to fit a gangrenous sore or stump. Its use 
as an ingredient of poultices ys noticed under Cataplasma Carbonis. Several of its varieties are used 
as tooth powder. Those generally preferred are the charcoals of the cocoanut shell and of bread. It is said 
that charcoal proves useful in preserving the teeth by absorbing the acid sometimes morbidly present 
in the mucus of the mouth. The dose of charcoal varies from 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls (3.9-15.5 Gm.) or more. 
Dr. Daniel gave it in his case of constipation in doses of 1 tablespoonful (15.5 Gm.), repeated every half 
hour. Charcoal biscuits have been prepared, containing 15 or 20 per cent of charcoal in fine powder, 
while charcoal lozenges, either with charcoal alone or associated with bismuth, have been employed 
with asserted good results in certain forms of gastric disturbances. 

. tir ."Charcoal prepared from soft wood, and very finely powdered. It should be kept in well closed vessels." U. S 
Wood charred by exposure to red heat without access of air." Br. 

Wood Charcoal, Vegetable Charcoal; Carbo Pulveratus, P. G. ; Carbo Praeparatus, Carbo e Ligno • Charbon 
vegetal Charbon de Bois, Pr.; Holzkohle, Praparirte Kohle, G. ; Carbone di Legno, It.; Carbon de Lena, Sp. 

Preparation on the Large Scale. — Billets of wood are piled in a conical form, and covered with earth and sod 
to prevent the free access of air ; several holes being left at the bottom and one at the top of the pile, in order to produce 
a draft to commence the combustion. The wood is then kindled from thS bottom. In a little while the hole at the 
top is closed, and after the ignition is found to have pervaded the whole pile, those at the bottom are stopped also. 
1 he combustion taking place with a smothered flame, the volatile portions of the wood, consisting of hydrogen and oxygen 
are dissipated, while the carbon is left; a portion of it, however, being lost by combustion. Wood thus carbonized, 
yields not more than 17 or 18 per cent of charcoal. A better method is to char the wood in iron cylinders, when it 
yields from 22 to 23 parts in 100 of excellent charcoal ; and, at the same time, the means are afforded for collecting the 
volatile products, consisting of pyroligneous acid, empyreumatic oil, and tar. This process for obtaining charcoal 
has been described under another head. (See Acidum Aceticum.) A method of preparing charcoal by subjecting 
wood to overheated steam has been invented by M. Violette. When the temperature of steam is 300 degrees C. (572 
degrees F.), the wood is converted into a peculiar charcoal, called red charcoal, winch is intermediate in its qualities 
between wood and ordinary charcoal. When the temperature is lower, the carbonization is incomplete; when 
r, the product is black charcoal. The .steam process yields a uniform charcoal for a given temperature which 
may be easily regulated, and a product about double that obtained in cloned cylinders. Charcoal contains carbon, 
in proportion to the temperature at which it is formed; varying from 65 per cent when made at 250 degrees C. (480 
degrees F.; to 80 per cent when made at 400 degrees C. (752 degrees F.) . The gaseous matter present is always inversely 
'; temperature of carbonization. Thus, for charcoal made at 300 degrees C. (572 degrees F.), it is one-third of its 
ht; at 350 degrees C. (062 degrees P.), one-fourth. (Journ. de Pharm., 1851, p. 35.) 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 527 



Mr. E. C. C. Stanford has called attention to a variety of vegetable charcoal, obtained by charring a species 
of sea weed, Laminaria digitata, gathered on the shores of the Hebrides, which, although, on account of the large pro- 
portion of calcium carbonate contained in it (20 per cent), unfit for use in refining sugar, possesses. more of the deodoriz- 
ing, and decolorizing power than animal charcoal itself, which, with the exception referred to, it closely resembles in 
chemical composition. (P. J. Tr., 1867, p. 186.) 

Preparation for Medical Use. — M. Belloc recommends charcoal for this purpose to be obtained from poplar shoots, 
cut at the time the sap rises, and deprived of their bark. The carbonization should be performed in cast iron vessels 
at a red white heat. The product is a light' and brilliant charcoal, which must be purified by being macerated for three 
or four days in water, frequently renewed. It is then dried, powdered, and placed in bottles, which should be well 
stopped. The charcoal most esteemed in Philadelphia for medicinal purposes is that prepared by the Messrs. Dupont, 
near Wilmington, Delaware, for the manufacture of gunpowder. It is made from young willow shoots of two or three 
years' growth. 

Properties. — Charcoal is a black, shining, brittle, porous substance, tasteless and inodorous, and insoluble in 
water. It is a good conductor of electricity, but a bad one of heat. It possesses the remarkable property of absorbing 
many times its own bulk of certain gases. "If 1 Gm. of Charcoal be boiled with a mixture of 3 C.c. of potassium hydrate 
test solution and 5 C.c. of water for several minutes, the filtrate should be colorless or nearly so (evidence of complete 
carbonization)." U. S. When exposed to the air after ignition, it increases rapidly in weight, absorbing from 12 to 
14 per cent of moisture. As ordinarily prepared, it contains the incombustible part of the wood, amounting to 1 or 
2 per cent, which is left as ashes when the charcoal is burned. These may be removed by digesting the charcoal in 
diluted hydrochloric acid, and afterward washing it thoroughly with boiling water. 

For internal use charcoal is preferred by some in the granular form. Mr. W. Lascelles Scott employs the following 
method of preparing it. He prefers the wood of the box, willow, or linden, which, after being charred, should be allowed 
to cool out of contact with air, then boiled for some time in diluted hydrochloric acid, and afterward, having been 
thoroughly washed with pure water, in a little weak ammonia. The fragments are again ignited, and then quickly 
powdered, and passed through a sieve of 80 or 100 apertures to the inch. Nine pounds of this powder are mixed with 
1 pound of pure sugar passed through a 30 sieve, and 4 ounces.of gum arabic in impalpable powder. The whole is then 
moistened with a few ounces of warm distilled water, to which have been added an ounce and a quarter of tincture 
of benzoin, and a little mucilage. The mass is now granulated on flat steam pans, in the usual manner, at a temperature 
of 101.6 degrees to 107.2 degrees C. (215 degrees to 225 degrees F.). When perfectly dry it is sifted, and secured in 
well stopped bottles. (Chem. News, 1867, p. 204.) 

Dr. Stenhouse has devised a process for combining alumina with common vegetable charcoal, forming what he 
calls aluminized charcoal, which is an economical substitute for purified animal charcoal, and equally efficacious as a 
decolorizer. It is prepared by digesting finely powdered charcoal with sufficient of the solution of aluminum sulphate 
to give an impregnation of 7.5 per cent of alumina. The whole is evaporated to dryness, and ignited in a covered 
Hessian crucible, until the water and acid have been dissipated. Aluminized charcoal is perfectly black, though 
thoroughly impregnated with anhydrous alumina, and only requires to be carefully pulverized to be ready for use. 
(P. J. Tr., 1857, p. 364.) On similar principles, Dr. Stenhouse prepares his artificial bone black, by impregnating 
powdered wood charcoal with 7 . 5 per cent of calcium phosphate, by digesting it in a solution of this salt in hydrochloric 
acid evaporating to dryness, and igniting in covered vessels. This charcoal decolorizes wel" but can be used only for 
neutral solutions. 

Charcoal may act either as an oxidizer or as a deoxidizer; and these contrary powers seem to depend upon its 
having for oxygen a medium affinity, which enables it to take that element from some bodies, and to yield it to others, 
or at least by its porocity to facilitate atmospheric oxidation. Thus, it is known to reduce several oxides; while, on 
the other hand, it aids powerfully in the oxidation of animal matter. The bodies of two dogs having been laid in an 
open box on a bed of charcoal, a few inches deep, and covered by the same material, were kept by Mr. John Turnbull 
of Glasgow for six months in his laboratory, without emitting any perceptible effluvium ; and when they were examined 
at the end of this time, scarcely anything remained but the bones. Dr. Stenhouse, who relates this experiment, has 
confirmed it by observations of his own, and believes that the animal matter thus treated undergoes putrefaction, 
though the products, by their rapid oxidation and absorption, are prevented from contaminating the air. He, therefore, 
considers charcoal not to be antiseptic, but the very opposite. (Chem. Gaz., 1854.) It is said that water may be 
kept sweet at sea by the addition of a little powdered charcoal to each cask. 

CAPSICUM, U. S. (BR.) CAPSICUM. (CAYENNE PEPPER. AFRICAN PEPPER.) 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Cayenne pepper is a powerful local stimulant, producing when swal- 
lowed a sense of heat in the stomach and a general glow over the body without any narcotic effect. It 
is much employed as a condiment, and proves highly useful in correcting the flatulent tendency of certain 
vegetables and aiding their digestion. Hence the advantage derived from it by the natives of tropical 
climates who live chiefly on vegetable food. In the East Indies it has been used from time immemo- 
rial. From a passage in the works of Pliny, it appears to have been known to the Romans. As a medicine 
it is useful in cases of enfeebled and languid stomach, and is occasionally prescribed in dyspepsia and atonic 
gout, particularly when attended with much flatulence, or occurring in persons of intemperate habits. 
It has also been given as a stimulant in palsy and certain lethargic affections. To quinine sulphate it 
forms an excellent addition in some cases of intermittents in which there is a great want of gastric sus- 
ceptibility. Upon the same principle of arousing the susceptibility of the stomach, it may prove useful 
in low forms of fever, as an adjuvant to tonic or stimulant medicines. Its most important application, 
however, is to the treatment of malignant sore throat and scarlet fever, in which it is used both inter- 
nally and as a gargle. The following formula was employed in malignant scarlatina, with great advan- 
tage in the West Indies, where this application of the remedy originated. Two tablespoonfuls (31.1 Gm.) 






PA VIS STOCK FOOD. 




Capsicum Plant and Seed. 



of the powdered pepper, with 1 teaspoonful (3.9 Gm.) of common salt, are infused for an hour in a 
pint o\ boiling liquid composed of equal parts of water and vinegar. This is strained when cool through 
a tine Linen cloth and given in the dose of 1 tablespoonful (15 C.c.) every half hour. The same prepara- 
tion is also used as B gargle. It is, however, only to the worst cases 
that the remedy is applied so energetically. In milder cases of 
scarlatina, with inflamed or ulcerated throat, much relief and 
positive advantage often follow the employment of the pepper in a 
more diluted state. Capsicum has been advantageously used in sea 
sickness, in the dose of 1 teaspoonful (3.9 Gm.) given in some 
convenient vehicle on the first occurrence of nausea. It is thought 
also to have been beneficial in hemorrhoidal affections. It has long 
been used as a stomachic stimulant in the enfeebled digestion of 
drunkards, and in delirium tremens. 

Applied externally, Cayenne pepper is a powerful rubefacient-, 
which has the advantage of acting speedily without endangering 
vesication. It may be applied in the form of cataplasm, or more 
conveniently and efficiently as a lotion, mixed with heated spirit. 
The powder or tincture brought into contact with a relaxed uvula 
often "acts very beneficially. The tincture has also been used 
advantageously in chilblain. The fluid extract and the ethereal 
extract (Oleoresina Capsici, U. S.) are powerfully rubefacient. 

The dose of the powder is from 5 to 10 grains (0.33-0.65 Gm.), 
which is most conveniently given in the form of a pill. Of an infusion 
prepared by adding 2 drams to y pint of boiling water, the dose is 
y 2 fluid ounce (15 C.c). A gargle may be prepared by infusing y dram of the powder in 1 pint of 
boiling water, or by adding y fluid ounce of the tincture to 8 fluid ounces of rose water. 

"The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum, Blume (nat. ord. Solanaceae)." U. S. "The dried ripe fruit of the Cap- 
sicum fastigiatum, Blume." Br. 

Capsici Fructus, Br.; Capsicum Fruit; Cayenne Pepper; African Pepper; Fructus Capsici, P. G. ; Piper His- 
panic um ; Pod Pepper, E.; Capsique, Piment des Jardins, Piment rouge, Poivre de Cayenne, Poivre de Guinee, Poivre 
d'Inde, Fr.; Spanischer Pfeffer, G. ; Pepperone, It.; Pimiento, Sp. 

Gen. Ch. Corolla wheel shaped. Berry without juice. Willd. 

Numerous species of Capsicum, inhabiting the East Indies and tropical America, are enumerated by botanists, 
the fruit of which, differing simply in the degree of pungency, may be indiscriminately used. C. baccatum, or bird 
pepper, and C. frutescens, are said to yield most of the Cayenne pepper brought from the West Indies and South America ; 
and Ainslie informs us that the latter is chiefly employed in the East Indies. Both Pharmacopoeias now recognize, 
as the source of Capsicum, C. fastigiatum, a species growing in the East Indies and on the coast of Guinea. The one 
most extensively cultivated in Europe and this country is C. annuum. The first three are shrubby plants, the last is 
annual and herbaceous. 

Capsicum annuum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; B. & T. 189. The stem of the annual capsicum is thick, roundish, 
smooth, and branching; rises two or three feet in height, and supports ovate, pointed, smooth, entire leaves, which are 
placed without regular order on long footstalks. The flowers are solitary, white, and stand on long peduncles at the 
axils of the leaves. The calxy is persistent, tubular, and five cleft; the corolla, monopetalous and Wheel shaped, with 
the limb divided into five spreading, pointed, and plaited segments; the filaments, short, tapering, and furnished with 
oblong anthers; the germen, ovate, supporting a slender style which is longer than the filaments and terminates in a 
blunt stigma. The fruit is a pendulous, pod like berry, of varying shape and size, light, smooth, and shining, of a bright, 
scarlet, orange, or sometimes yellow color, with two or three cells, containing a dry, loose pulp, and numerous flat, 
kidney shaped, whitish seeds. 

Capsicum fastigiatum. Blume. B. & T. 188. This species resembles closely C. annuum, but is distinguished 
by the lobes of the corolla being more acute, and especially by the fruit and seeds. The latter are smaller than those 
of C. annuum, and the erect, narrowly ovoid, oblong pod is nearly cylindrical, y± to % inch long, and of a bright orange 
scarlet color when ripe. 

These plants are natives of the warmer regions of Asia and America, and are cultivated in almost all parts of 
the world for both culinary and medicinal purposes. C. annuum is chiefly grown in this country; its flowers appear in 
July and August, and the fruit ripens in October. The several varieties of it differ in the shape of the fruit. The 
most abundant is probably lhat with a large irregularly ovate berry, depressed at the extremity, which is much used 
in the green state for pickling. The variety most used in making Cayenne pepper is that with long, conical, generally 
pointed, recurved fruit, usually not thicker than the finger. Sometimes we meet with small, spherical, slightly com- 
berries, not greatly exceeding a large cherry in size. The red or Cayenne pepper of commerce is obtained by 
grinding the pods of several species of Capsicum, and is of variable strength. A variety of capsicum, consisting of very 
small, conical, pointed, exceedingly pungent berries, less than an inch in length, is imported from Liberia. It is probably 
the Capsicum fastigiatum. In England the fruit of C. annuum is frequently called chillies. The official description 
of the fruit of C. fastigiatum is as follows: "Oblong-conical, from 10 to 20 mm. long, supported by a fiattish, cup shaped 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



529 



five-toothed calyx, with a red shining, membranous and translucent pericarp, enclosing two cells, and containing flat 
reniform, yellowish seeds attached to a thick, central placenta. It has a peculiar odor, and an intensely hot taste." 
U. S. 

Powdered Capsicum is usually of a more or less bright red color, which fades upon exposure to light and ultimately 
disappears. The color of the Liberia of African pepper, in powder, is a light brownish yellow. The odor is peculiar 
and somewhat aromatic, stronger in the recent than in the dried fruit. The taste is bitterish, acrid and burning, pro- 
ducing a fiery sensation in the mouth, which continues for a long time. The pungency appears to depend on a peculiar 
principle, which was obtained, though not in a perfectly isolated state, by Braconnot, and named capsicin. It is obtained 
as a thick yellowish red liquid, but slightly soluble in water. When gently heated it becomes very fluid, and at a higher 
temperature is dissipated in fumes which are extremely irritating to the respiration. It is a mixed substance, consisting 
of resinous and fatty matter. In 1876, Thresh isolated a well defined active- principle, capsaicin, from the extract, 
which he obtained by exhausting Cayenne pepper with petroleum. From the red liquor dilute caustio alkali removes 
capsaicin, which is to be precipitated in minute crystals by passing carbonic acid through the alkaline solution. The 
crystals may be purified by recrystallizing them from either alcohol, ether, benzm, glacial acetic acid, or hot carbon 
disulphide ; in petroleum capsaicin is but sparingly soluble, yet dissolves abundantly on addition of fatty oil. The latter 
being present in the pericarp is the reason capsaicin can be extracted by the above process. The crystals of capsaicin 
are colorless, and answer to the formula C 9 H rJ O^; they melt at 59 degrees C. (138.2 degrees F.), and begin to volatilize 
at 115 degrees C. (239 degrees F.), but decomposition can be avoided only with great care. The vapors of capsaicin 
are of the most dreadful acridity, and even the ordinary manipulation of that substance requires much precaution. 
Felletar (Journ. de Pharm., April, 1870, p. 347) first obtained from capsicum fruits a volatile alkaloid, which resembles 
coniine in odor, but is distinguished by the different shape of its hydrochlorate crystals. H. Pabst has recently made 
a thorough investigation of the fruit of C. annuum. He does not think that an alkaloid exists originally in the fruit, 
but believes that the alkaloid reactions are due to a decomposition product. He finds, besides capsaicin, a red coloring 
matter, and oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. The red coloring matter, by saponification, was shown to be a cholesterin 
ester of the fatty acids. (A. J. P., 1892, p. 370.) Red lead oxide is sometimes added to the powdered capsicum sold 
in Europe. It may be detected by digesting in diluted nitric acid, and precipitating the lead by sodium sulphate. 
Capsicum is said to be sometimes adulterated with colored sawdust ; to be recognized by the microscope. The cut 
represents the characteristic cells of ground capsicum. It is occasionally attacked by insects. 



ZINGIBER, U. S. (BR.) GINGER. 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Ginger is a 
grateful stimulant and carminative, and is often given 
in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and the enfeebled state of 
the alimentary canal attendant upon atonic gout. It 
is an excellent addition to bitter infusions and tonic 
powders, imparting to them an agreeable, warming and 
cordial operation upon the stomach. When chewed it 
produces much irritation of the mouth, and a copious 
flow of saliva, and when snuffed up the nostrils in 
powder it excites violent sneezing. Externally it is 
rubefacient. It may be given in powder or in infusion. 
The dose of the former is from 10 grains to 1 scruple 
(0.65-1.3 Gm.) or more. The infusion may be prepared 
by adding Yi ounce of the powdered or bruised root to 
1 pint of boiling water, and may be given in the dose of 
1 or 2 fluid ounces (30-60 C.c). A fluid extract and an 
olecresin of ginger are now official, and are very conven- 
ient preparations. (See Extractum Zingiberis Fluidum 
and Oleoresina Zingeberis.) The dose of the former 
may be from 10 to 30 minims (0.6-1.9 C.c), that of the latter from 2 to 5 minims (0.12-0.3 C.c). 
There is also an unofficial tincture, the dose of which is about a fluid dram (3.7 C.c). 

"The rhizome of Zingiber officinale, Roscoe (nat. ord. Scitamineae)." U. 3. "The scraped and dried rhizome 
of Zingiber officinale." Br. 

Rhizo.ma Zingiberis, P. G.; Gingembre, Fr.; Ingwer, G. ; Zenzero, It.; Gengibre, Sp. 

Gen. Ch. Flowers spathaceous. Inner limb of the corolla with one lip. Another double, with a simple recurved 
horn at the end. Germen inferior. Style enclosed in the furrow formed by the anther. Loudon's Encyc. of Plants. 

Zingiber officinale. Roscoe, Trans, Linn. Soc. viii. 348 Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. ii. 55, pi. 98.— Amomum 
zingiber. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 6; B. & T. 270. The ginger plant has a biennial or perennial creeping, tuberous root 
or rhizome, and an annual stem, which rises 2 or 3 feet in height, is solid, round, erect, and enclosed in an imbricated 
membranous sheathing. The leaves are lanceolate, acute, smooth, 5 or 6 inches long by about 1 inch in breadth, and 
stand alternately on the sheaths of the stem. The flower stalk rises by the side of the stem from 6 inches to 1 foot, 
and like it is clothed with oval, acuminate sheaths; but it is without leaves, and terminates in an oval, obtuse, bracteal, 
imbricated spike. The flowers are of a dingy yellow color, and appear two or three at a time between the bracteal scales. 

The plant is a native of Hindustan, and is cultivated in all parts of India. It is also cultivated in the West 
Indies, whither it was transplanted from the East, and at Sierra Leone in Africa. The flowers have an aromatic smell, 




Zingiber Root and Plant. 



530 DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 



and the stems when bruised an- slightly fragrant; but the root is the portion in which the virtues of the plant, reside. 
This is tit to be dug up when a year old. In the West Indies, the ginger crop is gathered in January and February, 
alter the steins have withered. After having been properly cleansed, the root is scalded in boiling water, in order to 
prevent germination, and is then rapidly dried. Thus prepared, it constitutes the ordinary ginger of commerce, or black 
ginger, as it is sometimes called from the darkish color acquired in the process. It is imported chiefly from Calcutta, 
and is known to the druggists by the name of East India ginger; but lately considerable quantities have been brought 
from Africa, and some probabl) reaches us from the West Indies. In Jamaica another variety is prepared by selecting 
the best roots, depriving them of their epidermis, and drying them separately and carefully in the sun. This is called 
in the books white ginger, ami is most highly valued. It reaches us from England, where it is said to undergo some 
further preparation, by which its appearance is improved. It is usually called in our markets Jamaica ginger. The 
root is also at present imported from the East Indies deprived of the epidermis. Considerable quantities are brought 
immediately from the West Indies in a recent state, and sold by the confectioners. A preserve is made from ginger by 
selecting the roots while young and tender, depriving them of their cortical covering, and boiling them in syrup. This 
is occasionally imported from the East and West Indies. This preserved ginger, when good, is translucent and tender. 

The recent root is from 1 to 4 inches long, somewhat flattened on its upper and under surface, knotty, obtusely 
and irregularly branched, or lobed, externally of a light ash color with circular rugae, internally yellowish white and 
fleshy. It sometimes germinates when kept in a damp atmosphere. The common or black ginger is of the same general 
shape, but has a dark ash colored wrinkled epidermis, which, being removed in some places, exhibits patches of an almost 
black color, apparently the result of exposure. Beneath the epidermis is a brownish, resinous, almost horny cortical 
portion. The interior parenchyma is whitish and somewhat farinaceous. The powder is of a light yellowish brown 
color. This variety is most extensively used. The Jamaica or white ginger differs in being entirely deprived of epider- 
mis, and white or yellowish white on the outside. The pieces are rounder and thinner, in consequence of the loss of 
substance in their preparation. They afford when pulverized, a beautiful yellowish white powder, which is brought 
from Liverpool in jars. This variety is firm and resinous, and has more of the sensible qualities of ginger than the 
black. The uncoated ginger of the East Indies resembles the Jamaica, but is darker, being gray rather than white. 
As the Jamaica commands a much higher price than even the uncoated East India production, the latter is occasionally 
altered to simulate the former. This is sometimes done by coating the exterior with calcium sulphate or carbonate, 
sometimes by bleaching, by which not only the exterior, but also the internal parts are rendered whiter than in the 
unprepared root. Trommsdorff found, in a specimen which he examined, evidences of the presence of chlorides, sul- 
phates, and calcium, and concluded that the bleaching was effected by chlorine, or by calcium chloride and sulphuric 
acid. Having macerated some black ginger in water, deprived it of the cortical portion, treated it for twenty-four hours 
with sulphuric acid diluted with nine times its weight of water, and finally placed it in a mixture of calcium chloride 
and water, in which it was allowed to remain for two days, he found it, upon being washed and dried, to present an 
appearance closely resembling that of the finest white ginger, both on the surface and internally. (Ann. der Pharm., 
xvii. 98.) According to Brande, ginger is often washed in whiting and water; and Pereira states that it is sometimes 
bleached by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. 

General Properties. — The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes ginger as "about 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, 
and 4 to 8 mm. thick, flattish, on one side lobed or clavately branched; deprived of the corky layer; pale buff colored, 
striate, breaking with a mealy, rather fibrous fracture, showing numerous small, scattered resin cells and fibro vascular 
bundles, the latter enclosed by a nucleus sheath; agreeably aromatic, and of a pungent and warm taste." U. S. The 
odor of ginger is aromatic and penetrating, the taste spicy, pungent, hot, and biting. These properties gradually dimin- 
ish, and are ultimately lost, by exposure. The virtues of ginger are extracted by water and alcohol. 

The peculiar flavor of the root seems to cfepend on the volatile oil, its pungency partly on the resinous or resino- 
extractive principle. A considerable quantity of pure white starch may be obtained from it. The volatile oil, examined 
by A. Papousck, was yellow, of the odor of ginger, and of a hot aromatic taste. Its sp. gr. was 0.893, and its boiling 
point 246 . 1 degrees' C. (475 degrees F.). Deprived of water by distillation over phosphoric oxide, it consisted of carbon 
and hydrogen, with the formula C™ H T0 , and, therefore, belongs to the terpenes. Thresh considers that the essential 
oil is mainly made up of a hydrocarbon, CH, or isomers of it, which boil at from 245 degrees to 270 degrees C. (Pharm. 
Journ, Trans., No. 586, 1881.) Schimmel & Co., in a recent report (Oct., 1893), state that the essential oil contains 
camphene and phellandrene, and hence the terpenes have the formula C, D H TB , as first stated. Fluckiger obtained from 
112 pounds of Jamaica ginger 4J^ ounces of the oil, or about y^oil per cent. He states', however, that Messrs. Schimmel 
& Co., of Leipsic, informed him that they obtained as much as 2.2 per cent from good ginger. (Pharmacographia, 
2d ed., p. 637.) Those pieces of ginger which are very fibrous, light and friable, or worm eaten, should be rejected. 
The commercial powder of ginger is very frequently adulterated, rice starch, powdered ginger which has been exhausted 
in making preparations, and e'ven brick dust and chalk, being used, and the loss of pungency made good by the addition 
of capsicum or mustard. 

SODII SULPHAS, U. S. BR., SODIUM SULPHATE. (GLAUBER'S SALT.) 

Na.SO,. IOH 2 0; 321.42. Na a S0 4 . IOH 2 0; 322 

Medical Properties and Uses. — Sodium sulphate in doses of from y 2 ounce to I ounce ( 1 5.5-3 1 . 1 Gm.) is 
an efficient hydragogue cathartic ; in smaller doses, an aperient and diuretic. When in an effloresced state, 
the dose must be reduced one-half, on account of its having lost about one-half of its weight in water. 
Sodium sulphate is much less used than formerly, having been almost entirely superseded by magnesium 
sulphate, which is less disagreeable to take and milder in its action. Its nauseous state, however, may 
be disguised by the admixture of a little lemon juice or cream of tartar, or by the addition of a, few 
drops of sulphuric acid. It is an ingredient in the artificial Cheltenham salt. De Lucas has found 
sodium sulphate remarkably efficient in removing stains or opacity of the cornea, if applied in the 
form of powdered crystals directly to the eyeball twice a day. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Sept. 
1807.) The only uses of sodium sulphate in the arts are to make sodium carbonate and some kinds 
of glass. It has no official preparations. 




DAVIS STOCK FOOD. 531 



"Sodium Sulphate should be kept in well closed vessels." U. S. "May be obtained from the residue left in the 
manufacture of hydrochloric acid from chloride of sodium, by neutralizing it with carbonate of sodium, and crystallizing 
from solution in water." Br. 

Sulphate of Soda; Natrum Sulfuricum, P. G. ; Sulfas Sodicus (Natricus), Sal mirabile Glauberi; Vitrilated Soda, 
Glauber's Salt; Sulfate de Soude, Sel de Glauber, Pr.; Schwefelsaures Natron, Glaubersalz, G. ; Sulfate di Soda, It.; 
Sulfate de Soda, Sal de Glaubero, Sp. 

Sodium sulphate, in small quantities, is extensively diffused in nature, and is obtained artificially in several 
chemical operations. It exists in solution in many mineral springs, among which may be mentioned those of Cheltenham 
and Carlsbad; and it is found combined with calcium sulphate, constituting a distinct mineral. Many ponds containing 
this salt are found in the country between Santa Fe and the headwaters of the Arkansas, and on the route to the Rocky 
Mountains. The water in one of these ponds forms a solution so highly concentrated that in dry weather the salt crystal- 
lizes qn the surface to the depth of several inches, so as to have the appearance of limpid ice. (A. J. P., xii. 110.) A 
large deposit of Glauber's salt has been found in the Caucasus, not far from Tiflis. ' It is about 10 feet below the surface 
and was penetrated 5 feet, and probably extended much deeper. There are, besides, in the same region, lakelets con- 
taining the same salt in solution. (N. R., Oct. 1872, p. 151.) As an artificial product, it is formed in the processes for 
obtaining hydrochloric acid and chlorine, and in the preparation of ammonium chloride from ammonium sulphate and 
common salt. It may also be procured from sea water, in which its ingredients are present. 

Immense quantities of sodium sulphate made by decomposing common salt by sulphuric acid, in the manufacture 
of soda ash and sodium carbonate (see Sodii Carbonas) ; and, so far from the general hydrochloric acid being a product 
of much value, its absorption in a convenient way, so as to avoid the nuisance of its escape into the atmosphere in a 
gaseous state, is an object of importance -to the manufacturer. (See Acidum Hydrochloricum.) MM. Thomas, Delisse 
and Boucard have proposed a new process for preparing sodium sulphate, by double decomposition between sodium 
chloride and ferrous sulphate. This process avoids the production of hydrochloric acid vapors, and is said to furnish 
a cheap salt. 

The residue of the process for obtaining chlorine by the action of sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide on common 
salt is a mixture of sodium sulphate and manganous sulphate. Large quantities of this residue are formed in manu- 
facturing chlorinated lime (bleaching powder) ; and the sodium sulphate in it, roughly purified, supplies a part of the 
consumption of this salt in making soda ash and sodium carbonate. 

The process for obtaining ammonium chloride from ammonium sulphate and common salt forms another source 
of sodium sulphate. By double decomposition, sodium sulphate and ammonium chloride are formed; and by exposing 
the mixed salts to heat, the ammonium chloride sublimes, and the sodium sulphate remains behind. (See Ammonii 
Chloridum.) 

Properties. — Sodium sulphate is in "large, colorless, transparent, monoclinic prisms, or granular crystals, odorless 
and having a bitter, saline taste. The salt effloresces rapidly in the air, and finally loses all its water of crystallization. 
Soluble at 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.), in 2. 8 parts of water. The solubility increases up to 34 degrees C. (93.2 degrees 
F.), when its maximum is attained, 1 part of the salt then dissolving in somewhat less than 0.25 part of water; from 
thence it gradually decreases with rising temperature, until 1 part requires 0.47 part of boiling water for solution. 
Insoluble in alcohol; soluble in glycerin. When heated to 33 degrees C. (91.4 degrees F.), the salt fuses, and, on being 
heated to 100 degrees C. (212 degrees F.), loses all its water (55.9 per cent). At a red heat the anhydrous salt fuses 
without decomposition. _ To a nonluminous flame it imparts an intense, yellow color. The aqueous solution is neutral 
to litmus paper. A 5 per cent aqueous solution of the salt yields, with barium chloride test solution, a white precipitate 
insoluble in nitric acid. If to 5 C.c. of the aqueous solution (1 in 20) 1 C.c. of the sodium phosphate test solution and 
0.5 C.c. of ammonia water be added, no turbidity or precipitate should be produced, even after agitation (absence of 
magnesium, etc.). The solution should not effervesce on the addition of an acid (absence of carbonate). It should 
not be colored or rendered turbid by the addition of ammonium sulphide test solution ; or of an equal volume of hydrogen 
sulphide test solution, after being acidulated with hydrochloric acid (absence of arsenic and metallic impurities). After 
acidulation with nitric acid, the aqueous solution should remain clear, or at most be rendered only very slightly opales- 
cent, on the addition of silver nitrate test f solution (limit of chloride)." U. S. When recently prepared, it is beauti- 
fully transparent ; but by exposure to the air it effloresces, and the crystals become covered with an opaque white 
powder. By long exposure it undergoes complete efflorescence, and falls into powder with loss of more than half its 
weight. A supersaturated solution of sodium sulphate will remain without crystallizing at ordinary temperatures, 
even though containing several times the weight of the salt that will be dissolved at the same degree of heat. But 
the solution instantly forms into a crystalline mass upon adding to it a fragment of the same salt crystallized, or other 
substances that have been exposed to the air, or uppn abruptly placing it in contact with the air M. D. Gernez appears 
to have proved that in each instance the cause of crystallization js the same, namely, sodium sulphate containing 10 
mols. of water; and where the crystal itself is not added, the result is owing to sodium sulphate existing in the air. 
(See A. J.-P., Sept., 1865, p. 379.) Subjected to heat, it dissolves in its water of crystallization, then dries, and after- 
ward by the application of a red heat melts with the loss of 44^ per cent of its weight. M. Coppet has ascertained 
that there are two varieties of the anhydrous sulphate, one in which the salt is deprived of its water at ordinary tem- 
perature, the other in which the desiccation is effected at a heat above that of 33 degrees C. (91.4 degrees F.). The 
two differ in their relation to the crystallization of the salt, the former causing immediate crystallization when thrown 
into a supersaturated solution, the second not. (Journ. de Pharm., 1894, p. 36.) Occasionally it contains an excess 
of acid or alkali, which may be discovered by litmus or turmeric paper. Common salt may be detected by silver nitrate ; 
a salt of iron by potassium ferrocyanide. This salt is not subject to adulteration. It is incompatible with potassium 
carbonate, calcium chloride, the salts of barium, lead acetate and subacetate, and with silver nitrate if the solutions 
are strong. It consists of two atoms of sodium combined with the group SO characteristic of sulphates, and crystal- 
lized with 10 mols. of water, Na,SOj+10H 2 O. 







STOCK FOODS. 



THE DAVIS STOCK FOODS SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

thefe^^ 

order direct from Sears Roebuck & Co.. Chicago, giving their catalogue number md allowing thSlr price you may 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co.?" Chicago. 



DAVIS STOCK FOOD 



= 25= $ 
POUNDS 



Ho. 63WI 20 
Davis Stocit Food, 
2.Vpouml pall. . . 



$3-00 




00 



Four 25=pound Pails, or 100 

Pounds of Davis Stock 

Food, and Why You Should 

Have That Much. 

WE STRONGLY ADVISE t u °™ as of from a™ 

— = __ head of stock and up- 
ward to send us an order for 100 pounds of Davis Stock 
Food. One hundred pounds is sufficient to feed 15 head of 
horses or 15 dairy cows for three months. It will save you 
100 bushels of feed, worth more than twice what we ask you 
for the 100 pounds. Davis Stock Food must have a fair show 
and opportunity, to demonstrate its worth. It must be fed 
with religious regularity; just the same as you feed oats or 
other feeds. You must not — anil we do not think that you 
would — expect your cows to give milk very long, or your 
horses to be in condition to work very long,' if you did'not 
feed them regularly, ami we know that you are fair minded 
enough to realize that the same holds good of Davis Stock 
Food. Slake up your mind when you buy it that it becomes 
just as much a part of your horse's maintenance ration as 
the oats and hay, and feed it not once or twice but all the 
time. Again, horses, cattle, sheep or hogs that have been run 
down and are out of condition and whose digestive systems 
have been deranged, perhaps for years, will not show results 
in a day or two. You can appreciate this fact, that it will 
take perhaps a month before any visible results will be ob- 
tained. But at the end of this month the change for the 
better will be so rapid and so apparent that you will be 
delighted. Your horses will then begin to enjoy life in the 
full sense of the word. Your cows will fill the milk pails 
night and morning, and your wife will be delighted with the 
large amount of rich cream in the milk. If you are in the 
dairy business, and your cows' milk has run around 3 to 4 per 
c/nt butter fat, you will be surprised to see how the percent- 
age will increase — and all this with less feed. It is a well 
known and acknowledged fact that 90 per cent of the domes- 
tic animals today have indigestion in one form or another. 
They are consequently unable to extract anywhere near all 
the digestible nutrients from the feed. American feed stuffs, 
in the stomach or alimentary canal of the average domestic 
animal, will yield only about 80 per cent of their digestive 
t^A „,\.i,.u ~»„~>„ in— . .. ' . , , , nutriments. You are thus losing 20 per cent of the actual 
• lo|e a^maP^J^^U^J 1 "^ j^eeeted. And this does not mean that you are only actually losing the feed value, but the 
•V, tit ir» !»•".••( J l d - era , n e ed . ; "" 1 "Joes not assimilate even as much as the digestive juices are able to throw into solution. By the 
aflfinion ol Davis Stock Foofl to tin- regular ration, the entire system is slowlv 
but -un-ly brought into a normal condition. All the glands of the digestive 
em are toned up and corrected, as it were; the digestive iuict s are properly 

eted and in abundance, thus subjecting the food stuffs to the fuil force of 

m, as nature intended. The liver, I lie pancreas, are made to 

brace up and perform their normal functions. The muscular walls of the 

tines are given new life and peristalsis is uninterrupted, thus preventing 

tipatiOfl. We know all of the for. going, and know that, every pound of 

od will save a bushel of grain; surely a profitable proposition 

v.iiici, you cannot afford to overlook from any standpoint; and now— before 

..get it -send us an order for 100 pounds of Davis Slock Food. You 

cannot afford not to do it. Just send US $12.00, and tell us to ship it at once 

rery particle of it— and if you are not more than satisfied with 

u ''', r,z . Mii ' you cannot do us a greater favor than tell us about it 

u* an opportunity to return your money. Remember, it is put up in 

loden pad-;, which you can use on the farm after the stock food is used up, and which you cannot buy for a 





THE FREIGHT O N FOUR PAILS, 100 POUNDS, IS VERY LITTLE no more than it is on 26 pounds. 

"" " * Stork fnnrl fnp« at fmirtli clftSS Tilths iind 

$12.00 



"* height on .00 pound, i, about 2.0 to 40 cents for a distance of 250 miles, greater or les s distanc^if proportio^ daSS "** 



^ No. 65WI25 Davis Stock Food. Price, for four 25-pails, or 100 pounds. 



STOCK FOODS. 



533 




THE DAVIS STOCK FOODS 
SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck 
& Co., we state underneath each preparation the Sears, Roebuck & Co. 
catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these prepara- 
tions you may order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their 
catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders 
to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 

DAVIS 
STOCK FOOD 



POUND 

PACKAGE 



25c 4 



POUND 
PACKAGE 



50c 8 



POUND 
PACKAGE 



$1.00 



WE WANT YOU a you nave never used Davis Stock Food, and do not 

Z J care io give us an order for 100 pounds, to send us an order 

for one of these different sizes. Remember, that every pound of Davis Stock 
Food used will save one bushel of oats or its equivalent, if fed according to direc- 
tions. Your horse may be run down in flesh, his appetite may be poor, he may be 
troubled with worms, he may seem unable to extract any nutriment from his feed, 
though he eats enormous quantities. If so, send us an order for a package of Davis 
Stock Food, and feed it as directed (full directions sent with every package), ask 
our advice, if you will, and if, after having fed the entire package, you are not fully 
satisfied, just write and tell us so, and we will cheerfully refund your money, with- 
out quibbling or argument. You may have a cow which is run down in flesh. She 
may not be giving the amount of milk that she ought to, or her milk 
may be deficient in cream ; perhaps it is ropey and stringy or blue ; her 
appetite may be poor. If so, send us an order for one of these packages 
of Davis Stock Food, feed it as directed, and, if she does not give more 
milk and better milk and at the same time pick up in flesh, have a 
brighter look about the eye, just write and tell us so, saying that you 
are not satisfied and we will return every cent you have paid us. Per- 
haps you live near town and have a few pigs that you are raising to 
use for this winter's pork supply; you are interested in getting as good 
a quality of pork as possible; you want their systems to keep free from 
disease, because you expect to eat the meat ; perhaps you are particu- 
larly fond of lean meat, or perhaps you want lard. Again, the pigs are 
very likely to be troubled with worms which is very detrimental, while 
the greatest foe in raising hogs is constipation. Davis Stock Food 
regulates all this. It will make a decided improvement upon the 
quality of the meat. If you will follow our directions, your pigs will 
grow fast, and lean meat will be in preponderance ; or fat, if fed accord- 
ing to the directions for lard, and you will profit by it, it will keep 
their bowels and system free from worms and parasites and abso- 
lutely prevent constipation. The health of yourself and your 
family depends upon keeping this meat sweet, pure and clean. Davis 
Stock Food, If used regularly, will insure this. Just remember 
that it is not an expense; it pays for itself, it will make your hogs gain 
from one to two pounds a day a piece on less feed than you are now 
giving them, and when killing time comes your neighbors will envy 
you. Remember, that our certificate of guarantee is put on every 
package, that it means just what it says, and that if at any time 
you are not fully satisfied with the results after having used the entire 
package, all we ask is that you write and tell us so and give us an 
opportunity of returning every cent yon have paid us. We know 
what Davis Stock Food is, and we know that it is far superior to any- 
thing manufactured in the way of stock foods today. Try it, if you 
will, and note the results for yourself. The ingredients of which it is 
composed are printed in plain letters on every package, and any drug- 
gist will allow you to see his United States Dispensatory, in which the 
actions of the various drugs are given. Our prices for Davis Stock 
Food are as follows: 



No. 65WI0O 

package. Price . 

No. 65WI05 
package. Price . 

No. 65WII0 
package. Price . 



DaviS Stock Food, 2-pound 
Davis Stock Food, 4-pound 
Davis Stock Food, 8-pound 



$0.25 

.50 

1.00 



53 1 



POULTRY FOODS. 



THE DAVIS POULTRY FOODS SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 8S#8SZk A £Sg?o.?ZJSl 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation the Sears, Roebuck & Co. 
catalogue number and price, so thai If yon want to order any of these preparations you may order direct from Scars, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their 
catalogue nunil-er and allowing their price. Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.) but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 




POUNDS OF DAVIS POULTRY FOOD $*1.00 




This twent5'- 
five pound 
pail of Davis 
Poultry- 
Food con- 
tains 16.000 
feeds for one 
lien or it will 
feed 160 hens 
for three 
months, and in- 
crease the num- 
ber of eggs you 
get from t hem 
by at least 200 
dozen more. The 
price of this pail 
■ 00. With 
eggs at only 12 
cents a dozen it 
v, ill make you 
$24.00 extra 
money. It will 
make your hen 
lay from 20 to 60 
per cent more 
eggs, and in time 
double her pro- 
duction. It pre- 
vents chicken 
cholera and 
roup, cures gape and 
causes young chicks 
to grow rapidly. It 
enables the fowl to 
thoroughly digest 
and assimilate all of 
the nutritive proper- 
ties of the feed, 
keeps her systi 
pcrict physical con- 
dition, thus warding 
off disease. The in- 
gredients used in 
the manufacture are 
printed in plain let- 
ter-, on the label, and 
our ' of 

Guarantee is on every 
package. Plain and com- 
plete directions for feeding 
are a age. 

Are your chickens lazy? Perhaps 
they are not laying as they should. 
Yo '- ' i cholera. If so, don't wait an instant, 

but end us an order today for a 25-pound pail of Davis Poultry 
Food; and if it dot e you more eggs and better chickens 

than you ever had before, write and tell us, and we will cheerfully 
refund your money. Send us 83.00 today, and allow us to ship 



you this 25-pound pail. After the contents are used up you will have 
a nice useful pail on hand. 



No.,65 W1 40 
Food." Price. . . . 



25-pound Pail of Davis Poultry 



$3.00 



FGULTRY F09D3. 



535 



[ 







THE DAVIS POULTRY FOODS 
SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck 
& Co. we state underneath each preparation the Sears, Roebuck & Co. 
catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these prepara- 
tions you may order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their 
catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.) but address all orders 
to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS 
POULTRY FOOD 



A NEW DEPARTURE IN POULTRY FOODS. 
YOU NEVER HAD ANYTHING LIKE IT. 

Send Us an* Order for Davis Poultry Food Today. 

FOR YOUR CONVENIENCE. we are offering it in 2-pound 

= 1 packages for 25 cents, in 

4-pound packages for 50 cents, and in 8-pound packages for $ 1 .00. In 

addition to this it is put up in 25-pound pails, and it is this latter quan- 
tity that we recommend you to purchase. The formula, telling you 
exactly what DAVIS POULTRY FOOD is made of, is printed 
in plain letters on every package, and every package con- 
tains a CERTIFICATE OF GUARANTEE that entitles you 
to YOUR MONEY BACK if you are not fully satisfied — and 
that certificate means exactly what it says. WE ARE 
BLAZING A NEW PATH IN THE STOCK AND POULTRY 
FOOD BUSINESS. We have adopted a new policy — that of 
taking the customer into our fullest confidence. We are 
entering this field, not for today or tomorrow but for all time; 
and we expect to build* up the largest Poultry Food business 
in the world. We cannot do this without your assistance. 
We cannot do it unless all of our customers and the pur- 
chasers of DAVIS STOCK FOOD or DAVIS POULTRY 
FOOD are fully satisfied as to their respective merits. We 
cannot do this unless we live up to our word and our guar- 
antee to the letter. And your knowledge and experience in 
your dealings with SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO. is sufficient 
guarantee as to the worthiness of the certificate you will find 
on every package. 

CAN YOJJ AFFORD TO BE WITHOUT IT? 

AND JUST REMEMBER that we want you to give DAVIS 

*— POULTRY FOOD a thorough trial. 

It will make vour hens strong and healthy; it will increase their egg 
laying capacity; it will insure good, strong, healthy chicks; it will make 
the chicks grow strong and fast with a lower cost of production than 
you ever dreamed of, and, taken all in all, DAVIS POULTRY FOOD 
makes the poultry business more than profitable. 

DON'T forget to send us an order right now for DAVIS POULTRY 
FOOD. Remember, it is fully guaranteed, and all we ask of 



you is to give it a thorough and fair test ; and if you are not fully satis- 
fied after having used the entire package, just say so, and we will cheer- 
fully refund every cent you have paid us. A 2-pound package is 25 
cents, a 4-pound package is 50 cents, an 8-pound package is $1.00, 
and a 25-pound pail, $3.00. 

No. 65WI30 Davis Poultry Food, 2-pound 
package. Price 

No. 65WI3I Davis Poultry Food, 4-pound 
package. Price ' 

No. 65WI32 Davis Poultry Food, 8-pound 
package. Price 



$0.25 

.50 

1.00 






VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that If you want to-order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (.Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



Davis Distemper 

Cure* 

A POSITIVE, QUICK ACTING REMEDY FOR COUGHS, 
COLDS AND ALL OTHER FORMS OF DISTEMPER. 
QUICK, EFFICIENT AND SURE. SOLD UN- 
DER A SPOT CASH GUARANTEE— YOUR 
MONEY BACK IF IT FAILS. 

DAVIS DISTEMPER CURE is wholly unlike the many 

distemper cures now on the 

market; it is composed of strictly pure drugs and medicines and is 
a formula used by the best veterinarians in the country, and one 

which is guaranteed to cure the most stubborn' cases. It is the 
best known remedy for quickly relieving coughs, colds, distemper 
or influenza. 

DISTEMPER IS A COMMON AILMENT AMONG 

HORSES an( * * n some °f, * ts I0rms is contagious. An animal 

suffering with this disease is not in condition to 

work or drive, and neglect of this affliction frequently brings on 
other complications which sometimes permanently disable the 
animal and generally affect its usefulness to such an extent 
that it greatly depreciates in value. It is a comparatively easy 
matter to treat successfully all forms of distemper in their early stages, and it is for this reason that we rec- 
ommend to every live stock owner the purchase of DAVIS DISTEMPER CURE, whether his horses have this 
disease at the present time or not. The amount represented in the purchase price is so small, and its 
value to you when needed is so great, that it pays to keep it constantly on hand. Upon the appearance of 
the first symptom of a cough or cold, or the most aggravated forms of distemper, the use of this remedy according 
to printed directions will bring quick and certain relief. 

IT SHOULD BE REMEMBERED especially in cases of distemper which are well developed, that in con- 

; l nection with the use of DAVIS DISTEMPER CURE a great deal will 

depend on the sort of treatment the animal receives at your hands, and as distemper in its several forms generally 
makes its appearance in an animal which is run down, and whose system is more or less-debilitated, a cure may be 
more speedily effected, the animal may be restored to a strong, healthy condition more quickly, if you will feed 
DAVIS STOCK FOOD, as described elsewhere in this book, in connection with this treatment, and in connection 
with the daily rations of the animal. In many years' experience one of the leading veterinarians of the country has 
declared this remedy the very best preparation he has been able to discover for the treatment of distemper, and, as 
it has proven so thoroughly satisfactory in so many cases, we unhesitatingly guarantee it to be strictly first class in 
every respect, to be the very best distemper cure offered by any firm or individual, and if you order it and use it 
according to directions, and it fails to do all we claim for it, we will be glad to refund your money and pay the 
transportation charges both ways upon notification of its failure and dissatisfaction on your part. 

Regular price, per box, .50 cents. ^Qr» 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W7I0 Price, per box D?7\s 

If by mail, postage extra, per box, 16 cents. 




VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



537 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 



CHICAGO. 



ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



V BLISTER f 

sSSSK 

PRICE so* 






Davis Veterinary 
lister. 

DAVIS VETERINARY BLISTER i^Jfl^^^^l 

to meet the demand of 

the horseman for a safe, efficient blister, to use tn the treatment 
of bog spavin, blood spavin, wind puffs, calluses and sprains. 

It is composed of Amber Petrolatum, Cera Flava, and Pv. Cantharides, 
being a prescription used by veterinary surgeons the world over. It is 
simple, harmless and efficient, and should be kept in every barn, as it 
does not deteriorate in value, being put up in stro 'g tin boxes, securely 
sealed. In the majority of cases, if a curb is treated immediately upon 
its appearance with DAVIS VETERINARY BLISTER, it will be 
entirely removed. Davis Veterinary Blister is fully guaranteed, and 
your money will be cheerfully refunded if it ever proves unsatisfactory. 
If you are a horse owner, get a box and keep it on hand. It 
is the cheapest insurance you ever had. 



Regular price,' per box, 50 cents. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W720 
Price, per box 

If by mail, postage extra, per box, 4 cents. 



39c 



DAVIS OPHTHALMIA SPECIFIC. 



BY THE TERM "OPHTHALMIA" 



is meant an inflammation of the 
eyeball.. There are two forms of 



is usually the result of an injury, 
a blow from a whip, presence of a 
in the eyes, foul air in the stables, 
form is a constitutional affection. 
moon eye.' The causes of "periodic 



it; simple and periodic. Simple Ophthalmia 
inflicted either directly or indirectly, such as 
foreign body such as sand, grain, dust, etc. 
extremes of heat or cold, etc. The periodic 
It is commonly known as moon blindness or 

Ophthalmia are little understood. Extremes of heat or cold often serve as exciting 
causes, but prominent authorities claim that the disease in itself, in ail probabil- 
ity, must exist within the system in a latent form, and any exciting cause that 
brings it on only serves to develop it. 

SYMPTOMS OF SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA. T here is a copious flow 

— _— — — of tears. Ihe eyelids, par- 
ticularly the upper ones, become swollen to a considerable extent and are reddened 
and inflamed. The chief difference between simple Ophthalmia and periodic 
Ophthalmia is that the exudate, when the condition occurs as the result of an 
injury, moves from the seat of the injury toward the circumference, while in 
periodic Ophthalmia the opposite takes place. 

SYMPTOMS OF PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA. Periodic 0P h , tIlalm , ia 

-=-_ occurs suddenly. The 

animal may seem all right at night, while the next morning either one or both 
eyes will be found to be swollen and sore, a drooping of the eyelid and a slight 
reddened condition of it. As the disease advances the eye loses its brilliancy 
and presents a yellowish brown appearance. In periodic Ophthalmia a great 
many cases can only be relieved, and the disease will reappear from time to time, 
some of the cases resulting ultimately in total blindness. But if DAVIS 
OPHTHALMIA SPECIFIC is used immediately upon the appearance of the disease, 
it is possible, in a great majority of cases, to gradually wear the disease out . 
DAVIS OPHTHALMIA SPECIFIC is Prepared from a well known 

^— ~ — — prescription thoroughly tried and 

tested. It is easy to administer and fully guaranteed, money being cheerfully 
refunded if at any time it proves unsatisfactory. 
Regular price, 50 cents per bottle. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W550 Price, per bottle 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 3 cents. 







VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co., we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.1, but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS LUMP JAW CURE. 

A POSITIVE SPECIFIC FOR CURING THIS SERIOUS AFFECTION. 



CURE 



7. - 






LUMP TAW^ technically known as Actinomycosis, or Lumpy or 
«■ - Big Jaw, is a plague rapidly becoming prevalent. 

While several years ago -it was little known, it has grown of late 
to tremendous proportions, and is now one of the commonest of 
ailments among cattle. 

A PARASITIC DISEASE. Lum P J aw is a g erm disease, caus- 

ed by a vegetable germ or fungus, 

named Actinomyces or Ray Fungus. This fungus is found upon 
pasture grasses, about straw stacks, barnyards, upon beards and husks 
of barley, being usually spread about by some animal having the 
disease. While the fungus may penetrate the tissues in various 
parts of the body, they usually gain entrance through the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth. Healthy cattle, in eating the plants upon 
which the fungus is growing, eat the germs with it, and" when they 
rind lodgment in a punctured membrane of the mouth, or gain 
lodgment at the side of the teeth, the animal becomes infected, arid 
the disease starts from this point and invades the neighboring parts. 
It is a well known fact that the membrane about the jaws, especially 
the connective tissue beneath the skin of the jaws, is particularly 
liable to scratches, which accounts for the fact that the disease 
nearly always starts in this part. 

EARLY STAGES. When once the fungus fastens itself in the 

- membrane of the mouth, it multiplies with 

great rapidity, eventually destroying both flesh and bone. Lump Jaw 
can first be detected by the presence of a swelling, and later one or 
more hard lumps appear upon either the jaw bone, cheek, or below 
the ear between the lower jaw and the neck, but most frequently on 
the external surface of the jaw. When these are first noted it is the 
best time to kill the growth of the disease, as a few applications of 
DAVIS LUMP JAW CURE at that time will quickly kill all the fungus 
and remove every trace of, the disease. The longer you put off treat- 
ment the more the disease spreads, the bone becomes affected and it 
is then much more difficult to cure. In the early stages the lump 
usually softens and an abscess forms, which, increasing in size, at 
last breaks, and all this foul pus and poisonous matter begins to dis- 
charge. Here, then, arises the great danger of infection. This poi- 
sonous matter, loaded with fungi, becomes distributed about the 
pasture and wherever the animal is confined, endangering the animals 
which have not been infected. While the disease is confined to the 
head, the cure by Davis Lump Jaw -1 treatment is certain, but, if 
neglected at this stage, the disease will rapidly spread, involving 
the entire alimentary tract, together with the liver, and in the great 
majority of cases it will attack the lungs, for which there is no cure. 

DAVIS LUMP JAW CURE »■ f e re * ult ff many years' 

k study and veterinary practice, 

with a complete understanding of the causes and effects of lump jaw. 
It is a dark red liquid for external application, possessing remarkable 
penetrating power. It is rubbed upon the part, and within a few 
moments penetrates every fiber and tissue of the affected part. Its antiseptic and healing action commences at 
once, and a few applications will cure every case of genuine lump jaw in which the bone has not been too heavily 
afTected. When once the cause of the disease has been removed, nature will proceed to throw off the dead tissue, 
and this remedy, inducing the growth of healthy tissue, will aid nature in rebuilding the diseased part. 
GUARANTEED. We absolutely guarantee DAVIS LUMP JAW CURE to do all we claim for it, and will cheer- 
- fully refund your money if it fails in any case. 

ilar price, per bottle, $2.00. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W6 10 Price, per bottle 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 10 cents. 



AQUARANTEEDCUREFOR, 

WMPJAW! 

PRICE $2po 

PREPARED BY 

i — ig " 

procKiooDcai 

[CHICAGQ.ILLH <a a 1 



$1.29 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



539 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, 




FIliLM' 




DR. FILLMORE'S ROUP CURE. 

THE ONLY GUARANTEED CURE FOR ROUP IN ANY FORM. 

ROUP IS A VERY PREVALENT DISEASE AMONG CHICKENS 

and exists in many forms. It is usually caused by the chicks roosting in the 
open air and catching cold, which soon develops into roup. The symptoms coin- 
prise hoarse breathing, swelled heads and eyes, discharge from the nostrils, and 
in the malignant and contagious form it is accompanied with a very foul odor. 
It rapidly saps the vitality of the bird and in a short time the chick appears weak 
and drooping, and death follows unless relief comes, prompt'.; 

T)R "RTT T MOPTT'^ "ROTTP fTTPF ls the om y sure treatment. One small measure 
UJK.. X>l.L.L.m.VBLn J JK.UUJT 1,U.K.JC (included in package ) is filied wUl , the paw der which 

is dissolved in one gallon of -drinking water. All the other water should be removed and the 
chicks will gladly take the medicine. In a well developed case of roup, keep all the affected fowls 
in a separate coop. When a fowl cannot see to drink, bathe its head with a warm solution of the 
cure. As a preventive for the remainder of the chickens, add about one-half measureful to a gal- 
lon of water, and give this solution as drinking 
water. This will cure a cold in three or four 
days. But a well developed case of roup will 
require from two to three weeks. 

IF YOU RAISE CHICKENS 

you will need this splendid remedy and at 
out' special price it is a very profitable adjunct 
to every poultry keeper's medicine chest. 

Regular price, per box, 50 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Cata- 
logue No. 65W590 Price, 3Q#» 
per box O^v 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 

4 cents. 



DAVIS VETERINARY LINIMENT 

THE MOST REMARKABLE CURATIVE LINIMENT 

ever made in any country or age, curing many forms of disease and banish- 
ing pain with wonderful success; liniment that penetrates muscle, membrane 
and tissues, relieving more ailments than anything ever offered to the 
veterinarian or stock raiser. 

DAVIS VETERINARY LINIMENT i^ZS^^^^lt 

comes distributed throughout the entire system. Oils will not do this, nor will lini- 
ments having an alcoholic basis. Try the effects upon yourself — wash your hands thor- 
oughly clean with hot water and soap, dry and then anoint the palms of your hands with 
a small quantity of the liniment, warming the hands and reapplying until no more will be 
absorbed; then wash the hands perfectly clean. In three to three and one half hours later 
the peculiar odor of Davis Liniment will be plainly noticed in the urine voided. This 
should prove to you more conclusively than any amount of talking that Davis Veterinary 
Liniment is not like other liniments, which merely affect the outside, but that it is the one 
liniment that penetrates the parts, becomes distributed throughout the system and posi- 
tively cures the ailment. 

INDISPENSABLE TO STOCK OWNERS. ^V^MaS^fW 

very best remedies obtainable. The Davis Veterinary Liniment should be used on 
horses, cattle and other stock in cases of swelling, lameness, strains, enlarged joints, 
sprains, inflammation, etc. In coughs, colds, sore throat, etc., it should be applied to the 
throat and windpipe and rubbed in thoroughly. A very beneficial leg wash can be made 
by adding 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of Davis Veterinary Liniment to 1 quart of warm water 
and thoroughly bathing tne legs. 

ReguW price, per bottle, $1.00. 
Sears, Roel ck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W570 Price, per bottle . . . . , 

Unmailable on account of weight. 







VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that If you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any order to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS SCOUR REMEDY. 



scou 



ONE OF THE MOST SERIOUS COMPLICATIONS 

in young calves and colts is violent and excessive diarrhea, 
known as scours. It usually comes on shortly after birth, 
but may not appear for several days. In mild cases the 
symptoms are not very marked at first, merely a running 
off from the bowels, but unless treated soon becomes 
serious and the following complications arise: sunken eyes, 
dullness, low temperature, no desire for food, short, hurried 
breathing and excessive weakness. The discharges from 
the bowels are very heavy, yellowish white in color and 
very offensive in odor. Unless checked, the death of the 
animal may result within twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 

M ANY DIFFERENT CAUSES have been advanced as 

producing this disease. 

Some authorities ascribe it to keeping the young animals 
in closed stables, the close, filthy, bad smelling buildings 
causing the complaint. Others claim the disease produced 
by a germ. Whatever the cause, it is very serious, and 
unless immediate attention is given is apt to cause 
material loss of live stock. In all such cases DAVIS SCOUR 
REMEDY will bring immediate relief. 

It differs in every respect from anything else on the 
market. IT STANDS IN A CLASS BY ITSELF. 



It not only stops the diarrhea by removing the cause, 
but it tones up the stomach of the young animals, decreases 
the griping and scouring, checks the intestinal irritation, 
increases the appetite, sweetens the stomach and aids 
digestion. It effects a speedy and permanent cure and 
strengthens the animal by freeing it from the disease and 
enabling it to properly digest its food. It is guaranteed 
to do just what we say it will and you can put every con- 
fidence in the results. Money cheerfully refunded if it fails. 
Regular price per bottle, 50 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W670 Price, per bottle 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 12 cents. 

Regular price, large bottle holding three times the 50-cent size, $1.00. ,__ 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W67 1 Price, large bottle holding three times 50-cent size SyC 

Cannot be mailed. 



A POSITIVE CURE FOR 

-SCOURSig 

ra ALL YOUNG ANIMALS 



CHICAGO, ILL. 
U.S. 



39c 



VETERINARY REMEDIES 



541 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these ' preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS STABLE DISINFECTANT. 




WHEN YOU 



There are Innumerable Disinfectants 
on the Market, Some Good, Some Bad, 
Some In-different. 
GO TO THE EXPENSE OF BUYING 



A DISINFECTANT and using it, it goes without saying that 
— — — ■ it should be efficient. To be inefficient 

is dangerous. In using it you should have a perfect right to feel 
safe — to feel that you have taken all possible precaution toward 
stamping out disease, to fee! that your herd or fUxk is protected. 
Should the disinfectant not be a germicide it would work irreparable 
harm. We regret to state there a,re many disinfectants on the 
market that accomplish nothing more than replacing one foul odor 
with another, and if their bacteria and germ killing properties were 
stronger than their odors you would have no cause to fear. But 
that is just the trouble; they are not. It therefore behooves the 
stock raiser to select his disinfectant with care; to know that the 
disinfectant he is buying is efficient: to know that it is honest and 
will accomplish its work. He .should insist upon' knowing that, in 
the first place, it contains standard chemicals and drugs; and, in the 
second place, that they are used and mixed properly; and in know- 
ing this he is able to judge for himself as to just what degree of ef- 
ficiency he may expect. As the health of himself and his family so 
largely depends upon the health of his animals, it is especially' im- 
portant that he exert every effort to control and eradicate disease. 
The old, old adage, that "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
of cure," was never more applicable than in this connection. 

The Primary Causes of Practically all the Diseases 



are now recognized to be bacteria, germs and parasites. Bac- 
teria multiply either inside or outside the body, often forming com- 
pounds arid gases that enable us to recognize them. Different sub- 
~^«1] I • stances may be used to counteract these disagreeable odors, but 

™ftlnFlSv i^Rvfife*. removing the odor does not remove the cause. Many manufacturers 

of disinfectants evidently work on the principle that in destroying 
the noxious odors they remove all danger. We can tell you posi- 
tively that they do not; that there are many and innumerable sub- 
stances that will act as deodorizers, but win h are not germ de- 
stroyers. The United States government has literally spent fortunes 
in preaching the doctrine of prevention by the use of disinfectants, 
germicides and parasiticides. The barn in which you keep your 
horses should be thorouglily and regularly disinfected, so that the 
air remains pure and sweet. It is particularly important in the 
dairy barn if you would have your milk pure. It is absolute!" 
essential if you would keep your hog house free from infection and dis- 
ease germs, if you wouid reap the profit which rightly belongs 
to you. Formerly, and to a greater extent today, carbolic acid has 
been the standard disinfectant, used in solutions varying from V 2 to 
5 per cent. But it was, and is, open to many objections. First, the 
strong, pungent, irritating odor; second, the expense; third the dan- 
ger in its use. This led the government and various scientists to 
researches for a safe, efficient and economical substitute. The ques- 
tion was finally solved by many who were able to make an emulsion 
of crude coal tar products. Some of these were, and are, efficient; 
others are nothing more or less than deodorizers. DAVIS STABLE 
DISINFECTANT is made from crude Cresol, acknowledged by the 
United States government and the world authorities on the subject 
to be the most effective substance known in fighting germs, bacteria 
and parasites. The crude Cresol is treated with resin soap, and goes 
through a process of manufacture, perfecting what is known as an 
emulsion that is soluble in water. Extensive, exhaustive experi- 
ments and tests have demonstrated that a 2 per cent solution of 
DAVIS STABLE DISINFECTANT is equal to and stronger than 
a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. It is at the same time much 
less harmful and is nonpoisonous. In all ordinary cases a 1 per cent 
solution will accomplish the desired results. This means that a 1- 
gallon can of DAVIS STABLE DISINFECTANT will make 100 gal- 
lons of disinfectant ready for use, and 100 gallons of disinfectant 
should last the ordinary farmer five or six months if properly used. 
Surely, you will agree with us that you cannot afford to be without 
it. ft is certainly the cheapest insurance you ever purchased, and 
you have the satisfaction of knowing that the danger of the disease 
among your stock is reduced to a minimum. Whether you purchase 
Davis Disinfectant or not, we earnestly advise you to purchase and use regularly'a good disinfectant. It is to your advantage and for your own 
welfare. There are others on the market undoubtedly just as good as the Davis Disinfectant, and, while we would like you to use DAVIS 
STABLE DISINFECTANT, because we know just how it is made, because we know just how efficient it is, tins does not mean — and we do 
not claim for a minute— that it is the only disinfectant on the market. We would like very much to have you send us an order for a trial 
gallon of Davis Disinfectant. Let us ship it to you ; use it and satisfy yourself of its quality. Then, if you are not entirely satisfied with it, you 
can do us no greater favor than to write and tell us so, thus giving us an opportunity of returning every cent that you have paid us. We 
think that the Davis Preparations are the best preparations in the world for their respective uses. We know what materials are used, and 
we know that thev are manufactured and put together in an honest manner. It is to your interest to satisfy yourself on this point. We 
confidently expect to build one of the largest businesses of this kind in the world on Davis Preparations. We could not do this unless they 
possessed merits, and we cannot do this unless every purchaser of them is thoroughly satisfied; so send us an order today, and if you are going 
to use disinfectants, by all means use DAVIS STABLE DISINFECTANT. It is put up in 1-gallon and 5-gaIlon cans for your convenience. 

Sears i . e |o 1 e a bu P c 1 k C % 5 Co! 1 's°C S ati ! io g ue No. 65W621 $3 &< Searf.Toebu^ Co^Ca! £&. No. 65W620 QO C 

Price, 5 gallons *P* J ' •**%? Price, per gahon ' '*■> 






VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck Sc Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us \ Da vis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck tt Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS FISTULA AND POLL EVIL CURE. 




THE ONE GUARANTEED CURE. NO CUTTING. EASY 
AND SIMPLE TO APPLY. QURES MOST CASES IN 
THIRTY DAYS, LEAVING THE HORSE SMOOTH AND 
SOUND. MONEY CHEERFULLY REFUNDED IF IT FAILS. 



NO EXPERIENCE REQUIRED *? cure either disease with 

-i Davis Fistula and Poll Evil 

Cure. Fistula and Poll Evil are two diseases of horses which heretofore 
have been regarded as practically hopeless. Both diseases are caused by 
an injury, -inflammation, swelling, breaking down of tissue, pus and 
discharge of matter following, and, if not checked promptly, blood 
poisoning and death of the animal may result. Davis' well known cure 
subdues all the inflammation, checks the formation of pus, and, by 
means of its alterative action, restores the surrounding tissues to a 
healthy condition and promotes the healing. These three valuable 
properties combined in one is what makes Davis Fistula and Poll Evil 
Cure such a remarkable veterinary remedy, as one or two applications 
before the disease has developed fully will usually suffice to cure the 
trouble. In advanced cases the treatment is the same, except that the 
disease, having a stronger hold upon the system, requires longer 
treatment. 

is a disease beginning with 
acariasis of the bone. From 
the backbone projecting upward into the flesh are many small projec- 
tions or spines, and these are especially liable to injury. This injury 
may arise from many causes, but mostly from pressure of the collar . 
or saddle, or from the horse rolling on something hard. A slight bruise 



FISTULA OF THE WITHERS 



may then cause inflammation, a swelling follows, the surrounding tissues 
become involved and break down into matter or pus, and on the outside 
over the spot the flesh becomes diseased and of a soft, spongy nature. 
The pus accumulating on the inside gradually works itself to the 
surface for discharge and as this foul matter is all the time accumulat- 
ing as long as the disease is unchecked, the channel for discharge must 
be kept open, and, being open and discharging, soon becomes coated 
with a membranous lining and is known by 'most people as the "pipe." 
In fact, many people think that a fistula is simply a pipe and that by 
removing the "pipe" the disease will be cured. Attempts to cauterize 
the pipes with caustics, and hence destroy the disease, aggravate many 
cases. The pipe, being the channel of discharge must be there as long 
as the disease exists, and to cure the fistula we must go deeper and get the cause of the disease, which is exactly 
what DAVIS FISTULA AND POLL EVIL CURE DOES. 
POLL EVIL * s m erely another form of fistula, and appears behind the ears of the horse. Like fistula, it is caused 

1 'V a bruise, one of the first symptoms being a swelling on one or both sides. These swellings may 

form quickly and be accompanied by heat and be painful to the touch, or they may be slow in making their appear- 
ance and be neither hot nor tender. Nevertheless, they will in time develop into fistula, and the treatment should be 
applied as soon as noticed. The symptoms of pus and discharging matter are the same as in fistula, and by treating 
in the early stages with DAVIS FISTULA AND POLL EVIL CURE, the disease can be readily cured before it 
reaches the fistula stage. 
TREATMENT Complete directions for treatment of Fistula and Poll Evil, a booklet on this disease, its treatment 

- and cure, accompany every package. 

WE GUARANTEE DAVIS FISTULA AND POLL EVIL CURE TO DO EXACTLY WHAT WE SAY IT WILL 
AND WILL GLADLY REFUND TO YOU ALL THAT YOU HAVE PAID FOR THE REMEDY IN ANY CASE 
WHERE IT FAILS. ORDER A BOTTLE AND HAVE IT ON YOUR BARN SHELF READY FOR EMERGENCY. 

ular price, per bottle, $2.00. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W520. 

If by mail, 



Price, per bottle 

postage and packing, 10 cents extra. 



$1.29 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



543 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ABE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ABE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co., we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Boebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Boebuck & Co., Chicago. 



GOODARD'S WORM POWDERS. 




} Dr. Goo*.ard's Worm Powders 



are put up in one and three-pound packages. 

They are prepared especially for cattle, hogs, 
and sheep. The enormous losses in the live 
stock industry due directly to intestinal 
parasites make the use of a good, safe worm 
powder of known quality essential. The 
United States Government has spent thou- 
sands of dollars in an attempt to rid the 
Western ranges of intestinal parasites, but 
with little or no success. 

Dr. Goodard's Worm Powders 

are prepared from a prescription long in use 
by the most prominent veterinarians in the 
country. A list of the ingredients is printed 
in plain letters on every package, so that 
you may know exactly what you are using. 
They are wonderfully effective and easy to 
administer, it being unnecessary to catch 
each individual animal, as .the powders are 
administered in the feed. 

A Wormy Animal ™ a profile 

ARD'S WORM POWDERS are fully guaran- 
teed. We know just what they will do, and 
we know that they are the best that can be 
manufactured, regardless of expense. We 
want you to try them, and if they are not 
entirely satisfactory, we will cheerfully re- 
fund the purchase price. 



. Regular price, per 1-pound package, 50 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W69I Price, per I -pound package. 

If by mail, postage extra, 18 cents. 

Regular price, per 3-pound package, $1.00. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W692 Price, per 3-pound package. 

If by mail, postage extra, 54 cents. 



39c 



79c 






VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that If you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (.Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



WORM POWDERS 

FOR HORSES 

A POSITIVE CURE FOR a'l l i u-renES!**^ 

DDI««™ INTERN AL PARASITES 

PRICE ONE DOLLAR 

*mim STOCK FOOD CO 



DAVIS WORM POWDERS FOR HORSES. 

THE HAVOC CREATED 

among horses by parasites of 
the alimentary canal is only 
too well known to the horse- 
man. It is a foregone con- 
clusion that no horse is at his 
best when infected with in- 
t e s t i n a 1 parasites. While 
many of them are more or less 
harmless, a great majority of 
them are not only responsible 
for the numerous and com- 
mon diseases of the horse, but 
in a great many instances are 
directly responsible for the 
death of the animal. In all 
ordinary cases where DAVIS 
STOCK FOOD is used regu- 
larly there is small likelihood 
of worms ever gaining any 
foothold in the alimentary 
canal, but in cases where 
DAVIS STOCK FOOD is not used regularly, or under exceptional conditions, specific treatment is 
necessary, and it was to meet such a contingency that Davis Worm Powders were prepared. 

PERHAPS ONE OF THE BEST KNOWN VERMIFUGES, or remedies known for the treat- 

ment of worms in the alimentary 

canal, is Santonin, the active principle of Santonica. Santonica, or Levant Worm Seed, is one of the 
ingredients of DAVIS STOCK FOOD, and is used because of its well known properties for the destruc- 
tion of worms. Santonin is, as above stated, the active principle of.Santonica, and is many times 
stronger than the original drug. 

Pv. Hydrag. Chlor. Mides, or properly known as calomel, exerts a specific action dn the liver, in- 
creasing its secretions, thus flooding the alimentary tract with bile, which is nature's remedy for worms. 

Sodii Bicarbonas is used to increase the secretions of the gastric juices, correcting the acidity of the 
stomach. It is very effective in correcting the disturbances to digestion caused by worms, and also 
counteracts the flatulence resulting from a disordered digestive system. 
THE FOREGOING DRUGS are coraD i ne d in the proper qualities, properly mixed in our factory, and 

the mixture is' Davis Worm Powders, positively the best remedy for 

intestinal parasites ever known. All we ask is that you use them according to the directions. Give 
them a fair show, and if they are not entirely satisfactory your money will be promptly refunded, no 
matter from whom you purchased them. 

Regular price $1.00 per package of 12 powders. ^Of* 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W750 Price, per package of 12 powders • -"* 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 6 cents. 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



545 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS GALL CURE. 

THERE IS PERHAPS 
NOTHING SO PROMINENT 

among work horses as galls. While 
not especially serious in their nature, 
if not treated they quickly become 
chronic, often running into abscesses. 
In addition to this they cause the ani- 
mal considerable pain, and no horse 
can work as readily if compelled to do 
so with numerous galls under the har- 
ness. The time to treat galls is the 
moment they appear, before they be- 
come chronic, and for their treatment 

i the Davis Stock Food Company manu- 
factures two preparations. The first 
of these is known as DAVIS GALL 
CURE, and is, we think, without any 

_ exception, the best gall cure that is 
B 80W0SE8 OF T8E F I man £factured in the United States te- 

HOmiT mm AKO PBEPiBEa lit OUR OWN FA3TS8Y: J day . It is com p OS ed of the following 

= m ■ DI8ALLIC AC. YELLOW PETROLATUM ACETATE GOP. I f J^d i^fur ^STSci^ Jto 

ZINGI OXfOUM CRY, AC. CARBOLIC ACiQOM B0R1CUM B W the supervision of an expert manufac- 

PLUMBIOXlOEj t S£5£T? : Homtt Acetate,. 

Zinci Oxidum, Acetate Cap. , 

Crys.Ac.Carbolicum Cera Flava, 

5IDCKF00D UkJT / sasss-Sk "-»<**- 

CHICAGO, ILL. j&r S Digallic Ac. is one of the most ef- 

^BHP y fective astringents known and Acidum 

.-^B Boricum, a nonirritating, antiseptic and 

healing agent, in almost universal use, 
is a stimulant, astringent and anti- 
septic, especially useful in the treat- 
■■■■■■^""~ ment of wounds, sores, ulcers, etc. 

Zinci Oxidum is an external application, acts as a stimulant to the circulation, is astringent and antiseptic. 
Especially useful in the treatment of sores, wounds and ulcers, relieving the tenderness and itching attendant upon 
skin diseases. 

Crys. Ac. Carbolicum, one of the oldest and best antiseptics, universally used in the treatment of wounds, 
sores, etc. 

Plumbi Acetate and Plumbi Oxide, externally astringent, mildly antiseptic and anodyne "meaning against pain," 
and slightly stimulating the absorption of the deposits of inflammatory products. 

Yellow Petrolatum and Cera Flava, both healing, but their chief use in DAVIS GALL CURE is as a vehicle for 
the proper distribution and application of the other ingredients. 

IT WOULD RR MTTPTT FASTRR FOR TTS to make a cheaper gall cure— not only easier, but it would be much more 
J. J. WUU.L,.U BE, mum h/AOl^X fUK Ua profitable _ but in the entire line of veterinary remedies we feel that the greatest 
profit is to be derived from an enormous sale. We have, therefore, spared no expense or time in making every individual remedy the best 
that science and practice can devise, and the cost has been a secondary matter. In all honesty we can say to you that davis> trAi^i, 
CURE is positively the best that we know of. We want you to try it, and if you are not entirely satisfied with the results you can do us 
no greater favor than tell us so, and give us an opportunity of refunding every cent you have paid. 

Regular price, per 3 -ounce box, 25 cents. "J Qtf* 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W640 Price, per 3-ounce box A 27V 

If by mail, postage extra, 4 cents. 
Regular price, per 8-ounce box, 50 cents. 4-^f* 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W64I Price, per 8-ounce box ~%J\j 

If by mail, postage extra, 8 cents. 
Regular price, per 1 -pound box, 90 cents. / Qp 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W642 Price, per 1-pound box « "v 

If by mail, postage extra, 16 cents. 
.Slff. 35 




;>4o 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co., we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears. Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 




DAVIS HEALING POWDER. 



jutum 

POWDER 

l*p£,^ S50l - UTEl -V NEW 
REMEDY FOR ALL FORMi OF 

CUTS, WOUNDS 
AND ABRASIONS 

OF.THE SKIN. 

PRICE 50 CENTS 

J^NU^TURED ONLY BY 

CHICAGOJLL.USA. 



for the treatment of galls, 
wounds, sores, abrasions, etc., 



THIS IS ANOTHER PREPARATION 

and is a radical departure from the remedies heretofore available for treatment of such 
conditions. The package in itself is much recommended, as the powder is put up in a 
glass bottle with a nickel plated sifter top, and the powder is dusted on the gall, wounds 
or abrasions without removing the cover, making it extremely handy for use and pro- 
tecting the remedy against dirt and deterioration. 

DAVIS HEALING POWDER ls composed of the following standard 
■UAV.LJ XLruA^xau ruVY^K ingredients, properly mixed and prepared in 
our own factory under the supervision of an expert manufacturing chemist: 

Aluminum Sulph. Potass., acts as a stimulant, astringent and a mild costive. 

Phenol, a standard disinfectant, antiseptic and healing reagent; in universal use. 

Pv. Camphora, externally acts as a stimulant, very slight counter irritant and 
allays itching and pain in skin diseases. 

Boracic Ac, one of the best and safest antiseptics. Allays all pain ; promotes 
healthy growth, relieves itchipg. 

TT7 VfYTT APT? TTVT TTT7T7T1 of such an article as DAVIS HEALING POWDER, 

m ivu akj, in nwu p ve it a trial _ You win be hjghly pleased witn the 

results, and we know that we will have gained a permanent customer. Your money 
cheerfully refunded at any time if you are not fully satisfied. 

Regular price, 50 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W510 

Price, per bottle 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 10 cents. 



39c 



DAVIS VETERINARY 
CARBOLIC SALVE. 



CARBOLIC 



CAT VF is too well known to require 
V ^ v - C/ any extended description. 



ay that Davis Veterinary Carbolic Halve is 

manufactured only from the purest of Petrolatum and 

Carbolic Acid. The proportions are right and it is rnix- 

ight, and to those wishing such an article it cannot 

' ommended. Regular price, 50 cents. 

Sears, Roebuck tc Co.'s Catalogue 

No. 65W660 Price, per box 

If by mall, postage extra, 18 cents. 



39c 




VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



547 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 



ABE MANUFACTTJEED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSSVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., 



CHICAGO. 



For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co., we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



« 



"Alible 



Remedy 



S0R E THROAT' 






Bradbury's Brazilian Specific 

AN INFALLIBLE REMEDY FOR FEVER 
IN ALL ITS FORMS, 

and especially indicated in Lung Fever, Pneumonia, 

Pleurisy, Bronchitis, Enteritis, Peritonitis, Sore 

Throat, Inflammation of the Bowels, etc. 

There has long been a need for a reliable, safe and efficient 
fever remedy for live stock, and in BRADBURY'S BRAZILIAN 
SPECIFIC we believe that we have an ideal preparation. It is 
composed of the following standard remedies, properly mixed and 
prepared in our own factory, under the supervision of an expert 
manufacturing chemist : 

F. E. Aconite Rt. is an antipyretic, diaphoretic and diuretic. 
Its antipyretic action is due to its sedative action upon the heart 
and respiration. Hence, its use is indicated in acute inflamma- 
tory diseases. 

F. E. Verat Veride is a powerful antipyretic and is an excel- 
lent sedative, particularly in pneumonia, enteritis, rheumatism, 
nephritis and laminitis. 

F. E. Belladona relieves the pain attendant upon the various 
inflammations, stimulates the heart; extremely serviceable in the 
respiratory diseases of the horse. 

Potass. Nitrate is a powerful diuretic, febrifuge and alterative. 
One of the safest and best remedies known " and in universal 
use. 

Gin is an antiseptic, antiparasitic, antispasmodic, and anti- 
pyretic, especially indicated in weak heart, and to regulate the 
respiration. 

Bradbury's Brazilian Specific is Fully Guaranteed 

OR YOUR MONEY WILL BE CHEERFULLY REFUNDED IF IT EVER PROVES UNSATISFACTORY. 

It should be kept on hand in all well regulated stables to meet the emergency of such 

diseases as it is indicated in. 

Regular price, per bottle, $1.50. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W680 Price, per bottle 

XJnmailable on account of weight. 



mi. 



Etc. 






89c 






VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (.Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Rosbuck & Co., Chicago. 



KENTUCKY FOOT FORM-THE FINEST HOOF 

DRESSING MADE. 

IN OFFERING THE KENTUCKY 

FOOT FORM our Iamous h°°f dressing, to the 

horse owners of America, we wish 

tosaythat.it is not an ordinary dressing, but the 
result of many years of practice by one of the 
most notable veterinarians whose practice has long 
been confined to the care of the highest bred 
horses on the American turf. To make an ordinary 
everyday dressing is a comparatively easy task, 
but to manufacture one like the KENTUCKY FOOT 
FORM, with all its splendid qualities, requires 
expert knowledge of the hoof, its diseases and 
method of ' treatment, to bring about the most 
satisfactory results, and after many years of expe- 
rience in the finest studs of the country this hoof 
dressing, KENTUCKY FOOT FORM, was developed 
and is offered -as a dressing containing all the 
excellent qualities of the best hoof dressing on the 
market at the present time without their objection- 
able properties. 

FOR PREVENTING TOE CRACKS, 

corns, quarter cracks, hard, dry brittle and tender 
feet, Kentucky Foot Form stands without an equal. 

These are common everyday troubles which annoy 
the horse owner and unless properly tfreated affect 
the value of the animal, and the use of KENTUCKY 
FOOT FORM hoof dressing will bring about speedy 
relief and at the same time act as a preventive in 
the future. It is just as essential that a horse's 
hoofs be examined occasionally, cleaned and prop- 
erly treated, as it is that the animal should be 
curried, brushed and kept clean. A hoof dressing 
should be used occasionally as a preventive of hoof 
diseases, and we guarantee that if you use 
KENTUCKY FOOT FORM the hoofs will always 
be clean, soft, healthy and beautiful. It is abso- 
lutely free from fish oils and other similar ingredients; it is compounded from absolutely pure substances, and we 
guarantee it to be the very highest grade hoof dressing offered at any price. * 

Regular price, per pint, 75 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W560 Price, per pint 

Regular price, per quart, SI. 25. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W56I Price, per, quart 

Regular price, per gallon, S4.00. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W562 Price, per gallon 

Unmailable on account of weight. 




$0.59 

.89 

3.29 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



549 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



PHENALIN. 



THE IDEAL GERMICIDE, INSECTICIDE, DEODORIZER AND ANTISEPTIC 

PERFECTLY HARMLESS *° *?** and 

. the higher 

forms of animal life, but deadly to germs and 
insects. Phenalin is the cheapest disinfectant 
to use because of its strength, -as one part of 
Phenalin to one hundred parts of water makes a 
solution which is death to every form of germ 
life. Every stock raiser will find a supply of 
Phenalin almost a necessity, as its manifold uses 
and germicidal properties make it indispensable. 
Its curative and preventive properties make it 
the most valuable general purpose remedy on 
the market. 

. SOME OF ITS USES. 

CATTLE. Mange, screw worm, scratches, 
lice, inflamed udders, inflamed teats, galls, sores 
and wire cuts, will heal quicker under Phenalin 
treatment than any other treatment known. 
'Try it, and if you do not find it so, we will 
cheerfully refund .your money. Lice will be 
entirely unknown on cattle if Phenalin is used. 
SHEEP. 'Phenalin will cure sheep affected 
with scab, foot rot, grubs in the head, anthrax, 
ticks, etc. If properly used as a preventive, 
your flock will not be affected with any of these 
diseases. 

HORSES. Phenalin is the best remedy to 
use for bad hoofs, nail in the foot, scratches, 
galls, wire cuts, etc. It will keep flies off affected 
parts, and will cure with remarkable rapidity. 
HOG CHOLERA. This is undoubtedly one 
of the most destructive diseases which afflicts 
the stock raising industry. As a preventive, 
Phenalin is a wonderfully efficacious remedj^ and 
its use is an absolute prevention of this dread 
disease. It is much easier and much cheaper to 
prevent this disease than it is to attempt to cure 
it after it has secured a foothold, and a small 
quantity of Phenalin used in the drinking 
troughs will keep your hogs in a fine, healthy 
condition. 

CHICKENS can easily be cured of leukemia, 
pip, scaly legs, canker, cholera, limber neck and 
chicken pox if the Phenalin treatment is used. 
Phenalin is also the best lice destroyer and pre- 
ventive. "Where it is ttsed lice cannot live. 
DOGS. ' Phenalin is positively guaranteed to cure mange. Fleas cannot live on dogs that are occasionally washed in water to which 

a small quantity of Phenalin has been added. , . , _, ,. . ... . . ♦»,„_, 

INSECT PESTS ON PLANTS. If plants are occasionally sprayed with a weak solution of Phenalin, such a thing as insects on tnem 

will be entirely unknown. . . , „ ,. _ , , .„. 

FOR TTRTNAT «i ANT) PT OWTS Phenalin is the best disinfectant and deodorizer, as it destroys all disease germs, and kills 

fUK U-K.irm.ia Amu CivUOh/lO any bad odors which may be present . Ful i directions sent with each package. Order a bottle 

of Phenalin and if it does not do exactly what we claim for it, write us and we will send back your money. 

Regular price, per gallon, $3.00. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W540 




Regular price, per J^ gallon, $1.75. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W54I 

Regular price, per quart, $1.00. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W542 

Regular price, per pint, 60 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W543 



Price, per gallon . . . 
Price, per ]/ 2 gallon. 



Price, per quart 



$2.49 
1.44 
.79 



Price, per pint 



Unmailable on account of weight. 



550 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN ON THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears. Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 



HUllMKSl 

CH1CK0L1H 



*■<: 



*** 



39 



•Dr.FILLMORE'S chickolin 

THE ONLY SURE CURE FOR CHOLERA AND GAPES IN CHICKENS 
TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 

KEEPS FOWLS HEALTHY, MAKES THEM FEEL BETTER AND LAY BETTER. 

PAYS BIG TO FEED. • 

DR. FILLMORE'S CHICKOLIN is the only sure cure for cholera and gapes In 

—— ^— — — — — — — — — — chickens. It lias been in use on prominent poultry 

farms for years and has demonstrated its value as a wonderful and extremely valuable 
poultry remedy. In fact, the virtues of this remedy have become so well known that 
many poultry raisers consider Chickolin as essential for raising chickens, curing and pre- 
venting diseases, as the housewife considers salt and pepper for seasoning. 
CHICKOLIN is an absolute necessity for the successful and profitable raising of 
— — — — — poultry. It is equally good for the young chick or the old hen or the 

rooster. Given as a preventive, it prevents diseases and makes poultry raising profitable. 
For the curing of cholera, indigestion, bowel complaints, etc., use Dr. Fillmore's Chick- 
olin at the rate of one teaspoonful to each gallon of drinking water and remove all other 
drinking water. : . 



FOR 






■ PkyL 






ONLY BY 



ss 









CANKER apply Chick- 

olin pure 

with a small brush or feather 
after removing the canker. 

For frosted combs, swelled head, 
chicken pox, sores, cuts, wounds, 
sore eyes, etc., apply Chickolin 
at the rate of one teaspoonful to 
half a pint of water. 

IF YOUR CHICKENS ARE 

AILING, if they droop around 
the poultry yard, if 

their plumage is lusterless, you 
should order Chickolin at once 
and begin its use. It works won- 
ders in any poultry yard, and as 
a general all purpose remedy it 
is recommended as the best to be 
had. 

We guarantee Chickolin 
and will refund the purchase 
price if it isn't satisfactory. 

Regular price, per bottle, 50c. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Cat- 
alogue No. 65W600. 

Price, per bottle 

Unmailable 
weight. 



*Tt 



MANGE 






39c 



on account of 



DAVIS MANGE CURE. 

MANGE Is a contagious disease of the skin caused by parasites, which, after 
burrowing beneath the skin, cause inflammation, watery dis- 
charges, which, drying, form unsightly scabs. This troublesome disease may 
it i appearance almost anywhere On the animal. It spreads very rapidly unless 
es are taken to effect a cure. To relieve the intolerable itching 
npanying I e, the animal will either bite the affected parts or rub them 
thing with which it comes in contact, removing the hair, and a raw, 
develops. 

IN ORDER TO EFFECT A CURE it is- necessary to use a remedy that 

— will not only destroy the parasites and 

their eggs, but one that will heal the wounds and sores. In Davis Mange (Jure 
ded in producing what we believe to be an ideal remedy for this dis- 
It ha.s been thoroughly tested and tried. 

IF YOU HAVE A VALUABLE DOG, you will find it worth while to 

— 1 ' keep a bottle of this remedy in 

your medicine chest. Every bottle of Davis Mange Cure is fully guaranteed, 
tents of which it is composed are printed in plain letters on every 
package. 

Regular price, per bottle, $i.oo. 
Bean, Roebuck Ic Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W760 Price, per bottle, 
if by mail, packing"&nd postage extra, 10 c 



lltfOrCDp^ 

MANUFACTURED ONLY E 



-vrt 



CO. 

CHICAQO. ILL 
U.S.A. 



79c 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



551 



THE VETERINAY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ABE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ABE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenlnce of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co., we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Boebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Boebuck & Co., Chicago. 



SILVER SPAVIN CURE. 

A CERTAIN REMEDY for all bunches or blemishes on horses. An 
a v.cj%.±.»..Lm xs.r,m.r,u x aDsorbent and counter irritant. Absolutely 

guaranteed to cure Bone Spavin that is just developing, Blood Spavin, Bog 
Spavin, Curb, Splint, -Capped Hock, Wind Galls, Soft Blemishes and all 
forms of enlargement and recent growths of every description. 
MANY A VALUBLE HORSE & as £ een , rendered practically worth- 

_ _ less by the development of a spavin or 

some other blemish which lames him and practically ends his days of use- 
fulness. No disease is more destructive to the usefulness and value of a horse, 
and for years it has been a constantly accepted belief that this disease, serious in 
its inception and more serious in its progress, is an ailment for which there has been 
no certain cure. 

A CERTAIN CURE for tnis stubborn and heretofore unyielding dls- 
n. ^^■ivx.rt.xxi V/UAj, eage Qf the norge nas been found in srLVER SPA . 

VIN CUBE, and we offer it to you under our guarantee that it will do all 
that is claimed for it if the simple directions on the package are followed, 

or we will cheerfully refund the purchase price. This marvelous remedy is the 
result of many years of practice by one of the most renowned veterinary surgeons, 
who gave practically all his time and attention to diseases' of the horse and particu- 
larly affections of the limbs, for which this remedy is designed. A thorough knowl- 
edge of the physiology of the horse, a most careful and searching study of the pecu- 
liarities of the several forms of spavin, and the nature of the injuries and diseases 
causing lameness in horses, resulted in the perfection of SILVER SPAVIN CUBE, 
which has never been approached by any remedy ever devised for this purpose. 
The penetrating and absorbent properties of SILVER SPAVIN CURE are really 
wonderful; its application to the affected parts brings quick relief. Inflammation dis- 
appears, the unnatural growth is permanently killed, the circulation of the blood is 
greatly accelerated, a dissolution of the ossified deposit begins at once, there is 
immediate improvement, the lameness gradually but surely wearing off, and a 
positive and permanent cure results. 

IN ALL CASES OF SPAVIN in aU its several stages, but more par- 
xn nxsx, v^j-cj \jr oravin, ticularly in its elementary stage, or 

when first suspected, SILVER SPAVIN CURE does not bring simply [temporary 
relief, but produces a perfect and permanent cure almost at once, and it is so wonder- 
fully efficacious in treating all aggravated forms of spavin, as well as curb, splint, 
wind galls, etc., that no horse owner can afford to be without a bottle of this splen- 
did remedy for use in an emergency, because severe labor or strains, resulting from 
heavy pulling or fast driving, frequently develops spavin, ringbone, curb, splint or 
other affections of this character which, when neglected, develop into the most 
aggravated cases and in time render the animal practically worthless. 

NO MATTER WHAT OTHERS MAY TELL YOU Zll* £*£: 

_________^____ ence to the 

treatment of spavin and similar diseases, there is only one way to remove the 
ossified growth and unnatural bony substance which develops and this is by absorp- 
tion-. The wonderfully penetrating and absorbent properties of SILVER SPAVIN 
CURE make it the only recognized and positive cure for this disease. There seems 
to be no limit to its curative qualities in the diseases for which we recommend it, 
and its application according to directions not only brings immediate relief, but its 
action ana its influence upon the tissues seem to continue for months after the 
treatment ceases. It not only removes the bony growths and restores the affected 
parts to a natural and healthy condition in most cases, but it seems to correct the 
MMa. I^^gtata^B# unnatural conditions of the blood and circulation to such an extent that the unnatu- 

MAIl turn ral deposits cease entirely and there is no recurrence of the trouble. However, there 

W\ Vvlm ruUll I IS I are cases in which, because of complications, even SILVER SPAVIN CURE cannot 

dissolve the bony deposits, but in every case it cures the lameness. In some cases 
the bony deposits are nature's effort to build up a weak joint, and it is not desir- 
able to reduce the deposits, and when the trouble is of long standing and complica- 
ted, no remedy can reduce the lump, and only SILVER SPAVIN CURE will cure 
the lameness. We guarantee it to cure the lameness and arrest the progress of the 
disease. Aside from the fact that the curative qualities of SILVEB SPAVIN 
CUBE are really marvelous (and it has been known to cure cases that were deemed 
beyond all possible relief), it is guaranteed to be perfectly safe to use, and it will 
not destroy the hair follicles, nor will it leave the slightest scar. There are some 
spavin remedies offered on the market which mzy and may not relieve a spavin in 
its early stages, but they are composed of such strong caustics and other drugs that 
they destroy the hair and skin wherever applied, and leave an unsightly scar. 
SILVEB SPAVIN CUBE, no matter how often or how long applied, will not injure the hair or tissues, and as soon as the treatment is sus- 
pended a new growth of hair appears and the limb of the animal is as smooth and glossy as it was before the disease appeared. In fact, it does 
not leave the slightest evidence of the treatment and the most expert veterinarian could go over the animal very carefully and would fail to 
discover that the horse had been afflicted with a spavin, a ringbone, splint, curb or any of the diseases which this remedy is guaranteed to cure. 
TN OFFFPTWri <5TT VT7T? <5PAVTW PTTPT? to our customers we are bringing within their reach a remedy here- 
lii urrj^JCliNVj aiL-V-CK ar'AVIll l UKiS tofore fe n0 wn only to the veterinary profession and long used by the most 
expert veterinary surgeons in their private practice with unfailing results, and it is brought to you at a price much lower than that 
asked by many others for remedies which fail to bring relief, and we offer it to you in absolute confidence that it will do all we claim for it 
or we will cheefully refund the purchase price. . , . , 

THERE ARE IMITATIONS OF THIS SPLENDID REMEDY X^eM^Wtou. S7i£' SufeaSfJS 

understanding how quickly it renders a valuable horse worthlesss, hold out many glittering promises to the horse owner, and whose 
only object is to secure the S3. 00 or $5.00 price of their remedy, which is little enough to pay for a cure if the remedy they offer would really do 
all they claim for it. We feel that while we can make the strongest possible claims for SILVEB SPAVIN CUBE, and it has already demon- 
strated its wonderful curative properties, we should offer this remedy on a guarantee of results, we should give you an opportunity to try it with- 
out risk of loss if it fails to cure, and it is for this reason that we sav to you that if it fails to do all we claim for it, when the simple and easily un- 
derstood directions on the bottle are followed, we will cheerfully refund the purchase price. Under these conditions you cannot afford to experi- 
ment with any other remedy offered which is claimed to be "just as good" as SILVEB SPAVIN CUBE. There are no "just as goodJ_substitutes. 
Regular price, per bottle, S3. 00. 

Sears, Boebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W530 Price, per bottle 

If by mail, postage and packing extra, 10 cents. 




$2.29 






VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that If you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 





I 



BRISBANE'S DEATH TO 

LICE. 

THE ONE SURE CURE FOR LICE ON FOWLS. A 

POWERFUL LOUSE KILLER BUT 

HARMLESS TO POULTRY. 

IF YOU HAVE EVER RAISED POULTRY 

you undoubtedly have had your share of trouble in having 
your birds pestered with lice. Wherever chickens are raised 
lice are bred, and lice and chickens make a poor combination. 
If your birds must waste their time and energy providing 
nourishment for myriads of lice and parasites, you cannot 
expect them to lay on flesh and keep your table supplied 
with eggs; therefore, do not wait until they become irrfested 
with lice before treating them. Obtain a good louse pow- 
der and see that it is used occasionally. Prevention is ever 
better than a cure. There are so many different varieties of 
lice infesting chickens that it would be impossible to attempt 
to name them in our limited space. There is one, however, 
that is so generally distributed that it is worthy of a more 
than passing mention, namely, the "Chicken Mite," techni- 
cally known as the Dermanyssus gallina. Wherever chickens 
are raised, there this mite is found. Its normal color is 
light gray with dark spots, but when filled with blood it 
takes on a decidedly red appearance. Its usual habit is to 
attack the birds at night and to hide in the cracks and 
corners of the roosts and rubbish during the day, but in 
exceptionally bad attacks the mite remains on the fowls 
during daytime. As a rule, however, it makes its appear- 
ance late at night. For this reason the chicken mite is 
decidedly dangerous to profitable poultry raising. Often, 
upon an examination of the fowls during the day, you will 
fail to find the parasite, although the fowls are badly infested 
at night. Occasionally this mite infests man, horses and 
other animals, producing symptoms of scab by its bite. 

IN ORDER TO SUCCESSFULLY COMBAT 

AND DESTROY THIS PARASITE, » ^necessary 

1 to thoroughly 

spray the walls, all the cracks, the roosts, the rubbish, the 
droppings and bedding of the house, and to occasionally dust 
the fowls with Brisbaine's Death to Lice. Brisbaine's 
Death to Lice is a thoroughly efficient louse killer. It is 
~"^^^ i^s^" absolutely harmless to the fowl, and in this feature is radi- 

cally different from a number of the so called louse killers 
now on the market. The articles of which it is composed are printed in plain letters on every package, something 
that you should insist upon in everything you buy. Many poultry raisers have had a discouraging experience in 
buying louse killers, and, after having used them, faithfully following directions, only to go out some morning and 
find half their chikcens dead. The only sure protection against this is to force the manufacturer to print his 
;dients on the label of the package, so that you may know what you are using. If his article is a harmless and 
efficient one, he should have no objection to doing it, and if he refuses to do so you may draw your own conclusions. 
We know what Brisbaine's Death to Lice is. You may know when you purchase a package. We know that it is 
harmless and efficient. You can easily determine this by giving it a trial. It is put up for your convenience in a 
strong round box, with sprinkling top attached, so that you need not remove the lid to use the powder, it being made 
like a sifter. When you next send us an order, include an order for one package of Brisbaine's Death to Lice. It 
will pay for itself many times over. It is put up in strong one-pound sprinkler top cartons, 25 cents each. Your 
money back if not entirely satisfied. 
Regular price, per box, 25 cents. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W630 Price, per box 

If by mail, postage extra, 16 cents. 



JpTlVE CURE FOR ALL KP; 
: C T ICKS AND PARA*, 
£°WLS. ABSOLUT. 

f^LBss TO THE F° 

;PHiCE 25ds. 

"ANUFACTURED ONLY &< 





19c 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



553 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co, catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address ail orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 




DAVIS WIRE CUT REMEDY. 

HEALS ALL WBRE CUTS— LEAVES NO SCARS. 

THOUSANDS OF VALUABLE HORSES, cattle^other^ animate 

fences, and in many cases are permanently crippled or disfigured because the injury is 
not properly treated. In Davis Wire Cut Remedy we offer the very best treatment for 
cuts from barbed wire. as well as all other flesh wounds, and as a healing, cleansing, anti- 
septic and disinfecting agent it is soothing and mild in action and positive in results. 

THIS SPLENDID HEALING LOTION demonstrates its virtue in the 
JLJXio ox-Lsr,r*ijj.u xi.ctt.^in vj uvjilvvi q Uick> easy and thorough healing 

of all scratches, barbed wire or other cuts, lacerations or deep incisions. Its 

ingredients are harmless, and while it is prepared especially for use in treating animals, it 
is equally satisfactory as a healing remedy for both man and beast. If Davis Wire Cut 
Remedy is used promptly in all cases- according to directions on the bottle it is absolutely 
impossible for blood poisoning to result; its antiseptic properties quickly kill all germs, 
inflammation is immediately allayed, supperation is prevented, and the daily application 
of the lotion promotes the rebuilding of the injured tissues and a prompt and permanent 
cure results. No remedy offered stock raisers is of greater value than this, our Davis 
Wire Cut Remedy, and it ought to be in the veterinary medicine chest of every stock 
raiser for use in emergencies. 

Regular price, $1.00. 

Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W700 Price, per bottle 

Unmailable on account of weight. 



DAVIS COLIC 
CURE. 



Colic is the most distress- 
ing of all troubles of ani- 

and more horses die every year of 



UNSURPASSED FOR ALL STOMACH 

AND BOWEL TROUBLES. YOUR 

MONEY BACK IF IT EVER 

FAILS TO CURE. 

A REMEDY THAT EVERY 
STOCK OWNER SHOULD 
POSS ESS. 

mals, 

it than from all noncontagious diseases com 
bined. Colic is a spasmodic contraction of the 
muscular coat of any part of the intestines, usually caused by improper feeding. The animal 
affected with it will appear uneasy, pawing the ground, arching the back, looking around at the 
flank. On lying down he will kick at his belly and roll on the ground until the spasms are relieved. 
In all such cases Davis Colic Cure will bring quick and certain relief, and the stock raisers who 
have tried it are enthusiastic in praise of it. One dose usually cures the most severe case 
of colic in horses and cattle, and we have never known a case where a second dose failed. 

T<3 VYYITB TTfYRW WOTJTTT Rflr ? Colic comes unexpectedly, it is of frequent 
ia IUUK hUKSJj, WUKIJJ. OUCr occurrenee and it is always dangerous. By 

having this reliable remedv near at hand you run no risk of losing your horse; without it he may 
die. . Davis Colic Cure is cheap insurance, as it cannot f ail. Davis Colic Cure is unexcelled for all 
bowel and stomach troubles accompanied by colic pains, spasmodic or wind colic, cramps, 
botts, engorgement of stomach, stoppage of water, indigestion, etc. It relieves the pain and 
relaxes the muscular coat of the stomach, bowels, and bladder, stopping fermentation and 
causing a normal action and free evacuation of the organs. It acts instantly, is easily 
administered, and is a sure cure where other remedies fail. Full directions are given upon 
each bottle, together with information as to the best and quickest means of relieving the 
animal when attacks come on. 

Regular price, per bottle, 50 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W740 Price, per bottle 

Unmailable on account of weight. 







VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ARE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (.Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck it Co., Chicago. 



DAVIS FLY CHASER. 

A GREAT MONEY SAVER AND PROFIT PRODUCER FOR STOCKMEN. 




- ^-JlL n es FEED 

'TAN.ES CACH CAN 

PRICE 1*2 

tactuheo oml, et 
cin£ STOC " FOOD CO. 

^"TtAGO.m. U.S.A. 




FLIES COST THE STOCK RAISERS <* «*e United .States more than 

— ~~" — — — -— • half a billion dollars annually. 

This is a strong statement to make, but the Bureau of Animal Industry of the 
Agricultural Department of the Government has discovered that this is a 
conservative estimate of what is represented as lost from shrinkage of milk pro- 
duction and flesh, due to the misery inflicted on live stock by flies, mosquitoes, 
ticks, and other insect pests, which torment them from four to six months during 
the year. 

WE OFFER DAVIS FLY CHASER as a vel 7 effective remedy against 
^ flies, mosquitoes and all other insect 

pests, the most satisfactory remedy on the market, one which is easily applied, and 
while it is very effective for the purpose for which it is designed, it is absolutely 
harmless to both man and beast. 

IT IS FALSE ECONOMY t0 feed a horse from twelve to fifteen quarts of 

oats a day and then have him spend 80 per cent 

of his energy to keep off a horde of annoying pests in the form of flies and mos- 
quitoes; it lessens his vitality, he is not nearly so good a work horse, he is not 
nearly so good a roadster. It is also false economy to turn your milch cows and other cattle loose in the pasture 
to spend more than half of their time and energy in driving away insect pests, instead of grazing and earning profit 
for their owner. 

IF YOU ARE A DAIRYMAN we heartily recommend the use of Davis Fly Chaser as a method of increasing 

^— — — — — — — — ~"~-"~" -— ~~" the product of your dairy ; your cows will secrete much more and much better 

milk, and indeed it has been found from exhaustive tests that a cow treated with Davis Fly Chaser will yield one- 
third more milk than when she is allowed to graze unprotected from the insects which torment her from four to 
six months of the year; and cattle which are being fattened for market, which have been turned out to graze that 
they might be in better condition to go into the feed Jot will grow fatter, will take on more flesh, if you use this high 
class remedy from day to day throughout your herds. 

THE LOW COST OF DAVIS FLY CHASER wil1 enable you to treat all your animals at a very great 

■ profit, less than half a cent a day per animal will give 

them absolute immunity from insects of every character. A gallon of fly chaser will make twenty-five gallons of 
fluid, and it is easily applied with a spraying machine to those animals to be turned out in the pasture or worked in the 
fields. Spraying the stalls and interior of a barn or cowshed will keep out the insects when the animals are kept indoors. 

FLII£S SPREAD DISEASE. In fact a lar S e per cent of the mortality among live stock in the summer season 
is due entirely to contagion carried by flies, and as Davis Fly Chaser is an insecti- 
cide, germicide, antiseptic, and disinfectant, it prevents anthrax, Texas fever, and many other diseases of similar 
nature. No stock raiser can afford to be without this splendid remedy, and we are so sure of its effectiveness, we are 
so certain that its results will be entirely satisfactory to you, that we guarantee it to be absolutely the very best fly 
chaser on the market, and if you do not find that it does all we claim for it, we will cheerfully refund your money 
and pay the transportation charges. 

ORDER A SAMPLE CAN of this remedy and use it on your horses, cattle, hogs, dogs, and other domestic 

~~ ~~ "*■" — ^ ~~~ ~~ — — — animals, and we know that a brief trial will convince you of its splendid qualities 
and great value to you. 

Regular price, per quart, SI. 25. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W730 

Regular price, per gallon, $4.00. 

... Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W73I 



Price, per quart . 
Price, per gallon . 



$0.98 
2.62 



VETERINARY REMEDIES. 



555 



THE VETERINARY REMEDIES SHOWN IN THESE PAGES 

ABE MANUFACTURED BY THE DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., AND ARE 

SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO. 

For the benefit and convenience of the many customers of Sears, Roebuck & Co. we state underneath each preparation 
the Sears, Roebuck & Co. catalogue number and price, so that if you want to order any of these preparations you may 
order direct from Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, giving their catalogue number and allowing their price. 

Do not send any orders to us (Davis Stock Food Co.), but address all orders to Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 




BROWN'S LICE KILLER, 

A Never Failing Friend to Poultry. 

YOUR MONEY CHEERFULLY REFUNDED IF IT EVER FAILS. 

BROWN'S LIQUID LICE KILLER is a lic l uid com - 
~ — " pounded for the 

use of the poultry raiser for the destruction of all vermin and 
the cure of all germ diseases of fowls. It is not one of those 
nostrums made as cheap as possible and put upon the mar- 
ket to sell, hut an article of unquestioned merit upon which 
an enormous trade has been built purely through the satis- 
factory results obtained. It today enjoys the largest sale of 
any liquid lice killer known. 

POULTRY cann °t flourish while infested with annoying 

" " — "" parasites, and it is seldom that fowls are found 

without them. BROWN'S LICE KILLER is a certain cure. 
It will quickly and effectively rid your poultry . and poultry 
houses of lice and mites. All that you have to do is to 
paint the roosts, nests and other places where the lice har- 
bor. They are quickly killed by the fumes and the hens be- 
ing free from the pests will commence laying, and egg yield 
will soon be increased 25 to 50 per cent. When eggs com- 
mand the high prices of present markets, it certainly pays 
to encourage the largest possible yield and BROWN'S LICE 
KILLER will put many dollars in the farmer's pocket. 

NO AMOUNT OF ARGUMENT can convince you so 

thoroughly of the great 

value of this lice killer like one single trial. Thousands of 
gallons sold last year and the good results obtained are suf- 
ficient proof for the most skeptical. 

WE POSITIVELY GUARANTEE BROWN'S LICE KILLER as represented or your money cheer- 
: . £ ull y re f un( ied. Order a can and judge its value. 

69c 

92c 




Regular price, per ^-gallon can, 90 cents. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W500 

Regular price, per 1 -gallon can, $1.50. 
Sears, Roebuck & Co.'s Catalogue No. 65W50 1 



Price, per J^-gallon can 
Price, per 1-galloncan. . 



index: 



A P»ge 

al V\ ounds in Cattle 335 

ABORTIONS. Contagious 357 

In < 444 

is 321 

Anatomy of Chickens 217 

Animal Matter for Chickens 208 

Anise 517 

ANTHRAX in Cattle 387 

In Sheep „ 432 

Apples and Pumpkins for Hogs . . 1 4.5 

Assimilation ' 27 

Ayrshire Cattle '. 61 

Azoturia in Horses 317 

B 

Bacon, Feeding for 153 

BARLEY 33 

Vs. Com for Hogs 120 

Barns and Outbuildings, Plans for 483 

Bean, Soja 36 

BEEF. Feeding for ». 50 

Meal for Hogs 136 

Big Head of Horses 274 

Blackhead in Chickens 235 ' 

BLACKLEG in Cattle 388 

In Sheep 434 

Outfit, Davis 393 

Bleeders, Disease of Horses 272 

BLEEDING 373 

Sheep 441 

Blister, Davis 531 

Bloating in Cattle 326 

Bloat in Sheep 404 

Blood Poisoning in Horses 268 

BOAR. Feed and Management of 89 

Management of 95 

Selection of 89 

Blue Milk ■. 368 

Bradbury 's Fever Remedy 547 

Brain, Diseases of, in Chickens 244 

BRAN 33 

Fermented and Unfermentcd 110 

Vs. Corn Meal 123 

Breeding Stock, Hogs • . 94 

Breed Tests, Hogs 151 

Brewers' Grains 34 

Brisbaine's Death to Lice 552 

BROILERS 211 

Dressing for Market 213 

Making Ready f< r Market 213 

Bronchitis in Horses 280 

Brooders 210 

Brown's Lice Killer 555 

Brown Swiss Cattle 64 

Buckwheat 34 

Bull Ringing 372 

Butter Grading 70 

Ev Products as Feed 34 

c 

Calf, the 48 

CALVES, Blue Disease in 370 

Constipation in 370 

Diarrhea in 37 t 

Diseases of 

Feed After Weaning 50 

Indigestion in 329, 370 

Rheumatism in 371 

ouring in 371 

CALVING 358 

Mowing 359 

a 527 

Carbolic Salve, Davis 546 

o Ligni 520 

CARE of i >ck 9 

he Skin • 11 

550 



Page 

Carriage Horses, Ration for 45 

CASTRATION 373 

Of Sheep 436 

CATARRH in Chickens '. 230 

In Horses 276 

CATTLE, Bloating in 326 

Choking in 325 

Diarrhea in 330 

Digestive Organs, Diseases of 339 

Diseases of 319 

Diseases of the Ear in 379 

Diseases of the Eye in . . 378 

Diseases of the Foot in , . . . 376 

Diseases of the Liver in , 336 

Diseases of the Mouth in 320 

Diseases of the Pharynx and Gullet in 324 

Diseases of the Skin in 374 

Dysentery in 331 

Feeding 48 

Feeding Experiment 58 

Fluke Diseases in 337 

Foot and Mouth Diseases in 383 

Heart and Blood Vessel Diseases in 343 

Indigestion in 329 

Infectious Diseases of 380 

Lock Jaw in 350 

Nervous System, Diseases of. . ." 347 

Peritonitis in 337 

Pleuropneumonia in 381 

Poisoning in •. . . 330 

Red Water in 351 

Respiratory Organs, Diseases of 343 

Ring Worm in 376 

Ruptures in t 334 

Snake Bites in 342 

Stomach Diseases of 326 

Tuberculosis in 384 

Urinary Organs, Diseases of 353 

Cerebro Spinal Meningitis in Horses 268 

CHICKEN, Andalusians " 195 

Birchem Game 202 

Black Spanish 195 

Black Sumatra Game 203 

Booted White Bantams 204 

Brahmas 186 

Cochins 187 

Coops 179 

Cornish and White Indian Game 202 

Dominic^tes 185 

Game Bantams 203 

Golden and Silver Buck Wing Game 201 

Japanese Bantams 204 

Javas '.'*. 185 

Jersey Blues 185 

Langshans 189 

Leghorns 190 

Malay Game 202 

Minorcas 193 

Plymouth Rocks. 183 

Polish Bantams 204 

Red Pyle Game 201 

Rose Comb Bantams 203 

Sebright Bantams 203 

White and Black Game 202 

Wyandottes 184 

CHICKENS, Anatomy of 217 

Animal Matter for 208 

Black Breasted Red Game 201 

Breeding - 216 

Brown Red Game 201 

Bulky Feed for 224 

Campines 198 

Composition of Body 218 



INDEX. 



557 



Page 

CHICKENS, Condiments for 208 

Contagious Dieases of 258 

Orevecoeurs 199 

Davis Poultry Food for 219 

Diseases of 229 

Diseases of Feet and Legs 255 

Diseases of Heart and Blood Vessels 245 

Diseases of the Liver 236 

Dorkings 199 

Dressing and Packing, for Shipment 226 

Exhibition Game 200 

Feeding 206 

For the Farmer 218 

Frizzled Fowls , 205 

Green Feed for 207, 224 

Grit for 207 

Hamburgs 197 

Houdans 198 

Injurious Habits and Vices of 262 

LaFleches ". 199 

Meat Feed for 208 

Parasites of 246 

Pit Games 200 

Red Caps 198 

Russians 205 

Silky Fowls 205 

Skim Milk for 224 

Skin Diseases of '. 246 

Special Crops for 224 

Special Feeding of 220 

Sultans 205 

Treatment of, for Lice .' 250 

Value of Meat for 223 

Whey for 224 

White Crested Black Polish 195 

Yokohama Fowls > 205 

Chickenpox 253 

Chieks, Feed for 209 

Chicolin, Fillmore 's 550 

CHOKING in Cattle 325 

In Chickens 233 

In Horses 294 

^ In Sheep. 403 

Cholera in Chickens 260 

Circulatory System, Diseases of, in Horse- 308 

Clover for Chickens 225 

COLIC Cure, Davis 553 

In Sheep 405 

COLTS, Amount of Grain for 44 

Feed for 42 

Handling of 43 

Raising of, by the Hand 44 

Teething of 43 

Weaning of 43 

Commercial Feedstuff s 123 

Condiments for Chickens 208 

Congestion of the Lungs in Horses 282 

CONSTIPATION in Chickens 234 

In Sheep 408 

CORN 31 

And Corn Substitutes for Hogs 116 

Digestible Nutrients of t 32 

Experiments in Planting 31 

Meal and Tankage for Pigs 137 

Meal vs. Gluten Meal 125 

Meal vs. Hominv Meal 125 

Meal vs. Rice Meal 124 

Vs. Corn Meal .for Steers 51 

Vs. Kaffir Corn for Hogs 120 

Vs. Oats for Hogs 120 

Vs. Whea+ for Hogs 116 

COTTON SEED 35 

Arkansas Experiments in 134 

Effects on Sows 135 

FeedingValue'of 130 

Meal 127 

Meal, Danger in Pig Feeding 127 

Meal, Poisoning by 127 



Page 

COTTON SEED Meal, Uses of 136 

Oklahoma Experiments in 133 

Uses of 36 

Country Roads, Construction of 491 

Cow Peas vs. Corn for Hogs 122 

Cows, Palsy in, After Calving 367 

Cribbing 291 

Crude Cotton Oil for Hogs 135 

CUD, Loss of, in Cattle 327 

Loss of, in Sheep 404 

D 

DAIRY By Products 137 

Cattle Breeds, Tests of . 66 

Cows, Feed Necessary for 73 

Cows, Rations for 73 

Cows, Selection of 64 

Fifty Rules for 67 

Dairying 59 

DAVIS Blackleg Outfit 393 

Blister 531 

Carbolic Salve 546 

Colic Cure 553 

Disinfectant . . . ' 541 

Distemper Cure 536 

Fistula and Poll Evil Cure 542 

Fly Chaser 554 

Gall Cure 545 

Healing Powders 546 

Hoof Dressing 548 

Lump Jaw Cure 538 

Mange Cure 550 

Milk Fever Outfit 308 

Ophthalmia Specific 537 

Poultry Food for Chickens 219, 510, 534 

Roup Cure 532 

Scour Remedy \ . 540 

Spavin Cure 551 

Stock Food for Cows 73, 512, 532 

Stock Food for Horses 30 , 512, 532 

Veterinary Blister 537 

Veterinary Liniment 539 

Wire Cut Remedy 553 

Worm Powders for Cattle, Sheep and Hogs ... t ... . 543 

DAVIS STOCK FOOD _. . 505-513 

Effect on Fleece 158 

Effect on Production of Milk 65 

For Calves .' . . . 49 

For Hogs 75 

For Lambs 170 

For Sheep 158 

Value of, in Feeding Pigs 113 

What it Will Save . . . 37 

Death to Lice, Brisbaine's 552 

Dehorning 372 

Devon Cattle 63 

Diabetes of Horses 274 

DIARRHEA in Calves 371 

In Cattle 330 

In Sheep 406 

Digestion and Assimilation, Process of 27 

Diphtheria in Chickens 233 

DIPPING 418 

Sheep, Loss in 422 

Tanks for Hogs 457 

Vats 423-433 

DIPS for Hogs 454 

Important Announcement Regarding 431 

DISEASES of Calves 369 

Of Cattle 319 

Of the Digestive Organs in Cattle 339 

Of the Hog 446 

Of the Kidneys in Cattle , . 352 

Of the Lamb 443 

Of the Liver in Cattle 336 

Of the Liver in Horses 302 

Of the Lungs in Horses 282 

Of the Mouth in Cattle 320 






INDEX. 



Page 

DISEASES of the Nervous System in Cattle 347 

Nervous System in Horses 31 1 

arynx and Gullet in Cattle 324 

the Respira gans in Cattle 343 

Of the Respirator} 275 

397 

Dishonest Stock Foods 8 

Disinfectant, Davis 541 

er Cure, Davis 536 

DITCHES. Construction of 495 

st of Maintaining 504 

Docking Sheep 436 

Draft Horses, Feed for 46 

DRY vs. Soaked Feed 108 

And Wet Feed, Experiments in Feeding 108 

Dutch Belted Cattle 63 

DYSENTERY in Cattle 331 

In Horses 267 

In Sheep 107 

E 

Ear, Diseases of, in Cattle 379 

Eczema in Sheep 438 

EGG Eating by Chickens, How to Prevent 262 

Method of Formation 239 

* Production 177 

EGGS. Abnormal 243 

Feeding for 214 

Without Shells 2 13 

EPILEPSY in Cattle 349 

In Horses 313 

Erysipelas in Sheep 436 

EWES, Feed for 166 

Feed for, at Lambing Time 167 

Management of 166 

Exercise 10 

EYE, Diseases of, in Cattle 378 

Diseases of, in Sheep 437 

F 

Farm Buildings 4(54 

Farrowing Time 92 

FATTENING Hogs 94 

Sheep .' 1 70 

Feather Pulling 263 

FEED Lot 56 

Digestibility of 1 01 

For Chicks 209 

For Dairy Cows 73 

For Hog's 99 

For Hogs, Cooking 102 

Grinding of 102 

Preparation of, for Hogs 102 

Relation of, to Animal Body 100 

FEEDING 9, 12, 29 

Cattle 48 

Effect of Environment and Conditions on 54 

For Bacon 153 

For Eggs 214 

Full Ration 114 

Importance of Regularity in 160 

In the South 54 

On Pasture 113 

Reduced Ratio;: 113 

Swine 12 

FEEDSTUFFS 14 

mparative Value of 36 

imposition of 16 

»rn 31 

Digestibility of 2 1 , 29 

Fennel 516 

Ferri Sulphas 518 

ility of the Land 1 54 

Fertilizing Value of Feeds 155 

FEVER in Hog* 460 

medy, Bradbury 's 547 

Fillmore ' . Chicolin 550 

Fillmore's Roup Cure 539 

Fist Poll Evil Cure, Davis 542 

Fleece, Essentials of 1 57 



Page 

Fluke Diseases in Cattle 337 

Fly Chaser, Davis 554 

Foal, Handling of 43 

FOOT and Mouth Diseases in Cattle 383 

And Mouth Diseases of Sheep 134 

Diseases of, in Cattle 376 

FOOT ROT in Cattle 377 

In Sheep " 438 

Fi >rage Crops 145 

Frosted Wheat, Feeding Value of 118 

G 

Gall Cure, Davis 545 

Gapes in Chickens 231 

Gentian 515 

Gid in Sheep 110 

Glanders 264 

Gluten Meal vs. Corn Meal 1 25 

Good Mutton, Demand for 162 

Grain, Undigested 102 

GREEN BONE, Feed for Chickens 207 

Value of 220 

Grinding Grain 102 

Grit for Chickens 207 

GROUND Grain Compared with Whole Grain 106 

Grain, Experiments in Feeding 105 

Grain, Utility of 1 05 

Vs. Unground Grain 103 

Guernsey Cattle 60 

H 

Hay, Amount of, for Hogs 150 

Healing Powders, Davis r .46 

Heart and Blood Vessel Diseases in Cattle 343 

Heaves in Horses 287 

Hens, Green Bone for 220 

HOG Cholera 446 

Cholera, Differential Diagnosis 449 

Cholera, Treatment of 450 

Diseases of . . 446 

Feeding, Nutritive Ratio 101 

Feeding, Principles of 99 

Industry 74 

Lot, Sanitation in 96 

Louse 453 

Raising, Conditions Suitable for 74 

Raising, Effect on Land 1 54 

Selection and Feeding 74 

HOGS, Breeding 97 

Breeding Stock 94 

Bulky Feed for 99 

Castrating 95 

Cooking Feed for 102 

Detailed Description of 78 

Difference Between Breeds 87 

Dips for 454 

Fattening "... 94 

Fecundity : 76 

Fever in -1 60 

Foundation Herd 87 

Grinding of Feed for •. 102 

Houses for 77 

Indigestion in 459 

Isolated Houses for 97 

Kidney Worms in 462 

Mange in 455 

Pasture, Substitutes for 140 

Pens and Pastures for 77 

Poisoning by Cottonseed Meal 128 

I 'reparation of Feed for 102 

Prevention and Destruction of Vermin 98 

Prevention of Disease 97 

Quarantine of Sick 97 

Returns from Feed Eaten 76 

Score Cards of Various Breeds 78 

Selecting the Sows s 7 

Selection of 95 

Selection of Breeding Stock 77 

Spaying 95 



INDEX. 



559 



Page 

HOGS, the Sow 90 

The Sow, Management of . . . ' 90 

Treatment of Diseases 98 

Holstein-Frisian Cattle : 61 

Hominy Meal vs. Corn Meal 1 25 

Hoof Dressing, Davis 538 

HORSE, The 39 

Feeds for 40 

Government Ration for 47 

Hay and Roughage 41 

Maintenance Ration 39 

HORSES, Azoturia in 317 

Constipation in 301 

Constitutional Diseases of 271 

Diarrhea in 301 

Diseases of 264 

Diseases of the Bowels in 299 

Diseases of the Circulatory System in ...308 

Diseases of the Digestive Organs in 290 

Diseases of the Gullet in 294 

Diseases of the Kidneys in 304 

Diseases of the Liver in 302 

Diseases of the Nervous System in 311 

Diseases of the Stomach in 296 

Epilepsy in 313 

Farcy in 265 

Spinal Meningitis in 316 

Staggers in 298 

Sunstroke in 316 

Houses , Plans for 467 

I 

Incubators 210 

Indigestion in Hogs 459 

Infectious Diseases of Cattle 380 

INFLAMMATION of the Bowels in Horses 300 

Of the Bowels in Sheep 406 

Introductory 5 

Irrigation Ditches, Construction of 495 

J 

Jersey Cattle 59 

K 

KAFFIR CORN 121 

For Steers 53 

Vs. Corn for Hogs ~ 120 

Kentucky Foot Form 538 

Kidney Worms in Hogs • 462 

Kidneys, Diseases of, in Cattle 352 

L 

LAMB, Diseases of the 443 

When Fat 161 

LAMBS, Davis Stock Food for 170 

Diarrhea in 406 

Fattening, for Market ' 170 

Feed for, After Weaning : . . . . 168 

Feed for, Before Weaning 167 

For Early Market ■. 173 

Lampas 290 

Land, Fertility of 154 

Laryngitis in Horses 278 

Leg Weakness of Chickens 255 

Leucorrhea in Cows 360 

Lice Killer, Brown's 555 

Lime and Sulphur Dip 421 

Limited vs. Unlimited Rations 113 

Liniment, Davis 538 

Live Stock, Past and Present 7 

LOCK JAW 269 

In Cattle 350 

Loss of Cud in Cattle 327 

Louping 111 in Sheep 398 

Louse, Hog 453 

LUMP JAW 321 

Cure, Davis 538 

Lungs, Congestion of, in Horses 282 

M 

Maintenance Ration for Horses 39 

Maladie du Coit 266 



Page 

Mammitis in Sheep 443 

MAN GE Cure, Davis 550 

In Hogs 455 

Mangels for Chickens 225 

Mare, Care of 45 

MEAT Feed for Chickens 208 

Feed, Value of 223 

Medicines, Mode of Administration 319 

MILK, Blue 368 

Fever 361 

Fever, Treatment of 366 

Its Production 71 

Secretion of ; 71 

Source of 72 

Stringy 368 

Suppression of 368 

Tainted, Cause of 70 

Mill By Products 123 

Mutton 163 

N 

Narrow vs. Wide Rations Ill 

Nephritis in Horses 305 

Nose Bleed in Horses . . .' 278 

Nutritive Ratio 101 

Nuts for Chickens ■ 225 

Nux" Vomica. 520 

o 

OATS 33 

Vs. Corn "for 'Hogs' ................ . . . '.'.'.'.'...... 120 

OIL Cake 34 

Meal 34 

Meal, Feed Value of 35 

Onions for Chickens 225 

OPHTHALMIA in Cattle 378 

In Sheep 437 

Specific, Davis 537 

Ornamental Poultry 204 

P 

Packing House By Products as Hog Feeds . 136 

Pancreatic Juice 28 

Paralysis of Cow 356 

Parrot Mouth 291 

Parturition, Difficulties of 358 

PASTURE, Substitutes for 141 

Substitutes for Hogs 140 

PEANUTS for Pigs 142 

Vs. Corn Meal for Hogs 122 

PEAS, Cow 36 

Field. 36 

Vs. Wheat '. 122 

Peritonitis in Cattle 337 

Phenalin 549 

PIGS, Davis Stock Food for 93 

Feeding 94 

Limited vs. Unlimited Rations for 112 

Peanuts for 142 

Rations for <?.... 139 

Weaning of ^93 

Wide vs. Narrow Rations for Till 

Pip in Chickens 232 

Plans for Barns and Outbuildings 483 

Pleurisy in Horses 288 

Pleuropneumonia in Cattle 381 

Pneumonia in Horses 283 

Podophyllum 523 

Poisoning in Cattle 339 

Poll Evil and Fistula Cure, Davis 535 

Potatoes, Sweet, for Hogs 148 

POULTRY, Classes of 182 

Diseases of 229 

Dressing and Packing for Shipment 226 

Drinking Fountains for 181 

Feeding 206 

Food, Formula of 511 

Food, Something New in 510 

Houses, Plans for 175 

Ornamental 204 






INDEX. 



Page 

POULTRY , on the Farm L75 

Yards, Site for ITS 

rm Buildings 464 

y . Signs of, in Cow • 355 

10 

pkins and Apples for Hogs 1-15 

R 

Equine 267 

RAM. The L56 

Management of 1(55 

RATIONS for Horses 39 

For Pigs 139 

Limited vs. Unlimited, for Pigs 112 

lue of Reduced Ration 113 

Wide vs . Narrow Ill 

Red Polled Cattle 62 

RED WATER in Cattle 351 

In Sheep 435 

Respiratorv Organs, Diseases of 275 

RICE for Chickens 225 

Meal vs. Corn Meal 124 

Rickets of Horses 273 

Rinderpest 382 

Roads, Construction of 491 

Roaring in Horses 279 

Roots and Tubers for Hogs 146 

Rot in Sheep 414 

Roughage for Hogs 149 

ROUP 230 

Cure, Fillmore's 539 

Ruptures in Cattle 334 

Rye 33 



Santonica 520 

Scab 415 

Scah' Leg of Chickens . 257 

Scour Remedv, Davis 540 

Self Feeder for Sheep 159 

SHEEP 156 

Anthrax in 432 

Blackleg in 434 

Bleeding 441 

Bloat in 404 

Constipation in 408 

Diseases of 397 

Diseases of the Digestive System in 402 

Diseases of the Liver in 408 

Diseases of the Respiratory Organs in 400 

Dysentery in 407 

Fattening 1 70 

Feeding in England . . 165 

Foot and Mouth Diseases of 434 

Foot Rot in 438 

Gid in 410 

Industry, Importance of 1 62 

Internal Parasites in 410 

Mammitis in , 443 

Paralysis in 399 

Pleurisy in 401 

Raising in Scotland 170 

. Renal Calculide 409 

Scab 415 

Self Feeder for 159 

Shepherd, Requisites of 1 61 

Shorthorns as Dairv Cows 62 

Shorts vs. Corn. ..."...„ 123 

Silver Spavin Cure, Davis 540 

SKIM MILK for Chickens 224 

Value of 1 38 

Skin, Care of 11 

Slop, Effect of Water on 110 

Snake Bites in Cattle 342 

Dry Feed 108 

SODIUM Chloride 524 

Sulphate 530 

Softening of the Hone pi Horses 272 

Soja Bean 36 



Pace 



SORE Mouth in Sheep , 402 

Throat in Horses 278 

Throat in Sheep 400 

SORGHUM 34 I 

For Hogs 144 

SOW as a Mother 93 

Farrowing 92 

Management of 90-95 

Qualification of 88 

Soy Beans -. 121 

Spavin Cure, Davis 551 

SPAYING Cattle 374 

Sheep 436 

Spinal Meningitis in Horses 316 

STAGGERS 311 

In Horses 298 

Stallion, The 44 

Steer, Cost of 55 

STEERS, Corn and Corn Meal Experiment for 51 

Effect of Environment 54 

Feed Lot for 56 

Feeding in the South , 54 

Kaffir Corn for 53 

Rations for 58 

STOCK FOOD Formula 508, 514 

Why it Should be Used 511 

STOCK' FOODS 505, 512, 532 

Dishonest 8 

Philosophy of 506 

Prejudice Against 507 

Truth About 505 

STOMACH Diseases of Cattle 326 

Rupture of in Horses 298 

Stringy Milk 368 • 

Sugar Beets for Hogs 147 

Sulphur 521 

SUNSTROKE in Cattle 349 

In Horses 316 

Surgical Operations 372 

Sweet Potatoes for Hogs 148 

SWINE, Care of 12 

Feeding 12 

Plague 446 

T 

Tainted Milk 70 

TANKAGE and Corn Meal for Pigs 137 

Manufacture of 136 

Tetanus 269 

Texas Fever in Cattle 394 

Tobacco and Sulphur Dip 419 

Truth about Stock Foods 505 

Tuberculosis in Cattle 384 

Tubers and Roots for Hogs ." 146 

u 

UDDER, Congestion of 368 

Inflammation of 368 

Unground Grain vs. Ground Grain 103 

V 

Veterinary Liniment, Davis 539 

Veterinary Blister 537 

W 

Watering 10 

Water, Percentage in Animal Bod}'' 15 

WHEAT 32 

By Products of 32-33 

Vs. Corn for Hogs 116 

Vs. Other Grains for Hogs 117 

Whey for Chickens 224 

Wide vs. Narrow Rations Ill 

Wind vSucking 291 

Wire Cut Remedy, Davis 553 

Wool Balls in Sheep 405 

WORM POWDERS for Cattle, Sheep and Hogs 543 

For Horses 544 

WORMS in Cattle 333 

In Chickens 235 

Wounds of Abdomen in Cattle 335 

z 

Zingiber 529 



mm HORSE CLIPPING MACHINE $ |0^ 

ping machine, it may be returned to us at our — — w- w ~ ** * ~ *** 

expense and we will promptly refu 

EVERY HORSE OWNER, 



THE SIMPLEST, THE EASIEST 
RUNNING AND THE 



WE DON'T KNOW 
HOW WE CAN MORE 
FORCEFULLY 
CONVEY TO 
YOUOURCON- 
F1DENCE I N 
THE SUPE- 
RIOR QUALI- 
TIES OF THIS 
M AC H I N E 
THAN TO SAY 
YOU CAN TRY 
T AT OUR 
EXPENSE. 



it &IQ A A we offer you our famous Martin Horse Clipping Machine, all complete as 
Al p I C • U U shown in the illustration, ready to attach to a post or board in your stable, and 

at this price it is really the most wonderful value ever offered in a clipping machine. No 
other clipping device compares with the Martin in simplicity of parts, in easy running, in 
perfection of work, in lowness of price and we send it out under our unqualified guarantee 
that it will give absolute satisfaction to every user, that it is in every way the very best 
clipping machine on the market, and if it is not all that we represent it to be or 
all that you could ask in a clipping machine. It may be returned to us at our 
expense and we_will_promptlyj-efund the purchase price. 

every farmer who works his horses hard and 

long during the busy season on the farm, every 
team owner whose horses toil through the long- hot days of the summer time, every 
livery owner who desires to keep his animals in the very pink of condition, in 
short, everyone who has a horse, should own one of these Martin Clipping 
Machines.and at our astonishingly low price of $12.00 you havethe-opportunity 
to secure a clipper which does absolutely perfect work under all conditions, 
and which will give you the utmost satisfaction. 

ALL THE LEADING AUTHORITIES ON LIVE STOCK 

now agree that the clipping of horses is decidedly beneficial to the animal. 

Experiments and careful observation have established the fact that clipping 
is quite as essential to the welfare of the horse as shoeing him or giving him 
a comfortable place to sleep at night, and when the reasons for this belief 
are stated they appeal to the common sense of every horse owner. 

API IDDPH M0.RQF dries out rapidly after a hard day's work and he 
vUr rtU nvllvC will rest more comfortably at night and be more 
refreshed on the following day than he would Oe if he were permitted to stand 
or lie in a stable through the cool nights of spring in a thick coat of 
hair wet and soggy with perspiration. 

MANY OF THE DISEASES JHW&Eff I s §£ 

to many, are due to his working hard and perspiring freely, and 

afterward standing or lying in a stable at night in his wet, shaggy / 

coat of hair and catching cold. From a simple cold it is but a 

step to heaves, pneumonia, rheumatism, distemper and various 

other kindred troubles, and this danger of disease is always 

present in the early spring when the animal comes out of a season 

of long inactivity and he is consequently unhardened to exercise 

or hard work and is what Is commonly called ' 'soft." Under these 

conditions when he is taken from the stall and begins his spring 

and summer work he perspires freely. The moisture is held by his 

long coat of hair, and as he stands in the stable at night, wet and 

cold, the food that should go to build up the tissues of his body 

Is used instead to develop heat to evaporate the cold perspiration 

an H overcome the chill resulting from his exposure. No horse 

can be healthy under these conditions. 

nil TUC ATUCD IIAlin if before this horse is taken 

UH I nC U I nCn llJinil, from his winter quarters, he is 

thoroughly clipped with our Martin Clipping Machine, when he 

goes into the stable at night his coat will be dry in a few min- 
utes, in fact, the perspiration dries almost as soon as it is 

secreted. He is not covered with a wet, cold blanket of hair 

and he therefore rests comfortably. He assimilates his food and under these conditions he is in every way a better horse, a stronger horse and at all times he is practically free from 

disease, especially those diseases which follow severe colds. He will be a more economical horse for you to keep because he will require less food to remain in condition. He will be a much 

handsomer and a much better horsf from every standpoint and worth very much more money in any market. 

""it will pay you to purchase a Martin Horse Clipping Machine. Keep the animal clipped in the summer 
time and your driver will be handsomer, he will have a brighter, smoother, finer coat, he will give you 

more satisfactory service, and you will undoubtedly save the price of the machine after a few short months, because he will eat less, he will do 

more and better work and his freedom from colds and similar diseases will mean freedom—from the services of the veterinary surgeon and the 

entire absence of bills for veterinary remedies. 

more than one horse, if you have several teams, you cannot afford to be wfthout one of these superior Horse Clipping Machines, 
for if the proper clipping of a horse in the spring will improve his general health, if he rests better, feels better and 
. esented in the purchase price of this machine is certainly very insignificant when comparer 

Investment will yield you from day to day. If it will save the horses from one day's sickness now and then, it will quickl 

had 




handsomer and a much better horse from 

IF YOU OWN ONE HORSE 

more satisfactory se 
more and better woi 
entire absence of bil 

IF YOU OWN 

works better, the amount represented in the purchase price of this machine is certainly very insignificant when compared to the returns this 
Investment will yield you from day to day. If it will save the horses from one day's sickness now and then, it will quickly pay for itself and if 
you have never used a horse clipping machine, if you have never had any experience along this line and you own several horses, we urge you 
wholly in your interest to order one of our Martin Horse Clipping Machines at our S12.95 price, and on our free trial plan and refund proposition. 
as explained further on this page, and we know that a brief experience will convince you that it is just as necessary in your stable as your 
Investment in harness, in wagons, in buggies or in any other equipment you And absolutely essential as a horse owner. 

FQftM TUC CTAIinDniNT IIC PPflMCIMV therefore, and leaving out of the question the matter of appearance, it will pay 
mUm Ink wlHRUrUlfll Ur kUUIIWinii you immensely to order one of these perfect horse clipping machines at our $12.95 
price. It saves the horse, it prevents disease and consequent idleness of the animal, it saves horse feed. It requires very little saving along 
any one of the lines mentioned to quickly return the purchase price. No matter what your experience may have been with other machines, no 
matter it you have tried other horse clipping machines and they have proven unsatisfactory, we want you to send us an order for this wonderful 
machine. We send it to you on the broadest sort of a guarantee so that if it isn't perfectly satisfactory it comes back to us and your money 
will be refunded and you will not be out one cent on the transaction. If we were not absolutely sure of the high quality of this machine, if we 
were not absolutely certain that it is the best clipping machine on the market and is in every way all that we represent it to be we could 
not afford to send it to you on such broad and liberal terms, but there are many thousands of them in use. they are giving such universal satisfaction 
In all cases that we have no hesitation in recommending the Martin Clipping Machine to you as the very acme of perfection in a horse clipping machine. 

OUR WONDERFULLY LIBERAL TERMS, 



CClin IIC 4l9 AR for tn ' 9 machine all ready to attach to a post or board, 
wEllU Uw pl&iUU shown in the larger illustration. 




is our price for the MARTIN HORSE 



CLIPPING MACHINE complete ready 
to fasten to post or board as shown 
in this illustration. 



or send us $12.95 for the machine complete with iron stand as 

When ft has arrived and is connected up, clip your horses with it and after you have 
tried it on all of them, if you are not perfectly satisfied that it is a wonderful value, that it is as fine a clipping machine as you could get from 
anyone at any price, if you are not fully satisfied to keep the machine you may return it to us at our expense of transportation eharees both ways 
and we will promptly refund your money. If you have any doubt of the quality of the machine as compared to any other horse clipping machine 
on the market, we would be pl eased to have you order any other horse clipping machine that you think compares favorably with ours, at the same 

time you send to us for the Martin and we will be glad to have vou try them side by side, to compare them from every standpoint: from the 
standpoint of simplicity, of easy running, of perfect clipping without grinding or pulling, and if you do not decide after making this test your- 
self in your own way that our machine is by far the better of the two, you may return it to us at our expense and we will refund the 
purchase price. 

nilR RltinltlP ftliARAMTEE The Martin Horse Clipping Alachine is made by us in our own factory and we control the 

UUn Dinifinil UUMllftlllCEi patents under which it is manufactured. We own the special machinery used in its con- 
struction; we know the quality of every piece of material which enters into it and we employ skilled workmen to build it. The materials 
used in its construction are the very best that money can buy. all the working parts are very carefully fitted and we guarantee this 
machine against defective materials or workmanship for a period of 20 years, and if any piece or part gives out or breaks by reason of 
defective material or workmanship within that period, we will promptly replace such defective piece or part absolutely free of charge. 
This guarantee, however,- does not cover the comb or cutting knife, because they are tempered very hard 
to give perfect cutting surface and the careless handling of the machine, such as dropping on the floor, 
is liable to break these delicate parts. Our guarantee, therefore, does not cover those two pieces. We 
guarantee the Martin Clipping Machine to be better made, to carry better material, to do better work, to 
wear longer than any other clipping machine on the market, and we send it out to you under this the strong- 
est guarantee covering the longest period of time offered by any manufacturer. 




DESCRIPTION OF THE MARTIN HORSE CLIPPER. 



Is our price fo r 
the MARTIN 
HORSE CLIP- 
PING MACHINE 

com plete ^=1 

With iron ,,; .== 
Stand as 
shown in 
this illus- 
tration. 



Address 



THE FRAME is very substantially constructed and the material used is the best gray iron. It Is well 
painted to preserve it from rust, it is verv strong and of graceful design THE BEARINGS are of the best 
cold rolled steel, case hardened. Thev are accurately milled and equipped with proper oil holes. THE CO/T- 
BINATION DRIVE AND BALANCE WHEEL weighs 20 pounds, it is accurately turned on a lathe to insure 
its running true and it is flitted with handle. THE SMALLER GEARS are made of the best cold rolled 
steel, case hardened. The flexible shaft is made of cold rolled steel links especially designed for use in this 
machine. Casing covering of flexible shaft is of best woven fabric. ALL GEARS are properly protected so 
that the operator is in no danger from accidental catching of the clothing or person in the mesh. THE HEAD 
is the vital part of this machine and it is illustrated herewith. The comb is very carefully milled with teeth 
close together and it is adjustable to the cutter knife. The teeth are open and short, properly beveled and 
will not clog. The machine eats its own way through the hair without hard pushing on the part of the opera- 
tor; just the gentlest pressure will keep it moving rapidly- The cutting blade which vibrates back and forth over 
the teeth of the comb is speeded to about 1,600 vibrations to the minute and possesses a cutting power excelling any 
other cutter head ever devised. It clips very rapidly and there is practically no limit to the speed of this machine 
as it will clip as rapidly as the experience of the operator will permit. Because of the short, blunt comb and pro- 
tected cutting knife, it is absolutely impossible ti cut the animal by accident. The cutter lever is made of Manganese 
Bronze, hung on perfect bearings and it is practically everlasting. The comb and knives are made of a special high 
grade cold rolled tool steel especially hardened and tempered for use in these machines. The cutter knife is easily 
inserted or removed and a small thumb screw on the cutter lever regulates the tension of the cutting knife, and as 
the blade grows dull a slight turn of this thumb screw presents a new cutting surface. This cutting head has an 
absolute shear cut. It doesn't grind off the hair as manv other machines do, but cuts it clean and smooth and it 
doesn't pull. It is no trick at all to remove the dull cutter'blades and insert sharpened blades. All the working parts 
In the head are made of the best cold rolled steel, case hardened and are enclosed in a malleable cast handle, heavily 
nickel plated. 

No. I 0G4890 Martin Horse Clipping Machine, ready to fasten to post or board, complete with four cutting blades. 
Weight. .65 pounds. Price $ I 2 (* 

No. IOG4892 Martin Horse Clipping Alachine, complete with iron stand and four cutting blades. Price. 

Extra Cutting Blades, each 

Extra Combs, each 

one sharp blade for every two dull cutting blades sent us or we will sharpen 
free of charge provided you pay postage both ways- 

all orders to SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO., CHICAGO, II L 




WE WILL EXCHANGE 



The Head 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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PUBLISHED BY 



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DAVIS STOCK FOOD CO., CRIcagq Ill,U.SA 



F502 2nd Edition. 



